Exosome DNA: Critical regulator of tumor immunity and a diagnostic biomarker

An updated review on the development of a nanomaterial-based field-effect transistor-type biosensors to detect exosomes for cancer diagnosis

Cancer, a life-threatening genetic disease caused by abnormalities in normal cell growth regulatory functions, poses a significant challenge that current medical technologies cannot fully overcome. The current desired breakthrough is to diagnose cancer as early as possible and increase survival rates through treatments tailored to the prognosis and appropriate follow-up. From a perspective that reflects this contemporary paradigm of cancer diagnostics, exosomes are emerging as promising biomarkers. Exosomes, serving as mobile biological information repositories of cancer cells, have been known to create a microtumor environment in surrounding cells, and significant insight into the clinical significance of cancer diagnosis targeting them has been reported. Therefore, there are growing interests in constructing a system that enables continuous screening with a focus on patient-friendly and flexible diagnosis, aiming to improve cancer screening rates through exosome detection. This review focuses on a proposed exosome-embedded biological information-detecting platform employing a field-effect transistor (FET)-based biosensor that leverages portability, cost-effectiveness, and rapidity to minimize the stages of sacrifice attributable to cancer. The FET-applied biosensing technique, stemming from variations in an electric field, is considered an early detection system, offering high sensitivity and a prompt response frequency for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of biomolecules. Hence, an in-depth discussion was conducted on the understanding of various exosome-based cancer biomarkers and the clinical significance of recent studies on FET-based biosensors applying them.

Plasma-derived exosome miR-10a-5p promotes premature ovarian failure by target BDNF via the TrkB/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

Premature ovarian failure (POF) is characterized by a significant decline in the ovarian follicle pool and oocyte reserve, alongside an increase in the number of low-quality oocytes and apoptosis of granulosa cells (GCs). Exosome-derived miRNA plays a regulatory role in crucial cellular activities and contributes to the onset and progression of POF. In this study, we successfully established a rabbit model of POF and conducted in vitro and in vivo experiments that confirmed DiI-labeled Pla-Exos (exosomes derived from plasma) could enter the follicle through blood circulation, with GCs capable of uptaking these exosomes. Our RNA-seq analysis revealed elevated expression of miR-10a-5p in Pla-Exos from POF rabbits. Moreover, our findings demonstrate that exosomal miR-10a-5p suppresses GCs proliferation and induces apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway. Additionally, exosomal miR-10a-5p inhibits the TrkB/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway by downregulating BDNF expression, thereby modulating the expression levels of proteins and genes associated with the cell cycle, follicle development, and GCs senescence. In conclusion, our study highlights the role of Pla-Exos miR-10a-5p in promoting rabbit POF through the TrkB/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway by targeting BDNF. These findings provide new insights into potential therapeutic targets for POF, offering valuable references for addressing concerns related to female reproductive function.

Mmu-let-7a-5p inhibits macrophage apoptosis by targeting CASP3 to increase bacterial load and facilities mycobacterium survival

We have been trying to find a miRNA that can specifically regulate the function of mycobacterial host cells to achieve the purpose of eliminating Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The purpose of this study is to investigate the regulation of mmu-let-7a-5p on macrophages apoptosis and its effect on intracellular BCG clearance. After a series of in vitro experiments, we found that mmu-let-7a-5p could negatively regulate the apoptosis of macrophages by targeting Caspase-3. The extrinsic apoptosis signal axis TNFR1/FADD/Caspase-8/Caspase-3 was inhibited after BCG infection. Up-regulated the expression level of mmu-let-7a-5p increase the cell proliferation viability and inhibit apoptosis rate of macrophages, but down-regulated its level could apparently reduce the bacterial load of intracellular Mycobacteria and accelerate the clearance of residual Mycobacteria effectively. Mmu-let-7a-5p has great potential to be utilized as an optimal candidate exosomal loaded miRNA for anti-tuberculosis immunotherapy in our subsequent research.

Hypoxia-Driven Changes in Tumor Microenvironment: Insights into Exosome-Mediated Cell Interactions

Hypoxia, as a prominent feature of the tumor microenvironment, has a profound impact on the multicomponent changes within this environment. Under hypoxic conditions, the malignant phenotype of tumor cells, the variety of cell types within the tumor microenvironment, as well as intercellular communication and material exchange, undergo complex alterations. These changes provide significant prospects for exploring the mechanisms of tumor development under different microenvironmental conditions and for devising therapeutic strategies. Exosomes secreted by tumor cells and stromal cells are integral components of the tumor microenvironment, serving as crucial mediators of intercellular communication and material exchange, and have consequently garnered increasing attention from researchers. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which hypoxic conditions promote the release of exosomes by tumor cells and alter their encapsulated contents. It also examines the effects of exosomes derived from tumor cells, immune cells, and other cell types under hypoxic conditions on the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, we summarize current research progress on the potential clinical applications of exosomes under hypoxic conditions and propose future research directions in this field.

Exosomes in the Diagnosis of Neuropsychiatric Diseases: A Review

Exosomes are 30-150 nm small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) which are highly stable and encapsulated by a phospholipid bilayer. Exosomes contain proteins, lipids, RNAs (mRNAs, microRNAs/miRNAs, long non-coding RNAs/lncRNAs), and DNA of their parent cell. In pathological conditions, the composition of exosomes is altered, making exosomes a potential source of biomarkers for disease diagnosis. Exosomes can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is an advantage for using exosomes in the diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Neuropsychiatric diseases belong to the CNS diseases, and many potential diagnostic markers have been identified for neuropsychiatric diseases. Here, we review the potential diagnostic markers of exosomes in neuropsychiatric diseases and discuss the potential application of exosomal biomarkers in the early and accurate diagnosis of these diseases. Additionally, we outline the limitations and future directions of exosomes in the diagnosis of neuropsychiatric diseases.

The application of plant-exosome-like nanovesicles as improved drug delivery systems for cancer vaccines

The use of cancer immunotherapeutics is currently increasing. Cancer vaccines, as a form of immunotherapy, are gaining much attention in the medical community since specific tumor-antigens can activate immune cells to induce an anti-tumor immune response. However, the delivery of cancer vaccines presents many issues for research scientists when designing cancer treatments and requires further investigation. Nanoparticles, synthetic liposomes, bacterial vectors, viral particles, and mammalian exosomes have delivered cancer vaccines. In contrast, the use of many of these nanotechnologies produces many issues of cytotoxicity, immunogenicity, and rapid clearance by the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Plant-exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) can provide solutions for many of these challenges because they are innocuous and nonimmunogenic when delivering nanomedicines. Hence, this review will describe the potential use of PELNVs to deliver cancer vaccines. In this review, different approaches of cancer vaccine delivery will be detailed, the mechanism of oral vaccination for delivering cancer vaccines will be described, and the review will discuss the use of PELNVs as improved drug delivery systems for cancer vaccines via oral administration while also addressing the subsequent challenges for advancing their usage into the clinical setting.

