A Novel Insight into the Immune-Related Interaction of Inflammatory Cytokines in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common male condition that impacts many men's quality of life by generating lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). In recent years, inflammation has become very common in the prostate, and BPH with inflammation has a higher International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) score and an enlarged prostate. Chronic inflammation leads to tissue damage and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which play an important role in the pathogenesis of BPH. We will focus on current advancements in pro-inflammatory cytokines in BPH, as well as the future of pro-inflammatory cytokine research.

Sex Differences in Differentiated Thyroid Cancer

Background: Sex dimorphism strongly impacts tumor biology, with most cancers having a male predominance. Uniquely, thyroid cancer (TC) is the only nonreproductive cancer with striking female predominance with three- to four-fold higher incidence among females, although males generally have more aggressive disease. The molecular basis for this observation is not known, and current approaches in treatment and surveillance are not sex specific. Summary: Although TC has overall good prognosis, 6-20% of patients develop regional or distant metastasis, one third of whom are not responsive to conventional treatment approaches and suffer a 10-year survival rate of only 10%. More efficacious treatment strategies are needed for these aggressive TCs, as tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immunotherapy have major toxicities without demonstrable overall survival benefit. Emerging evidence indicates a role of sex hormones, genetics, and the immune system in modulation of both risk for TC and its progression in a sex-specific manner. Conclusion: Greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying sex differences in TC pathogenesis could provide insights into the development of sex-specific, targeted, and effective strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and management. This review summarizes emerging evidence for the importance of sex in the pathogenesis, progression, and response to treatment in differentiated TC with emphasis on the role of sex hormones, genetics, and the immune system.

Wuzi-Yanzong prescription alleviates spermatogenesis disorder induced by heat stress dependent on Akt, NF-κB signaling pathway

Akt and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways are involved in germ cell apoptosis and inflammation after testicular heat stress (THS). We observed that after THS induced by the exposure of rat testes to 43 °C for 20 min, their weight decreased, the fraction of apoptotic testicular germ cells significantly increased, and the proliferation of germ cells was inhibited. In addition, THS lowered serum testosterone (T) level, whereas the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone were not significantly changed. The ultrastructure of the seminiferous tubules became abnormal after THS, the structure of the blood-testis barrier (BTB) became loose, and the Sertoli cells showed a trend of differentiation. The level of phosphorylated Akt was reduced, whereas the amount of phosphorylated NF-κB p65 was augmented by THS. Wuzi-Yanzong (WZYZ), a classic Chinese medicine prescription for the treatment of male reproductive dysfunctions, alleviated the changes induced by THS. In order to determine the mechanism of action of WZYZ, we investigated how this preparation modulated the levels of T, androgen receptor (AR), erythropoietin (EPO), EPO receptor, and Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer (TAM) family of tyrosine kinase receptors. We found that WZYZ activated the Akt pathway, inhibited the Toll-like receptor/MyD88/NF-κB pathway, and repaired the structure of BTB by regulating the levels of T, AR, TAM receptors, and EPO. In conclusion, these results suggest that WZYZ activates the Akt pathway and inhibits the NF-κB pathway by acting on the upstream regulators, thereby improving spermatogenesis deficit induced by THS.

Pattern recognition receptor-initiated innate immune responses in mouse prostatic epithelial cells‡

Three major pathogenic states of the prostate, including benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostate cancer, and prostatitis, are related to the local inflammation. However, the mechanisms underlying the initiation of prostate inflammation remain largely unknown. Given that the innate immune responses of the tissue-specific cells to microbial infection or autoantigens contribute to local inflammation, this study focused on pattern recognition receptor (PRR)-initiated innate immune responses in mouse prostatic epithelial cells (PECs). Primary mouse PECs abundantly expressed Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), TLR4, TLR5, melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5), and IFN-inducible protein 16 (p204 in mouse). These PRRs can be activated by their respective ligands: lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and flagellin of Gram-negative bacteria for TLR4 and TLR5, polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) for TLR3 and MDA5, and herpes simplex virus DNA analog (HSV60) for p204. LPS and flagellin predominantly induced the expression of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFA), interleukin 6 (IL6), chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP1), and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10). Poly(I:C) and HSV60 predominantly induced the expression of type 1 interferons (IFNA and IFNB) and antiviral proteins: Mx GTPase 1, 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1, and IFN-stimulated gene 15. The replication of mumps virus in PECs was inhibited by type 1 IFN signaling. These findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying innate immune response in the prostate.