Exosome Isolation and Detection: From Microfluidic Chips to Nanoplasmonic Biosensor

Exosomes are becoming more widely acknowledged as significant circulating indicators for the prognosis and diagnosis of cancer. Circulating exosomes are essential to the development and spread of cancer, according to a growing body of research. Using existing technology, characterizing exosomes is quite difficult. Therefore, a direct, sensitive, and targeted approach to exosome detection will aid in illness diagnosis and prognosis. The review discusses the new strategies for exosome isolation and detection technologies from microfluidic chips to nanoplasmonic biosensors, analyzing the advantages and limitations of these new technologies. This review serves researchers to better understand exosome isolation and detection methods and to help develop better exosome isolating and detecting devices for clinical applications.

Targeted exosome-based nanoplatform for new-generation therapeutic strategies

Exosomes, typically 30-150 nm in size, are lipid-bilayered small-membrane vesicles originating in endosomes. Exosome biogenesis is regulated by the coordination of various mechanisms whereby different cargoes (e.g. proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids) are sorted into exosomes. These components endow exosomes with bioregulatory functions related to signal transmission and intercellular communication. Exosomes exhibit substantial potential as drug-delivery nanoplatforms owing to their excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Proteins, miRNA, siRNA, mRNA, and drugs have been successfully loaded into exosomes, and these exosome-based delivery systems show satisfactory therapeutic effects in different disease models. To enable targeted drug delivery, genetic engineering and chemical modification of the lipid bilayer of exosomes are performed. Stimuli-responsive delivery nanoplatforms designed with appropriate modifications based on various stimuli allow precise control of on-demand drug delivery and can be utilized in clinical treatment. In this review, we summarize the general properties, isolation methods, characterization, biological functions, and the potential role of exosomes in therapeutic delivery systems. Moreover, the effective combination of the intrinsic advantages of exosomes and advanced bioengineering, materials science, and clinical translational technologies are required to accelerate the development of exosome-based delivery nanoplatforms.

VEGFR affects miR-3200-3p-mediated regulatory T cell senescence in tumour-derived exosomes in non-small cell lung cancer

Numerous studies have demonstrated that regulatory T (Treg) cells play an important role in the tumour microenvironment (TME). The aim of this study was to investigate whether VEGFR2 affects the expression of miR-3200-3p in exosomes secreted by tumour cells, thereby influencing Treg senescence in the TME. The results showed that VEGFR2 expression level was the highest in Calu-1 cells, and after transfection with si-VEGFR2, the exosomes secreted from Calu-1 cells were extracted and characterised with no significant difference from the exosomes of the untransfected group, but the expression of miR-3200-3p in the exosomes of the transfected si-VEGFR2 group was elevated. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) and flow cytometry (FCM) results suggested that exosomes highly expressing miR-3200-3p could inhibit Treg cell viability and promote apoptosis levels when treated with Treg cells. Detection of the senescence-associated proteins p16 INK4A and MMP3 by western blot (WB) revealed that exosomes highly expressing miR-3200-3p were able to elevate their protein expression levels. Tumour xenograft experiments demonstrated that exosomes with high miR-3200-3p expression promoted Treg cell senescence and inhibited subcutaneous tumour growth in nude mice. Dual-luciferase reporter assays and RNA pull-down assays showed that miR-3200-3p could be linked with DDB1. Overexpression of DDB1 reverses changes in DCAF1/GSTP1/ROS protein expression caused by exosomes with high miR-3200-3p expression. In conclusion, inhibition of VEGFR2 expression in tumour cells promotes the expression of miR-3200-3p in exosomes secreted by tumour cells. miR-3200-3p enters the TME through exosomes and acts on DDB1 in Treg cells to promote senescence of Treg cells to inhibit tumour progression.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 modifies the protein composition of extracellular vesicles to promote neurite outgrowth and neuroinfection

The highly prevalent herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) causes a range of diseases, including cold sores, blinding keratitis, and life-threatening encephalitis. HSV-1 initially replicates in epithelial cells, enters the peripheral nervous system via neurites, and establishes lifelong infection in the neuronal cell bodies. Neurites are highly dynamic structures that grow or retract in response to attractive or repulsive cues, respectively. Here, we show that infection with HSV-1, but not with a mutant virus lacking glycoprotein G (gG), reduced the repulsive effect of epithelial cells on neurite outgrowth and facilitated HSV-1 invasion of neurons. HSV-1 gG was required and sufficient to induce neurite outgrowth by modifying the protein composition of extracellular vesicles, increasing the amount of neurotrophic and neuroprotective proteins, including galectin-1. Antibodies directed against galectin-1 neutralized the capacity of extracellular vesicles released from HSV-1-infected cells to promote neurite outgrowth. Our study provides new insights into the neurotropism of HSV-1 and identifies a viral protein that modifies the protein composition of extracellular vesicles to stimulate neurite outgrowth and invasion of the nervous system.IMPORTANCEHerpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) must infect neurites (or nerve endings) to establish a chronic infection in neurons. Neurites are highly dynamic structures that retract or grow in the presence of repulsive or attractive proteins. Some of these proteins are released by epithelial cells in extracellular vesicles and act upon interaction with their receptor present on neurites. We show here that HSV-1 infection of epithelial cells modulated their effect on neurites, increasing neurite growth. Mechanistically, HSV-1 glycoprotein G (gG) modifies the protein composition of extracellular vesicles released by epithelial cells, increasing the amount of attractive proteins that enhance neurite outgrowth and facilitate neuronal infection. These results could inform of therapeutic strategies to block HSV-1 induction of neurite outgrowth and, thereby, neuronal infection.

Extracellular vesicles as tools and targets in therapy for diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized, membranous structures secreted into the extracellular space. They exhibit diverse sizes, contents, and surface markers and are ubiquitously released from cells under normal and pathological conditions. Human serum is a rich source of these EVs, though their isolation from serum proteins and non-EV lipid particles poses challenges. These vesicles transport various cellular components such as proteins, mRNAs, miRNAs, DNA, and lipids across distances, influencing numerous physiological and pathological events, including those within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Their pivotal roles in cellular communication make EVs promising candidates for therapeutic agents, drug delivery systems, and disease biomarkers. Especially in cancer diagnostics, EV detection can pave the way for early identification and offers potential as diagnostic biomarkers. Moreover, various EV subtypes are emerging as targeted drug delivery tools, highlighting their potential clinical significance. The need for non-invasive biomarkers to monitor biological processes for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes remains unfulfilled. Tapping into the unique composition of EVs could unlock advanced diagnostic and therapeutic avenues in the future. In this review, we discuss in detail the roles of EVs across various conditions, including cancers (encompassing head and neck, lung, gastric, breast, and hepatocellular carcinoma), neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, viral infections, autoimmune and renal diseases, emphasizing the potential advancements in molecular diagnostics and drug delivery.

Exosomal DNA: Role in Reflecting Tumor Genetic Heterogeneity, Diagnosis, and Disease Monitoring

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), with exosomes at the forefront, are key in transferring cellular information and assorted biological materials, including nucleic acids. While exosomal RNA has been thoroughly examined, exploration into exosomal DNA (exoDNA)-which is stable and promising for cancer diagnostics-lags behind. This hybrid genetic material, combining contributions from both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), is rooted in the cytoplasm. The enigmatic process concerning its cytoplasmic encapsulation continues to captivate researchers. Covering the entire genetic landscape, exoDNA encases significant oncogenic alterations in genes like TP53, ALK, and IDH1, which is vital for clinical assessment. This review delves into exosomal origins, the ins and outs of DNA encapsulation, and exoDNA's link to tumor biology, underscoring its superiority to circulating tumor DNA in the biomarker arena for both detection and therapy. Amidst scientific progress, there are complexities in the comprehension and practical application of the exoDNA surface. Reflecting on these nuances, we chart the prospective research terrain and potential pitfalls, forging a path for future inquiry. By illuminating both the known and unknown facets of exoDNA, the objective of this review is to provide guidance to the field of liquid biopsy (LB) while minimizing the occurrence of avoidable blind spots and detours.

Exploring the Versatility of Exosomes: A Review on Isolation, Characterization, Detection Methods, and Diverse Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are crucial mediators of intercellular communication and can be classified based on their physical properties, biomolecular structure, and origin. Among EVs, exosomes have garnered significant attention due to their potential as therapeutic and diagnostic tools. Exosomes are released via fusion of multivesicular bodies on plasma membranes and can be isolated from various biofluids using methods such as differential ultracentrifugation, immune affinity capture, ultrafiltration, and size exclusion chromatography. Herein, an overview of different techniques for exosome characterization and isolation, as well as the diverse applications of exosome detection, including their potential use in drug delivery and disease diagnosis, is provided. Additionally, we discuss the emerging field of exosome detection by sensors, which offers an up-and-coming avenue for point-of-care diagnostic tools development. Overall, this review aims to provide a exhaustive and up-to-date summary of the current state of exosome research.

Exosomes multifunctional roles in HIV-1: insight into the immune regulation, vaccine development and current progress in delivery system

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1) is known to establish a persistent latent infection. The use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can effectively reduce the viral load, but the treatment can be costly and may lead to the development of drug resistance and life-shortening side effects. It is important to develop an ideal and safer in vivo target therapy that will effectively block viral replication and expression in the body. Exosomes have recently emerged as a promising drug delivery vehicle due to their low immunogenicity, nanoscale size (30-150nm), high biocompatibility, and stability in the targeted area. Exosomes, which are genetically produced by different types of cells such as dendritic cells, neurons, T and B cells, epithelial cells, tumor cells, and mast cells, are designed for efficient delivery to targeted cells. In this article, we review and highlight recent developments in the strategy and application of exosome-based HIV-1 vaccines. We also discuss the use of exosome-based antigen delivery systems in vaccine development. HIV-1 antigen can be loaded into exosomes, and this modified cargo can be delivered to target cells or tissues through different loading approaches. This review also discusses the immunological prospects of exosomes and their role as biomarkers in disease progression. However, there are significant administrative and technological obstacles that need to be overcome to fully harness the potential of exosome drug delivery systems.

The role of exosomes in the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disease characterized by intracellular aggregation of misfolded α-synuclein as a major pathological hallmark. Exosomes are cell-derived lipid bilayer membrane vesicles with various components, including proteins, RNA, and lipids, that mediate intercellular communication. Currently, exosomes are found to be responsible for transporting misfolded proteins from unhealthy neurons to nearby cells, spreading the disease from cell to cell. Such exosomes can also be found in the cerebrospinal fluid and blood. Thus, exosomes may serve as a potential tool to detect the pathology of Parkinson's disease for clinical diagnosis. In this article, the role and challenges of exosomes in the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease are outlined.

Exosome and exosomal contents in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a severe mental disorder that affects approximately 1% general population worldwide and poses a considerable burden to society. Despite decades of research, its etiology remains unclear, and diagnosis remains challenging due to its heterogeneous symptoms. Exosomes play a crucial role in intercellular communication, and their contents, including nucleotides, proteins and metabolites, have been linked to various diseases. Recent studies have implicated exosome abnormalities in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the relationship between exosomes and schizophrenia, focusing on the role of exosomal contents in this disease. We summarize recent findings and provide insights into the potential use of exosomes as biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia.

Mmu-miR-25-3p promotes macrophage autophagy by targeting DUSP10 to reduce mycobacteria survival

Background

The present study aimed to investigate the regulation of miR-25-3p on macrophage autophagy and its effect on macrophage clearance of intracellular Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) retention based on the previous findings on the differential expression of exosomal miRNA in macrophages infected with BCG.

Methods

Through enrichment analysis and Hub gene analysis, key differentially expressed miRNA and its target genes were selected. The targeted binding ability of the screened mmu-miR-25-3p and its predicted target gene DUSP10 was determined through the TargetScan database, and this was further verified by dual luciferase reporter gene assay. mmu-miR-25-3p mimics, mmu-miR-25-3p inhibitor, si-DUSP10, miR-NC,si-NC and PD98059 (ERK Inhibitor) were used to intervene macrophages Raw264.7. Rt-qPCR was used to detect the expression levels of mmu-miR-25-3p and DUSP10 mRNA. Western blot was used to detect the expression levels of DUSP10, LC3-II, p-ERK1/2, beclin1, Atg5 and Atg7. The autophagy flux of macrophage Raw264.7 in each group was observed by confocal laser microscopy, and the expression distribution of DUSP10 and the structure of autophagosomes were observed by transmission electron microscopy. Finally, the intracellular BCG load of macrophage Raw264.7 was evaluated by colony-forming unit (CFU) assay.

Results

Bioinformatics analysis filtered and identified the differentially expressed exosomal miRNAs. As a result, mmu-miR-25-3p expression was significantly increased, and dual specificity phosphatase 10 (DUSP10) was predicted as its target gene that was predominantly involved in autophagy regulation. The dual luciferase reporter gene activity assay showed that mmu-miR-25-3p was targeted to the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of DUSP10. The infection of BCG induced the upregulation of mmu-miR-25-3p and downregulation of DUSP10 in RAW264.7 cells, which further increased the expression of LC3-II and promoted autophagy. Upregulated mmu-miR-25-3p expression decreased the level of DUSP10 and enhanced the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, which in turn upregulated the expression of LC3-II, Atg5, Atg7, and Beclin1. Immuno-electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and autophagic flux analysis further confirmed that the upregulation of mmu-miR-25-3p promotes the autophagy of macrophages after BCG infection. The CFU number indicated that upregulated mmu-miR-25-3p expression decreased the mycobacterial load and accelerated residual mycobacteria clearance.

Conclusion

mmu-miR-25-3p promotes the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 by inhibiting the expression of DUSP10, thus enhancing the BCG-induced autophagy of macrophages. These phenomena reduce the bacterial load of intracellular Mycobacterium and facilitate the clearance of residual mycobacteria. mmu-miR-25-3p has great potential as a target for anti-tuberculosis immunotherapy and can be the optimal miRNA loaded into exosomal drug delivery system in future studies.