Neuroprotection of dihydrotestosterone via suppression of the toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway in high glucose-induced BV-2 microglia inflammatory responses

Hyperglycemia is considered to induce neuronal apoptosis via activating microglia inflammatory responses, thus involving in the development and progression of diabetic encephalopathy and neurodegenerative disorders. Increasing evidences suggest that androgen exerts neuroprotective functions including antiapoptosis, anti-inflammation and antioxidative stress. In this study, we investigate the anti-inflammatory role of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in high glucose (HG)-induced neuroinflammatory response in BV-2 microglia. Our results revealed that DHT significantly inhibited HG-induced production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 through suppressing the expression of corresponding regulatory enzymes - inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2. Also, DHT inhibited HG-induced expression of TNF-α and IL-1β. Moreover, DHT suppressed the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. Furthermore, when SH-SY5Y neurons were cultured in HG-treated BV-2 microglial supernatant, DHT pretreatment significantly increased neuronal survival, indicating the neuroprotective role of DHT. Collectively, these results suggest that DHT could protect SH-SY5Y neurons from HG-mediated BV-2 microglia inflammatory damage through inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling, suggesting that maintenance of androgen level in brain might have potential benefit in neurodegenerative diseases, especially in diabetes patients combined with cognitive disorders.

Review of the Roles and Interaction of Androgen and Inflammation in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

The lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTSs) and acute urinary retention (AUR) caused by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) can seriously affect the quality of life of elderly men. Studies suggest that both androgens and inflammation greatly influence the occurrence and development of BPH in most patients. These two factors combined can also affect each other, leading to pathological changes in the stromal and epithelial tissue of the prostate transition zone in BPH patients. DHT in the prostate tissue of BPH patients may activate a chronic inflammatory response in the prostate, amplifying the expression of inflammatory factors and upregulating the proliferation ability of prostate tissue.

Testosterone regulates the intracellular bacterial community formation of uropathogenic Escherichia coli in prostate cells via STAT3

BACKGROUND

UPEC can internalize clonally in prostate to form biofilm-like intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs) for recurrent or chronic infection. We previously indicated that the exposure of prostate cells to testosterone could suppress UPEC invasion and their persistent survival within cells by effectively inhibiting the JAK/STAT1 signaling pathway. However, the regulatory mechanism by which testosterone affects UPEC-induced prostatitis via STAT3, another latent transcription factor signaling pathway is still unclear. The present study aimed to clarify the role of STAT3 in the process of UPEC-induced inflammation and colonization in prostate epithelial cells.

METHODS

The effects of testosterone-mediated inhibition were compared between the prostatitis by different UPEC strains (CFT073 and J96) through the specific GFP-UPEC-infected prostate cell model. Fluorescence microscopy was used for UPEC IBCs detection and quantifying, and Flow cytometry, RT-PCR and western blotting were used for analyzing related gene and protein expressions. Pretreatment of JAK and STAT3 inhibitors were also applied to verify the regulation of transduction pathway in testosterone-mediated anti-UPEC infection.

RESULTS

This study revealed that testosterone effectively suppresses UPEC infection and IBC formation in prostate cells through the JAK/STAT3 pathway. The results show that CFT073 and J96 UPEC infection rates and colony numbers were dose-dependently reduced in RWPE-1 cells pretreated with 5 and 20 μg/mL testosterone at 0 and 24 h post-infection. Further, testosterone reduced the amounts of UPEC infecting and surviving within the prostate cells, as well as suppressed the size of IBCs formed. We demonstrated that pretreating testosterone effectively inhibited UPEC infection along with dose-dependent suppression of STAT3 and the phosphorylated-STAT3 expression in prostate cells, especially in 24 h J96 UPEC infected groups. The STAT inhibitor, SOCS3 also up-regulated at the same time. In addition, we pretreated the JAK1 or STAT3 inhibitor with testosterone to block the signaling transduction before CFT073 and J96 UPEC infection, and found the significant restoring in both the sizes of IBCs and bacterial numbers in RWPE-1 cells. Therefore, our results suggest that the suppression of STAT3 by testosterone treatment attenuate UPEC growing within IBCs and interfere with their infection to prostate cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our study demonstrates that testosterone suppresses the initial infection of prostate epithelial cells by UPEC and reduces the survival of UPEC within IBCs after infection. These results indicate a critical role for STAT3 in facilitating UPEC infection and persistence, and its participation in driving testosterone-suppressive responses in prostate epithelial cells. In conclusion, this study suggests that testosterone may be beneficial in treating clinically recurrent UPEC infections and, thus, the persistent recurrence of prostatic inflammation.

Stromal-AR influences the growth of epithelial cells in the development of benign prostate hyperplasia

Activation of epithelial-AR signaling is identified as the major cause of hyperproliferation of the cells during benign and malignant prostate conditions. However, the contribution of stromal-AR is also precarious due to its secretory actions that contribute to the progression of benign and malignant tumors. The present study was aimed to understand the influence of stromal-AR mediated actions on epithelial cells during BPH condition. The secretome (conditioned media-CM) was collected from AR agonist (testosterone-propionate-TP) and antagonist (Nilutamide-Nil) treated BPH patient-derived stromal cells and exposed to BPH epithelial cells. Epithelial cells exhibited increased cell proliferation with the treatment of CM derived from TP-treated stromal cells (TP-CM) but did not support the clonogenic growth of BPH epithelial cells. However, CM derived from Nil-treated stromal cells (Nil-CM) depicted delayed and aggressive BPH epithelial cell proliferation with increased clonogenicity of BPH epithelial cells. Further, decreased AR levels with increased cMyc transcripts and pAkt levels also validated the clonogenic transformation under the paracrine influence of inhibition of stromal-AR. Moreover, the CM of stromal-AR activation imparted positive regulation of basal/progenitor pool through LGR4, β-Catenin, and ΔNP63α expression. Hence, the present study highlighted the restricted disease progression and retains the basal/progenitor state of BPH epithelial cells through the activation of stromal-AR. On the contrary, AR-independent aggressive BPH epithelial cell growth due to paracrine action of loss stromal-AR directs us to reform AR pertaining treatment regimes for better clinical outcomes.

Postnatal exposure to finasteride causes different effects on the prostate of male and female gerbils

The development and maintenance of prostate function depend on a fine balance between oestrogen and androgen levels. Finasteride inhibits 5α-reductase, which is responsible for the conversion of testosterone into its most active form, dihydrotestosterone. Enzymes that metabolize these hormones have a highly relevant role in both the normal prostate metabolism and in the occurrence of pathological conditions. There are few studies on the impact of finasteride on male prostate development and fewer studies on the female prostate and possible intersexual differences. Therefore, we treated male and female gerbils from 7 to 14 days in postnatal life with a high dose of finasteride (500 μg/kg/day); the prostate complexes were then removed and submitted to immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and three-dimensional reconstruction. In addition, hormonal serum dosages were administered. Treatment with finasteride resulted in an increased thickness of the periductal smooth musculature in the prostate of both male and female gerbils, such as well as a reduction in the thickness of developing prostate alveoli in both sexes. In addition, intersexual differences were observed as increased epithelial proliferation and decreases in the number of developing alveoli in females. Together, the data indicate that postnatal exposure to finasteride causes greater changes in the female gerbil prostate than in the male.

Neuroprotection by dihydrotestosterone in LPS-induced neuroinflammation

Microglia-induced neuroinflammation plays a vital role in the etiology and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. The neuroprotective role of androgens, including testosterone and its metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT), has been increasingly demonstrated in these diseases, but few studies investigated the effects of androgen on neuroinflammation. This study investigated the role of DHT in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation, neuronal damage and behavioral dysfunction, as well as underlying mechanisms. We showed that DHT inhibited LPS-induced release of proinflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6; iNOS, COX-2, NO, and PGE2 in BV2 cells and primary microglia by suppressing the TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK p38 signaling pathways, thus protecting SH-SY5Y neurons from inflammatory damage induced by activated microglia. In an LPS-induced neuroinflammation mouse model, endogenous DHT depletion by castration exacerbated inflammatory responses by upregulating the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 in the serum and brain by increasing the LR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK pathway activation, but these effects were restored by exogenous DHT supplementation. Moreover, DHT also regulated the mRNA levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-13 in the brain. In addition, DHT modulated the expression of Aβ, the apoptotic proteins caspase-3, Bcl-2, and Bax, and synaptophysin, as well as neuronal damage in LPS-treated mouse brains. Further behavioral tests revealed that DHT ameliorated LPS-induced spatial and learning impairment and motor incoordination, and partly improved the locomotor activity in LPS-injected mice. Therefore, this study suggests that DHT exerts anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective effects; thus, androgen replacement therapy is a potential therapeutic strategy for improving cognitive and behavioral function in neuroinflammation-related diseases.