Exosomal non-coding RNAs' role in immune regulation and potential therapeutic applications

Exosomes are now significant players in both healthy and unhealthy cell-to-cell communication. Exosomes can mediate immune activation or immunosuppression, which can influence the growth of tumors. Exosomes affect the immune responses to malignancies in various ways by interacting with tumor cells and the environment around them. Exosomes made by immune cells can control the growth, metastasis, and even chemosensitivity of tumor cells. In contrast, exosomes produced by cancer cells can encourage immune responses that support the tumor. Exosomes carry circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and microRNAs (miRNAs), all involved in cell-to-cell communication. In this review, we focus on the most recent findings concerning the role of exosomal miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs in immune modulation and the potential therapeutic implications of these discoveries.

Methods to Evaluate Changes in Mitochondrial Structure and Function in Cancer

Mitochondria are regulators of key cellular processes, including energy production and redox homeostasis. Mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with various human diseases, including cancer. Importantly, both structural and functional changes can alter mitochondrial function. Morphologic and quantifiable changes in mitochondria can affect their function and contribute to disease. Structural mitochondrial changes include alterations in cristae morphology, mitochondrial DNA integrity and quantity, and dynamics, such as fission and fusion. Functional parameters related to mitochondrial biology include the production of reactive oxygen species, bioenergetic capacity, calcium retention, and membrane potential. Although these parameters can occur independently of one another, changes in mitochondrial structure and function are often interrelated. Thus, evaluating changes in both mitochondrial structure and function is crucial to understanding the molecular events involved in disease onset and progression. This review focuses on the relationship between alterations in mitochondrial structure and function and cancer, with a particular emphasis on gynecologic malignancies. Selecting methods with tractable parameters may be critical to identifying and targeting mitochondria-related therapeutic options. Methods to measure changes in mitochondrial structure and function, with the associated benefits and limitations, are summarized.

Emerging role of extracellular vesicles in multiple sclerosis: From cellular surrogates to pathogenic mediators and beyond

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) driven by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. While the therapeutic arsenal has expanded significantly for management of relapsing forms of MS, treatment of individuals with progressive MS is suboptimal. This treatment inequality is in part due to an incomplete understanding of pathomechanisms at different stages of the disease-underscoring the critical need for new biomarkers. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their bioactive cargo have emerged as endogenous nanoparticles with great theranostic potential-as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and ultimately as therapeutic candidates for precision nanotherapeutics. The goals of this review are to: 1) summarize the current data investigating the role of EVs and their bioactive cargo in MS pathogenesis, 2) provide a high level overview of advances and challenges in EV isolation and characterization for translational studies, and 3) conclude with future perspectives on this evolving field.

Mitochondrial cargo export in exosomes: Possible pathways and implication in disease biology

Exosome biogenesis occurs parallel to multiple endocytic traffic routes. These coexisting routes drive cargo loading in exosomes via overlapping of exosome biogenesis with endosomal pathways. One such pathway is autophagy which captures damaged intracellular organelles or their components in an autophagosome vesicle and route them for lysosomal degradation. However, in case of a noncanonical fusion event between autophagosome and maturing multivesicular body (MVB)-a site for exosome biogenesis, the autophagic cargo is putatively loaded in exosomes and subsequent released out of the cell via formation of an "amphisome" like structure. Similarly, during "mitophagy" or mitochondrial (mt) autophagy, amphisome formation routes mitophagy cargo to exosomes. These mt-cargo enriched exosomes or mt-enREXO are often positive for LC3 protein-an autophagic flux marker, and potent regulators of paracrine signaling with both homeostatic and pathological roles. Here, I review this emerging concept and discuss how intracellular autophagic routes helps in generation of mt-enREXO and utility of these vesicles in paracrine cellular signaling and diagnostic areas.

Antioxidants encapsulated milk-derived exosomes for functional food development

Reactive oxygen species are known to be involved in various diseases, and antioxidant ingredients are expected to essentially prevent diseases and contribute to improving health. However, antioxidants are easily degraded by enzymes before being absorbed in the intestine, so a means of transport that prevents their degradation in the body is necessary. Exosomes, which play an important role in communication between individual cells, have attracted attention as a new transport carrier of miRNA and DNA, but not yet fully exploited in food research. More recently, exosomes extracted from bovine milk began to be widely used as a cost-effective transport carrier not in clinical medicine but also in functional food materials. To develop practical applications as carriers for functional foods, systematic studies are necessary to clarify the introduction efficiency and the properties of encapsulated substances. In this study, we applied electroporation and incubation to encapsulate antioxidants into the exosomes and studied the encapsulation efficiency into the exosomes and the anticancer activity.

Liquid biopsy approaches and immunotherapy in colorectal cancer for precision medicine: Are we there yet?

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally, with nearly half of patients detected in the advanced stages. This is due to the fact that symptoms associated with CRC often do not appear until the cancer has reached an advanced stage. This suggests that CRC is a cancer with a slow progression, making it curable and preventive if detected in its early stage. Therefore, there is an urgent clinical need to improve CRC early detection and personalize therapy for patients with this cancer. Recently, liquid biopsy as a non-invasive or nominally invasive approach has attracted considerable interest for its real-time disease monitoring capability through repeated sample analysis. Several studies in CRC have revealed the potential for liquid biopsy application in a real clinical setting using circulating RNA/miRNA, circulating tumor cells (CTCs), exosomes, etc. However, Liquid biopsy still remains a challenge since there are currently no promising results with high specificity and specificity that might be employed as optimal circulatory biomarkers. Therefore, in this review, we conferred the plausible role of less explored liquid biopsy components like mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), organoid model of CTCs, and circulating cancer-associated fibroblasts (cCAFs); which may allow researchers to develop improved strategies to unravel unfulfilled clinical requirements in CRC patients. Moreover, we have also discussed immunotherapy approaches to improve the prognosis of MSI (Microsatellite Instability) CRC patients using neoantigens and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) as a liquid biopsy approach in detail.

A review of recent advances in exosomes and allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of nasal mucosa caused by the presence of IgE after exposure to allergens, characterized by nasal irritation, hypersecretion of the nasal passages and sneezing, which frequently occurs in children and adolescents. There has been an increase in allergic rhinitis over the past few years due to air pollution. Exosomes have been discovered to be nano-sized vesicles, which contain a wide range of substances, including proteins and nucleic acids, numerous studies indicates that exosomes play a vital role in cells communication. Recently there have been more and more studies exploring the role of exosomes in allergic rhinitis. Therefore, here we will present a comprehensive review of the research on exosomes and their role in allergic rhinitis for the purpose of providing new understanding of potential value of exosomes applied to the treatment of allergic rhinitis.