TLR2 and TLR4 Surface and Gene Expression in White Blood Cells after Fasting and Oral Glucose, Lipid and Protein Challenges: Influence of Obesity and Sex Hormones

We studied if macronutrients of the diet have different effects on leukocyte activation, and if these effects are influenced by sex hormones or obesity. We analyzed leukocyte cell surface and gene expression of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and TLR4) during fasting and after macronutrient loads in women with polycystic ovary syndrome and female and male controls. Fasting TLR2 surface expression in neutrophils was higher in men than in women. Obese subjects presented higher TLR2 gene expression than nonobese individuals, particularly in men. In contrast, surface TLR4 expression was lower in men and in obese individuals. Postprandial cell-surface expression decreased similarly after all macronutrient loads. Neutrophil TLR2 decreased only in obese subjects whereas TLR4 showed a greater decrease in nonobese individuals. However, TLR2 gene expression increased after glucose ingestion and decreased during the lipid load, while TLR4 was induced in response to lipids and mostly to glucose. Postprandial TLR gene expression was not influenced by group of subjects or obesity. Both cell-surface and gene postprandial expression inversely correlated with their fasting levels. These responses suggest a transient compensatory response aiming to prevent postprandial inflammation. However, obesity and sex hormones showed opposite influences on surface expression of TLR2 and TLR4, but not on their gene expression, pointing to regulatory posttranscriptional mechanisms.

The Response of Prostate Smooth Muscle Cells to Testosterone Is Determined by the Subcellular Distribution of the Androgen Receptor

Androgen signaling in prostate smooth muscle cells (pSMCs) is critical for the maintenance of prostate homeostasis, the alterations of which are a central aspect in the development of pathological conditions. Testosterone can act through the classic androgen receptor (AR) in the cytoplasm, eliciting genomic signaling, or through different types of receptors located at the plasma membrane for nongenomic signaling. We aimed to find evidence of nongenomic testosterone-signaling mechanisms in pSMCs and their participation in cell proliferation, differentiation, and the modulation of the response to lipopolysaccharide. We demonstrated that pSMCs can respond to testosterone by a rapid activation of ERK1/2 and Akt. Furthermore, a pool of ARs localized at the cell surface of pSMCs is responsible for a nongenomic testosterone-induced increase in cell proliferation. Through membrane receptor stimulation, testosterone favors a muscle phenotype, indicated by an increase in smooth muscle markers. We also showed that the anti-inflammatory effects of testosterone, capable of attenuating lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory actions, are promoted only by receptors located inside the cell. We postulate that testosterone might perform prohomeostatic effects through intracellular-initiated mechanisms by modulating cell proliferation and inflammation, whereas some pathological, hyperproliferative actions would be induced by membrane-initiated nongenomic signaling in pSMCs.

Testosterone Rescues the De-Differentiation of Smooth Muscle Cells Through Serum Response Factor/Myocardin

Prostatic smooth muscle cells (pSMCs) differentiation is a key factor for prostatic homeostasis, with androgens exerting multiple effects on these cells. Here, we demonstrated that the myodifferentiator complex Srf/Myocd is up-regulated by testosterone in a dose-dependent manner in primary cultures of rat pSMCs, which was associated to the increase in Acta2, Cnn1, and Lmod1 expressions. Blocking Srf or Myocd by siRNAs inhibited the myodifferentiator effect of testosterone. While LPS led to a dedifferentiated phenotype in pSMCs, characterized by down-regulation of Srf/Myocd and smooth muscle cell (SMC)-restricted genes, endotoxin treatment on Myocd-overexpressing cells did not result in phenotypic alterations. Testosterone at a physiological dose was able to restore the muscular phenotype by normalizing Srf/Myocd expression in inflammation-induced dedifferentiated pSMCs. Moreover, the androgen reestablished the proliferation rate and IL-6 secretion increased by LPS. These results provide novel evidence regarding the myodifferentiating role of testosterone on SMCs by modulating Srf/Myocd. Thus, androgens preserve prostatic SMC phenotype, which is essential to maintain the normal structure and function of the prostate. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 2806-2817, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Testosterone suppresses uropathogenic Escherichia coli invasion and colonization within prostate cells and inhibits inflammatory responses through JAK/STAT-1 signaling pathway

Prostatitis is a common condition in adult men of all ages. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are most frequent pathogen involved in bacterial prostatitis by refluxing the infected urine into prostatic ducts and resulting in an ascending urethral infection. However, the study about the mechanisms of UPEC to invade, replicate and persist in normal prostate epithelial cell is only few. Given the fact that UPEC is pathogen most frequently involved in prostatitis and that testosterone has been demonstrated to attenuate prostate inflammation caused by other etiologies. In this study we investigated whether the testosterone reduces the prostatitis and related mechanism by regulating IFN-γ/STAT1 signaling pathway. In the current study aimed to clarify whether testosterone influences the process of UPEC-induced prostate inflammation and invasion into the prostate epithelial cells. In addition, we set up a normal prostate cell model for UPEC infection to evaluate the ability to invade the urothelial cells as well as the colonization of intercellular bacterial communities in vitro. By using the model, we examine the effects of testosterone to suppress effectively the invasion and survival of UPEC in the prostate cells, and inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory responses through the JAK/STAT1 pathway have also been indicated. Our results demonstrated testosterone not only suppressed the invasion and colonization of UPEC, but also inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 cytokines expression induced by UPEC in a dose-dependent manner. We found the effective dose of testosterone to suppress UPEC infect prostate cells may be appropriate under 40μg/ml. Our data also revealed 20μg/ml testosterone treated PZ-HPV-7 cells significantly suppressed the LPS-induced JAK/STAT1 pathway and inflammatory responses, and reached to maximal effects at 40μg/ml treatment. These results indicate that testosterone plays an anti-inflammatory role in LPS-induced prostate cell inflammation by down-regulating JAK/STAT1 signaling pathway. Interestingly, the JAK inhibitor and testosterone for 24hr pretreatment rather markedly induced the colonization of UPEC in the PZ-HPV-7 cells. Based on the above data, the suppression of UPEC colonization in the prostate cells by testosterone seems to be unrelated with JAK/STAT signaling pathway, whereas the JAK may involve into the UPEC infection. Summing up these data, our findings have demonstrated the suppressive effects of testosterone on the invasion and survival of UPEC and induced inflammation in prostate epithelial cells. These findings indicate the action mechanism of testosterone as an anti-inflammatory mediator in the prostate cells is regulated through JAK/STAT1 signaling pathway, may be beneficial in treating prostate inflammation. Altogether, this study has provided the possibility that using testosterone in the prevention and clinical treatment of prostatitis is a new direction.

Androgen regulation of host defenses and response to inflammatory stimuli in the prostate gland

The prostate gland is a strictly androgen-dependent organ which is also the main target of infectious and inflammatory diseases in the male reproductive tract. Host defenses and immunity of the gland have unique features to maintain a constant balance between response and tolerance to diverse antigens. In this context, the effects of reproductive hormones on the male tract are thus complex and have just started to be defined. From the classical description of "the prostatic antibacterial factor," many host defense proteins with potent microbicidal and anti-tumoral activities have been described in the organ. Indeed, it has been proposed a central role for resident cells, that is, epithelial and smooth muscle cells, in the prostatic response against injuries. However, these cells also represent the target of the inflammatory damage, leading to the development of a Proliferative Inflammatory Atrophy-like process in the epithelium and a myofibroblastic-like reactive stroma. Available data on androgen regulation of inflammation led to a model of the complex control, in which the final effect will depend on the tissue microenvironment, the cause of inflammation, and the levels of androgens among other factors. In this paper, we review the current scientific literature about the inflammatory process in the gland, the modulation of host defense proteins, and the influence of testosterone on the resolution of prostatitis.

The role of sex steroid hormones in the pathophysiology and treatment of sarcopenia

Sex steroids influence the maintenance and growth of muscles. Decline in androgens, estrogens and progesterone by aging leads to the loss of muscular function and mass, sarcopenia. These steroid hormones can interact with different signaling pathways through their receptors. To date, sex steroid hormone receptors and their exact roles are not completely defined in skeletal and smooth muscles. Although numerous studies focused on the effects of sex steroid hormones on different types of cells, still many unexplained molecular mechanisms in both skeletal and smooth muscle cells remain to be investigated. In this paper, many different molecular mechanisms that are activated or inhibited by sex steroids and those that influence the growth, proliferation, and differentiation of skeletal and smooth muscle cells are reviewed. Also, the similarities of cellular and molecular pathways of androgens, estrogens and progesterone in both skeletal and smooth muscle cells are highlighted. The reviewed signaling pathways and participating molecules can be targeted in the future development of novel therapeutics.