New Therapeutics for Extracellular Vesicles: Delivering CRISPR for Cancer Treatment

Cancers are defined by genetic defects, which underlines the prospect of using gene therapy in patient care. During the past decade, CRISPR technology has rapidly evolved into a powerful gene editing tool with high fidelity and precision. However, one of the impediments slowing down the clinical translation of CRISPR-based gene therapy concerns the lack of ideal delivery vectors. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized membrane sacs naturally released from nearly all types of cells. Although EVs are secreted for bio-information conveyance among cells or tissues, they have been recognized as superior vectors for drug or gene delivery. Recently, emerging evidence has spotlighted EVs in CRISPR delivery towards cancer treatment. In this review, we briefly introduce the biology and function of the CRISPR system and follow this with a summary of current delivery methods for CRISPR applications. We emphasize the recent progress in EV-mediated CRISPR editing for various cancer types and target genes. The reported strategies for constructing EV-CRISPR vectors, as well as their limitations, are discussed in detail. The review aims to throw light on the clinical potential of engineered EVs and encourage the expansion of our available toolkit to defeat cancer.

Cytosolic DNA sensor IFI16 proteins: Potential molecular integrators of interactions among the aging hallmarks

Cellular changes that are linked to aging in humans include genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, and altered intercellular communications. The extent of the changes in these aging hallmarks and their interactions with each other are part of the human aging. However, the molecular mechanisms through which the aging hallmarks interact with each other remain unclear. Studies have indicated a potential role for the type I interferon (IFN) and p53-inducible IFI16 proteins in interactions with the aging hallmarks. The IFI16 proteins are members of the PYHIN protein family. Proteins in the family share a DNA-binding domain (the HIN domain) and a protein-protein interaction pyrin domain (PYD). IFI16 proteins are needed for cytosolic DNA-induced activation of the cGAS-STING pathway for type I IFN (IFN-β) expression. The pathway plays an important role in aging-related inflammation (inflammaging). Further, increased levels of the IFI16 proteins potentiate the cell growth inhibitory functions of the p53 and pRb tumor suppressors proteins. Moreover, IFI16 proteins are needed for most aging hallmarks. Therefore, here we discuss how an improved understanding of the role of the IFI16 proteins in integration of the aging hallmarks has potential to improve the human health and lifespan.

A review on exosomes application in clinical trials: perspective, questions, and challenges

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are progressively known as significant mediators of cell-to-cell communication. They convey active biomolecules to target cells and have vital functions in several physiological and pathological processes, and show substantial promise as novel treatment strategies for diseases.

METHODS

In this review study, we studied numerous articles over the past two decades published on application of exosomes in different diseases as well as on perspective and challenges in this field.

RESULTS

The main clinical application of exosomes are using them as a biomarker, cell-free therapeutic agents, drug delivery carriers, basic analysis for exosome kinetics, and cancer vaccine. Different exosomes from human or plant sources are utilized in various clinical trials. Most researchers used exosomes from the circulatory system for biomarker experiments. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and dendritic cells (DCs) are two widely held cell sources for exosome use. MSCs-derived exosomes are commonly used for inflammation treatment and drug delivery, while DCs-exosomes are used to induce inflammation response in cancer patients. However, the clinical application of exosomes faces various questions and challenges. In addition, translation of exosome-based clinical trials is required to conform to specific good manufacturing practices (GMP). In this review, we summarize exosomes in the clinical trials according to the type of application and disease. We also address the main questions and challenges regarding exosome kinetics and clinical applications.

CONCLUSIONS

Exosomes are promising platforms for treatment of many diseases in clinical trials. This exciting field is developing hastily, understanding of the underlying mechanisms that direct the various observed roles of exosomes remains far from complete and needs further multidisciplinary research in working with these small vesicles. Video Abstract.

Extracellular vesicles and particles impact the systemic landscape of cancer

Intercellular cross talk between cancer cells and stromal and immune cells is essential for tumor progression and metastasis. Extracellular vesicles and particles (EVPs) are a heterogeneous class of secreted messengers that carry bioactive molecules and that have been shown to be crucial for this cell-cell communication. Here, we highlight the multifaceted roles of EVPs in cancer. Functionally, transfer of EVP cargo between cells influences tumor cell growth and invasion, alters immune cell composition and function, and contributes to stromal cell activation. These EVP-mediated changes impact local tumor progression, foster cultivation of pre-metastatic niches at distant organ-specific sites, and mediate systemic effects of cancer. Furthermore, we discuss how exploiting the highly selective enrichment of molecules within EVPs has profound implications for advancing diagnostic and prognostic biomarker development and for improving therapy delivery in cancer patients. Altogether, these investigations into the role of EVPs in cancer have led to discoveries that hold great promise for improving cancer patient care and outcome.

New Perspectives on the Importance of Cell-Free DNA Biology

Body fluids are constantly replenished with a population of genetically diverse cell-free DNA (cfDNA) fragments, representing a vast reservoir of information reflecting real-time changes in the host and metagenome. As many body fluids can be collected non-invasively in a one-off and serial fashion, this reservoir can be tapped to develop assays for the diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring of wide-ranging pathologies, such as solid tumors, fetal genetic abnormalities, rejected organ transplants, infections, and potentially many others. The translation of cfDNA research into useful clinical tests is gaining momentum, with recent progress being driven by rapidly evolving preanalytical and analytical procedures, integrated bioinformatics, and machine learning algorithms. Yet, despite these spectacular advances, cfDNA remains a very challenging analyte due to its immense heterogeneity and fluctuation in vivo. It is increasingly recognized that high-fidelity reconstruction of the information stored in cfDNA, and in turn the development of tests that are fit for clinical roll-out, requires a much deeper understanding of both the physico-chemical features of cfDNA and the biological, physiological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that modulate it. This is a daunting task, but with significant upsides. In this review we showed how expanded knowledge on cfDNA biology and faithful reverse-engineering of cfDNA samples promises to (i) augment the sensitivity and specificity of existing cfDNA assays; (ii) expand the repertoire of disease-specific cfDNA markers, thereby leading to the development of increasingly powerful assays; (iii) reshape personal molecular medicine; and (iv) have an unprecedented impact on genetics research.

Small extracellular vesicle DNA-mediated horizontal gene transfer as a driving force for tumor evolution: Facts and riddles

The basis of the conventional gene-centric view on tumor evolution is that vertically inherited mutations largely define the properties of tumor cells. In recent years, however, accumulating evidence shows that both the tumor cells and their microenvironment may acquire external, non-vertically inherited genetic properties via horizontal gene transfer (HGT), particularly through small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). Many phases of sEV-mediated HGT have been described, such as DNA packaging into small vesicles, their release, uptake by recipient cells, and incorporation of sEV-DNA into the recipient genome to modify the phenotype and properties of cells. Recent techniques in sEV separation, genome sequencing and editing, as well as the identification of new secretion mechanisms, shed light on a number of additional details of this phenomenon. Here, we discuss the key features of this form of gene transfer and make an attempt to draw relevant conclusions on the contribution of HGT to tumor evolution.

cGAS/cGAMP/STING signal propagation in the tumor microenvironment: key role for myeloid cells in antitumor immunity

Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS), second messenger 2'3'-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) and stimulator of interferon genes (STING) are fundamental for sensing cytoplasmic double stranded DNA. Radiotherapy treatment induces large amounts of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA damage and results in the presence of DNA fragments in the cytoplasm, activating the cGAS/STING pathway. Triggering of the cGAS/STING pathway in the tumor microenvironment (TME) results in the production of type I interferons (IFNs). Type I IFNs are crucial for an effective antitumor defense, with myeloid cells as key players. Many questions remain on how these myeloid cells are activated and in which cells (tumor versus myeloid) in the TME the signaling pathway is initiated. The significance of cGAS/STING signaling in the onco-immunology field is being recognized, emphasized by the frequent occurrence of mutations in or silencing of genes in this pathway. We here review several mechanisms of cGAS/STING signal propagation in the TME, focusing on tumor cells and myeloid cells. Cell-cell contact-dependent interactions facilitate the transfer of tumor-derived DNA and cGAMP. Alternatively, transport routes via the extracellular space such as extracellular vesicles, and channel-mediated cGAMP transfer to and from the extracellular space contribute to propagation of cGAS/STING signal mediators DNA and cGAMP. Finally, we discuss regulation of extracellular cGAMP. Altogether, we provide a comprehensive overview of cGAS/cGAMP/STING signal propagation from tumor to myeloid cells in the TME, revealing novel targets for combinatorial treatment approaches with conventional anticancer therapies like radiotherapy.

Biological Features of Extracellular Vesicles and Challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vesicles with a lipid bilayer membrane on the outside, which are widely found in various body fluids and contain biological macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, lipids and proteins on the inside. EVs were once thought to be vesicles for the removal of waste materials, but are now known to be involved in a variety of pathophysiological processes in many diseases. This study examines the advantage of EVs and the challenges associated with their application. A more rational use of the advantageous properties of EVs such as composition specificity, specific targeting, circulatory stability, active penetration of biological barriers, high efficient drug delivery vehicles and anticancer vaccines, oxidative phosphorylation activity and enzymatic activity, and the resolution of shortcomings such as isolation and purification methods, storage conditions and pharmacokinetics and biodistribution patterns during drug delivery will facilitate the clinical application of EVs.

Roles of Exosome Genomic DNA in Colorectal Cancer

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that mediate cell-to-cell communication. Bioactive substances such as DNA, RNA, lipids, and proteins are present in it, and they play an essential role in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer (CRC). The role of RNA and protein in exosomes has been extensively studied. Exosome DNA has recently attracted the attention of a great deal of scientists. According to studies, exosome DNA mainly contains genomic DNA (gDNA) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), of which exosome gDNA is widely used in liquid biopsy of CRC. It includes a variety of clinically relevant tumor-specific mutation genes. In addition to liquid biopsy, researchers find that exosome gDNA regulates immune and metabolic functions in CRC, making it an important research object. However, the primary research on exosome gDNA is still limited. Here, we describe the occurrence and composition of exosomes. Summarize the essential characteristics and mode of action of exosome gDNA. Remarkably, this paper constitutes a comprehensive summary on the role of exosome gDNA on CRC with the intent of providing a theoretical basis and reference for early diagnosis and clinical treatment of cancer.

Research Progress in the Application of Exosomes in Immunotherapy

Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are present in all body fluids tested. They are secreted by a variety of cells including macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, granulocytes, lymphocytes, and tumor cells. Exosomes secreted by different cells have different biological components and functional characteristics and play an important role in many pathophysiological activities. Recent studies have revealed that exosomes can regulate the occurrence and development of inflammatory immune diseases and tumors by transmitting their unique proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids as signaling molecules to other cells. Exosomes serve as a novel class of diagnostic biomarkers and drug delivery systems with promising applications in immunotherapy, particularly because breakthroughs in nanotechnology have led to the development and exploration of engineered exosomes for immunotargeted therapies. Therefore, here we review the progress being made on the application of exosomes in immunotherapy and its multiple regulatory mechanisms and explore the potential application of exosomes in immunotherapy in the future.

Extracellular vesicle-mediated crosstalk between pancreatic cancer and stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) interacts closely with the tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME is remodeled by crosstalk between pancreatic cancer cells and stromal cells, and is critical for cancer progression. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes and microvesicles, help facilitate an exchange of information both within the TME and to distant organs. EVs have also been identified as potential diagnostic biomarkers, therapeutic targets, and drug carriers for pancreatic cancer treatment. Thus, understanding the selective packaging of EVs cargo and its mechanistic impact will increase our understanding of cancer biology. In this review, we collect and analyze recent findings of the pancreatic cancer-stromal cell interactions mediated by EVs and the mechanisms involved in cancer-related immunity and chemoresistance. These studies demonstrate the vital role of EVs in pancreatic cancer reprogramming and TME remodeling. We also summarize the EVs identified as potential PDAC diagnostic biomarkers and possible therapeutic targets. This greater understanding is a promising avenue for transitioning EVs from bench to bedside.

Unravelling Novel Roles of Salivary Exosomes in the Regulation of Human Corneal Stromal Cell Migration and Wound Healing

Salivary exosomes have demonstrated vast therapeutic and diagnostic potential in numerous diseases. This study pioneers previously unexplored roles of SE in the context of corneal wound healing by utilizing primary corneal stromal cells from healthy (HCFs), type I diabetes mellitus (T1DMs), type II DM (T2DMs), and keratoconus (HKCs) subjects. Purified, healthy human SEs carrying tetraspanins CD9+, CD63+, and CD81+ were utilized. Scratch and cell migration assays were performed after 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h following SE stimulation (5 and 25 µg/mL). Significantly slower wound closure was observed at 6 and 12 h in HCFs with 5 μg/mL SE and T1DMs with 5 and 25 μg/mL SE. All wounds were closed by 24-hour, post-wounding. HKCs, T1DMs, and T2DMs with 25µg/mL SE exhibited a significant upregulation of cleaved vimentin compared to controls. Thrombospondin 1 was significantly upregulated in HCFs, HKCs, and T2DMs with 25 µg/mL SE. Lastly, HKCs, T1DMs, and T2DMs exhibited a significant downregulation of fibronectin with 25 μg/mL SE. Whether SEs can be utilized to clinical settings in restoring corneal defects is unknown. This is the first-ever study exploring the role of SEs in corneal wound healing. While the sample size was small, results are highly novel and provide a strong foundation for future studies.