Role of testosterone in regulating induction of TNF-α in rat spleen via ERK signaling pathway

Spleen is a pivotal organ for regulating immune homeostasis. It has been shown that testosterone diminishes secretion of various inflammatory molecules under multiple conditions. However, the mechanisms of action of endogenous testosterone affecting immune responses in the spleen remain unknown. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the immune functions of the spleen in response to testosterone withdrawal after orchidectomy, and the impact of splenocytes on the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced secretion of inflammatory molecules. Male rats were divided into 3 groups, i.e. intact, orchidectomized (Orch) and orchidectomized plus replacement of testosterone propionate (TP) (Orch+TP). The Orch and Orch+TP rats underwent bilateral orchidectomy one week before TP replacement (2mg/kg body weight) or sesame oil in intact rats as controls for seven days. Orch resulted in a significant increase of spleen weight and basal secretion of nitric oxide (NO) from splenocytes. Additionally, LPS up-regulated cell proliferation and the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in splenocytes of Orch rats. Orch further up-regulated phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases. Interestingly, the plasma corticosterone concentration in the Orch group was higher than that in the intact and Orch+TP groups. Deficiency of testosterone-elevated TNF-α and NO secretion in response to LPS were confirmed in the rat splenocytes. Testosterone also significantly attenuated LPS-elicited release of TNF-α and NO in a dose-dependent manner. However, testosterone did not suppress splenic blastogenesis at doses in the 10(-10)-10(-7)M concentration range. In this context, testosterone might have a protective role against inflammatory responses in the spleen. The present study provides evidence to indicate that testosterone might modulate the immune system.

Nandrolone decanoate and resistance exercise training favor the occurrence of lesions and activate the inflammatory response in the ventral prostate

Age is a key factor in the development of prostatic lesions. An increase in reactive oxygen species levels occurs during aging. Furthermore, the indiscriminate use of anabolic androgenic steroids and physical exercise alter the availability of hormones and may promote the appearance of lesions. This study examined whether the use of nandrolone decanoate (ND), associated or not with resistance exercise training, affects the pathways related to the inflammatory response in the ventral prostate of adult and aged rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were distributed into eight experimental groups: sedentary with ND, sedentary without ND, exercise with ND, and exercise without ND. The animals performed resistance exercise training and received ND two times/week (5 mg/kg, i.m.) for 8 weeks. Adult rats were killed immediately following treatment completion, and aged rats remained untreated until reaching 300 days of age. The adult animals that received ND and performed resistance exercise training showed a higher occurrence of lesions with TLR4 activation. Marked IL-6 expression occurred in the group that performed resistance exercise training. The group exposed to ND showed overexpression of TLR2, TLR4, NOX1, Nrf2, TNF-α, and P38MAPK. The animals that received ND and performed training showed increase levels of NFκB, IRF3, IL-6, TNF-α, and NOX1. TLR2 and TLR4 showed no upregulation in the aged animals. The groups exercise + ND showed lesions in the adult stage and after aging, followed by molecular alterations. We concluded that nandrolone decanoate and resistance exercise training can promote the onset of prostatic tumors in the adult stage, and during aging, activating pathways involved in the inflammatory response.

Transcription factors involved in prostate gland adaptation to androgen deprivation

Androgens regulate prostate physiology, and exert their effects through the androgen receptor. We hypothesized that androgen deprivation needs additional transcription factors to orchestrate the changes taking place in the gland after castration and for the adaptation of the epithelial cells to the androgen-deprived environment, ultimately contributing to the origin of castration-resistant prostate cancer. This study was undertaken to identify transcription factors that regulate gene expression after androgen deprivation by castration (Cas). For the sake of comparison, we extended the analysis to the effects of administration of a high dose of 17β-estradiol (E2) and a combination of both (Cas+E2). We approached this by (i) identifying gene expression profiles and enrichment terms, and by searching for transcription factors in the derived regulatory pathways; and (ii) by determining the density of putative transcription factor binding sites in the proximal promoter of the 10 most up- or down-regulated genes in each experimental group in comparison to the controls Gapdh and Tbp7. Filtering and validation confirmed the expression and localized EVI1 (Mecom), NFY, ELK1, GATA2, MYBL1, MYBL2, and NFkB family members (NFkB1, NFkB2, REL, RELA and RELB) in the epithelial and/or stromal cells. These transcription factors represent major regulators of epithelial cell survival and immaturity as well as an adaptation of the gland as an immune barrier in the absence of functional stimulation by androgens. Elk1 was expressed in smooth muscle cells and was up-regulated after day 4. Evi1 and Nfy genes are expressed in both epithelium and stroma, but were apparently not affected by androgen deprivation.