Circulating Exosomal-DNA in Glioma Patients: A Quantitative Study and Histopathological Correlations—A Preliminary Study

Glial neoplasms are a group of diseases with poor prognoses. Not all risk factors are known, and no screening tests are available. Only histology provides certain diagnosis. As already reported, DNA transported by exosomes can be an excellent source of information shared by cells locally or systemically. These vesicles seem to be one of the main mechanisms of tumor remote intercellular signaling used to induce immune deregulation, apoptosis, and both phenotypic and genotypic modifications. In this study, we evaluated the exosomal DNA (exoDNA) concentration in blood samples of patients affected by cerebral glioma and correlated it with histological and radiological characteristics of tumors. From 14 patients with diagnosed primary or recurrent glioma, we obtained MRI imaging data, histological data, and preoperative blood samples that were used to extract circulating exosomal DNA, which we then quantified. Our results demonstrate a relationship between the amount of circulating exosomal DNA and tumor volume, and mitotic activity. In particular, a high concentration of exoDNA was noted in low-grade gliomas. Our results suggest a possible role of exoDNAs in the diagnosis of brain glioma. They could be particularly useful in detecting early recurrent high-grade gliomas and asymptomatic low-grade gliomas.

Paper-Based Devices for Capturing Exosomes and Exosomal Nucleic Acids From Biological Samples

Exosomes, nanovesicles derived from cells, contain a variety of biomolecules that can be considered biomarkers for disease diagnosis, including microRNAs (miRNAs). Given knowledge and demand, inexpensive, robust, and easy-to-use tools that are compatible with downstream nucleic acid detection should be developed to replace traditional methodologies for point-of-care testing (POCT) applications. This study deploys a paper-based extraction kit for exosome and exosomal miRNA analytical system with some quantifying methods to serve as an easy sample preparation for a possible POCT process. Exosomes concentrated from HCT116 cell cultures were arrested on paper-based immunoaffinity devices, which were produced by immobilizing anti-CD63 antibodies on Whatman filter paper, before being subjected to paper-based silica devices for nucleic acids to be trapped by silica nanoparticles adsorbed onto Whatman filter paper. Concentrations of captured exosomes were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), demonstrating that paper-based immunoaffinity devices succeeded in capturing and determining exosome levels from cells cultured in both neutral and acidic microenvironments, whereas microRNA 21 (miR-21), a biomarker for various types of cancers and among the nucleic acids absorbed onto the silica devices, was determined by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) to prove that paper-based silica devices were capable of trapping exosomal nucleic acids. The developed paper-based kit and the devised procedure was successfully exploited to isolate exosomes and exosomal nucleic acids from different biological samples (platelet-poor plasma and lesion fluid) as clinical applications.

DNA in extracellular vesicles: from evolution to its current application in health and disease

Extracellular vesicle (EV) secretion is a highly conserved evolutionary trait in all organisms in the three domains of life. The packaging and release of EVs appears to be a bulk-flow process which takes place mainly under extreme conditions. EVs participate in horizontal gene transfer, which supports the survival of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes. In higher eukaryotes, almost all cells secrete a heterogeneous population of EVs loaded with various biomolecules. EV secretion is typically higher in cancer microenvironments, promoting tumor progression and metastasis. EVs are now recognized as additional mediators of autocrine and paracrine communication in health and disease. In this context, proteins and RNAs have been studied the most, but extracellular vesicle DNA (EV-DNA) has started to gain in importance in the last few years. In this review, we summarize new findings related to the loading mechanism(s), localization, and post-shedding function of EV-DNA. We also discuss the feasibility of using EV-DNA as a biomarker when performing a liquid biopsy, at the same time emphasizing the lack of data from clinical trials in this regard. Finally, we outline the potential of EV-DNA uptake and its interaction with the host genome as a promising tool for understanding the mechanisms of cancer evolution.

Protecting DNA in membrane vesicles seems to be a conserved phenomenon for the horizontal genetic flux between prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes.

Capturing and analyzing this vesicular DNA enables quick and non-invasive monitoring of natural ecosystems.

Cancer-derived extracellular vesicles containing DNA open up novel directions in cell-to-cell communication and therefore disease monitoring.

Complex and fluctuating conditions of the tumor microenvironment, mimicking natural ecosystems, could favor EV-DNA release, mediating tumor multi-clonal evolution and providing survival benefits.

Comprehensive analysis of FKBP4/NR3C1/TMEM173 signaling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer cell and dendritic cell among tumor microenvironment

TMEM173 is a pattern recognition receptor detecting cytoplasmic nucleic acids and transmits cGAS related signals that activate host innate immune responses. It has also been found to be involved in tumor immunity and tumorigenesis. In this study, we first identified that the FKBP4/NR3C1 axis was a novel negative regulator of TMEM173 in human breast cancer (BC) cells. The effect of FKBP4 appeared to be at the transcriptional level of TMEM173, because it could suppress the promoter activity of TMEM173, thereby affecting TMEM173 at mRNA and protein levels. Past studies, our bioinformatics analysis, and in vitro experiments further implied that FKBP4 regulated TMEM173 via regulating nuclear translocation of NR3C1. We then demonstrated that the FKBP4/NR3C1/TMEM173 signaling pathway could regulate autophagy and proliferation of BC cells as well as dendritic cell (DC) abundance through exosome release. Our study found an unprecedented strategy used by BC to escape from TMEM173 mediated tumor suppression. Identification of the FKBP4/NR3C1 axis as a novel TMEM173 regulator would provide insights for novel anti-tumor strategy against BC among tumor microenvironment.

The cGAS/STING Pathway: A Novel Target for Cancer Therapy

As a DNA receptor, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) plays a crucial role in the immune system by recognizing abnormal DNA in the cytoplasm and activating the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway. This signaling cascade reaction leads to an immune response produced by type I interferon and other immune mediators. Recent advances in research have enhanced our current understanding of the potential role of the cGAS/STING pathway in anticancer therapy; however, in some cases, chronic STING activation may promote tumorigenesis. The present review article discusses the biological mechanisms of the cGAS/STING pathway, its dichotomous role in tumors, and the latest advances with respect to STING agonists and antagonists.

The Immuno-Modulation Effect of Macrophage-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases

As natural nanocarriers and intercellular messengers, extracellular vesicles (EVs) control communication among cells. Under physiological and pathological conditions, EVs deliver generic information including proteins and nucleic acids to recipient cells and exert regulatory effects. Macrophages help mediate immune responses, and macrophage-derived EVs may play immunomodulatory roles in the progression of chronic inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, EVs derived from various macrophage phenotypes have different biological functions. In this review, we describe the pathophysiological significance of macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, and gastrointestinal disease, and the potential applications of these EVs.

Exosomes Regulate NLRP3 Inflammasome in Diseases

Emerging evidence has suggested the unique and critical role of exosomes as signal molecules vector in various diseases. Numerous researchers have been trying to identify how these exosomes function in immune progression, as this could promote their use as biomarkers for the disease process and potential promising diagnostic tools. NOD-like receptor (NLR) family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), a tripartite protein, contains three functional domains a central nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NACHT), an N-terminal pyrin domain (PYD), and a leucine-rich repeat domain (LRR). Of note, existing studies have identified exosome as a novel mediator of the NLRP3 inflammasome, which is critical in diseases progression. However, the actual mechanisms and clinical treatment related to exosomes and NLRP3 are still not fully understood. Herein, we presented an up-to-date review of exosomes and NLRP3 in diseases, outlining what is known about the role of exosomes in the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and also highlighting areas of this topic that warrant further study.

Advances on biological functions of exosomal non-coding RNAs in osteoarthritis

Exosomes can be secreted by various cells and function as intercellular communication vehicles by delivering specific cargoes from the donor cells to the recipient cells through their paracrine activity. Recently, an increasing number of studies have shown that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) could be entrapped in and transferred between cartilage-related cells as exosomal cargoes to modulate the expression of various target genes by regulation at post-transcriptional and post-translational levels. They are mainly comprised of microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs. Articular cartilage degeneration is one of the main pathological features of osteoarthritis. Exosomal ncRNAs are involved in pathological processes of osteoarthritis, such as proliferation, migration, chondrogenesis, chondrocyte differentiation induction, extracellular matrix formation, apoptosis, and inflammation. In this review, we summarize the biological functions of exosomal ncRNAs in cartilage homeostasis and osteoarthritis progression and discuss the perspectives and challenges of exosomal ncRNAs application for osteoarthritis patients in the future. Exosomal ncRNA has an important regulatory role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis, but more evidence is needed for clinical application.

Exosomes as Powerful Engines in Cancer: Isolation, Characterization and Detection Techniques

Exosomes, powerful extracellular nanovesicles released from almost all types of living cells, are considered the communication engines (messengers) that control and reprogram physiological pathways inside target cells within a community or between different communities. The cell-like structure of these extracellular vesicles provides a protective environment for their proteins and DNA/RNA cargos, which serve as biomarkers for many malicious diseases, including infectious diseases and cancers. Cancer-derived exosomes control cancer metastasis, prognosis, and development. In addition to the unique structure of exosomes, their nanometer size and tendency of interacting with cells makes them a viable novel drug delivery solution. In recent years, numerous research efforts have been made to quantify and characterize disease-derived exosomes for diagnosis, monitoring, and therapeutic purposes. This review aims to (1) relate exosome biomarkers to their origins, (2) focus on current isolation and detection methods, (3) discuss and evaluate the proposed technologies deriving from exosome research for cancer treatment, and (4) form a conclusion about the prospects of the current exosome research.

Identification of hepatocellular carcinoma-related genes associated with macrophage differentiation based on bioinformatics analyses

Macrophage differentiation is associated with tumorigenesis, including the tumorigenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Herein, we explored the value of macrophage differentiation-associated genes (MDGs) in the prognosis of HCC using data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) databases. We performed multivariate Cox regression analyses to identify the hub genes affecting HCC patient prognoses. The correlations between hub genes and macrophage differentiation and immune checkpoint inhibitors (PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA4) were investigated. Finally, the potential mechanism was examined with gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). In total, seventeen differentially expressed MDGs were obtained after intersecting data from the two databases. Multivariate analysis indicated that CDC42 expression was an independent prognostic indicator in both databases. Furthermore, CDC42 showed a strong correlation with the tumor infiltration levels of immune cells in HCC tissue. Correlation analysis revealed that CDC42 expression was positively associated with M2 macrophage markers and immune checkpoint inhibitors, which indicated that CDC42 expression might be related to M2 macrophage differentiation and HCC cell immune tolerance. Finally, GSEA showed that CDC42 expression was most significantly related to the Wnt signaling pathway. In conclusion, this study showed that CDC42 expression might be an important MDG in HCC and may prove to be a new gene for studying macrophage differentiation in HCC. Abbreviations: HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma; TCGA: The Cancer Genome Atlas; ICGC: International Cancer Genome Consortium; GSEA: gene set enrichment analysis; GO: Gene Ontology; KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes; ROC: receiver operating characteristic; K-M: Kaplan-Meier; AUC: the area under the ROC curve; TNM: Tumor size/lymph nodes/distance metastasis.

Prospects of Extracellular Vesicles in Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery

The diagnostic and therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been recognised in many fields of medicine for several years. More recently, it has become a topic of increasing interest in otorhinolaryngology, head and neck surgery (ORL-HNS). With this narrative review, we have aspired to determine different aspects of those nanometrically sized theranostic particles, which seem to have promising potential as biomarkers in some of the most common diseases of the ORL-HNS by being available via less invasive diagnostic methods. At the same time, a better understanding of their activity provides us with new possibilities for developing specific target treatments. So far, most research has been oriented towards the role of EVs in the progression of head and neck cancer, notably head and neck squamous cell cancer. Nonetheless, some of this research has focused on chronic diseases of the ears, nose and paranasal sinuses. However, most research is still in the preclinical or experimental phase. It therefore requires a further and more profound understanding of EV content and behaviour to utilise their nanotheranostic capacities to their fullest potential.

Advances in the application of mesenchymal stem cells, exosomes, biomimetic materials, and 3D printing in osteoporosis treatment

Owing to an increase in the aging population, osteoporosis has become a severe public health concern, with a high prevalence among the elderly and postmenopausal adults. Osteoporosis-related fracture is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in elderly and postmenopausal adults, posing a considerable socioeconomic burden. However, existing treatments can only slow down the process of osteoporosis, reduce the risk of fractures, and repair fractures locally. Therefore, emerging methods for treating osteoporosis, such as mesenchymal stem cell transplantation, exosome-driving drug delivery systems, biomimetic materials, and 3D printing technology, have received increasing research attention, with significant progress. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are pluripotent stem cells that can differentiate into different types of functional cells. Exosomes play a key role in regulating cell microenvironments through paracrine mechanisms. Bionic materials and 3D printed scaffolds are beneficial for the reconstruction and repair of osteoporotic bones and osteoporosis-related fractures. Stem cells, exosomes, and biomimetic materials represent emerging technologies for osteoporosis treatment. This review summarizes the latest developments in these three aspects.

Tumor-Associated Exosomes: A Potential Therapeutic Target for Restoring Anti-Tumor T Cell Responses in Human Tumor Microenvironments

Exosomes are a subset of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that are released by cells and play a variety of physiological roles including regulation of the immune system. Exosomes are heterogeneous and present in vast numbers in tumor microenvironments. A large subset of these vesicles has been demonstrated to be immunosuppressive. In this review, we focus on the suppression of T cell function by exosomes in human tumor microenvironments. We start with a brief introduction to exosomes, with emphasis on their biogenesis, isolation and characterization. Next, we discuss the immunosuppressive effect of exosomes on T cells, reviewing in vitro studies demonstrating the role of different proteins, nucleic acids and lipids known to be associated with exosome-mediated suppression of T cell function. Here, we also discuss initial proof-of-principle studies that established the potential for rescuing T cell function by blocking or targeting exosomes. In the final section, we review different in vivo models that were utilized to study as well as target exosome-mediated immunosuppression, highlighting the Xenomimetic mouse (X-mouse) model and the Omental Tumor Xenograft (OTX) model that were featured in a recent study to evaluate the efficacy of a novel phosphatidylserine-binding molecule for targeting immunosuppressive tumor-associated exosomes.