Ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1 improve spatial learning and increase hippocampal synaptophysin level in mice

Efficacy and safety of YOXINTINE for depression: A double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 2 clinical trial

BACKGROUND

YOXINTINE contains >98 % of 20(S)-protopanaxadial (PPD), a metabolic product of ginsenosides with pre-clinical neuroprotective activity. Animal experiments and previous studies have shown that PPD has good antidepressant effect and safety.

PURPOSE

To evaluate YOXINTINE in treating depression compared with a placebo in Chinese patients.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a multicenter, double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 2 clinical trial.

METHODS

The study included 178 randomized (1:1:1) Chinese patients with depression. Patients were randomly assigned to receive oral YOXINTINE at doses of 200 or 400 mg or a placebo administered twice daily for 8 weeks. The primary outcome was assessed by measuring changes in the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) total score. All adverse reactions were recorded. All demographic and baseline characteristics were comparable.

RESULTS

The changes in MADRS total scores from baseline were -10.43 for the placebo group, -16.24 for the 200 mg YOXINTINE group, and -13.60 for the 400 mg YOXINTINE group. The differences in MADRS total score changes compared with the placebo were -5.81 (95 % CI: -7.69, -3.92; P < 0.0001) and -3.17 (95 % CI: -5.08, -1.25; P = 0.0013) for the 200 mg and 400 mg groups, respectively. The results indicated a significantly greater MADRS score reduction in the 200 mg group (P = 0.0058, 95 % CI: 0.78, 4.51). Adverse event incidence was comparable among all groups.

CONCLUSION

Oral YOXINTINE is safe and significantly improves depressive symptoms. PPD may exhibit antidepressant properties through mechanisms distinct from monoamine reuptake inhibition.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

ChiCTR2300070568.

Therapeutic Potential of Combined Herbal Medicine and Electroacupuncture in Mild Cognitive Impairment Through Cytokine Modulation: An Observational Study

Purpose

We aimed to investigate the efficacy of a combined herbal formula and electroacupuncture (EA) for mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a neurodegenerative disease leading to dementia, and its underlying mechanisms of action.

Patients and Methods

This was a prospective open-label observational pilot study at Daejeon Korean Medicine Hospital of Daejeon University in South Korea from March 2022 to March 2023. We included six Korean patients (50% male) aged ≥ 45 years and < 85 years with MCI, a clinical dementia rating score of 0.5, and a Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Korea (MoCA-K) score ≤ 22. The exclusion criterion was impaired cognitive function. Patients received combined therapy, including a herbal formula and EA, for 12-24 weeks. We prescribed the herbal formulas Gamiguibi-tang, Yukmijihwang-tang, and Banhasasim-tang to the patients for at least 70% of the treatment period, in combination with EA. Moreover, we investigated changes in cognitive and cognition-related symptoms and cytokine expression in the blood following combined traditional medicine therapy. At baseline and after 12 and 24 weeks, we administered the MoCA-K and cognitive-related questionnaires. We analyzed network pharmacology to reflect the herbal formula intervention mechanism comprehensively.

Results

The median score [interquartile range] of MoCA-K at baseline was 19.5 [16.0, 22.0], which improved significantly (24.5 [24.0, 26.0], p < 0.01) over 24 weeks following combined therapy. We obtained no significant conclusion regarding cytokine changes due to the small sample size. In network pharmacology, we analyzed the brain, head, heart, peripheral nerves, peripheral nervous system, and pancreas as the enriched organs from the common targets of the three herbal formulas.

Conclusion

Combined herbal medicine and EA improved cognitive function in patients with MCI. We assume the underlying mechanism of herbal formulas to be antioxidative and anti-inflammatory changes in cytokine expression. Combined traditional medicine has potential therapeutic application in preventing MCI progression to dementia.

Korean Red Ginseng Prevents the Deterioration of Lung and Brain Function in Chronic PM2.5-Exposed Mice by Regulating Systemic Inflammation

This study was conducted to confirm the effects of Korean red ginseng on lung and brain dysfunction in a BALB/c mice model exposed to particulate matter (PM)2.5 for 12 weeks. Learning and cognitive abilities were assessed with Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests. To evaluate the ameliorating effect of red ginseng extract (RGE), the antioxidant system and mitochondrial function were investigated. The administration of RGE protected lung and brain impairment by regulating the antioxidant system and mitochondrial functions damaged by PM2.5-induced toxicity. Moreover, RGE prevented pulmonary fibrosis by regulating the transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) pathway. RGE attenuated PM2.5-induced pulmonary and cognitive dysfunction by regulating systemic inflammation and apoptosis via the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)/c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) pathway. In conclusion, RGE might be a potential material that can regulate chronic PM2.5-induced lung and brain cognitive dysfunction.

Effective substances and mechanism of red ginseng on rats with spleen-deficiency syndrome based on the substance and energy metabolism as well as the "brain-gut" axis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Red ginseng (RG), a processed product of ginseng (GS), is a generally used qi-tonifying medicine in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). According to the TCM principle, RG is also generally applied to spleen-deficiency syndrome (SDS) clinically for its warmer property. However, the effective substances and mechanism of RG on SDS have not been well investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to explore the effective substances and their mechanism of RG on SDS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The SDS model was established with a compound factor method involving an irregular diet, excessive fatigue and sennae folium with a bitter-cold property. The medicine of RG was split by multi-mode separation methods and analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS). The appearance indexes such as body weight, body temperature, swimming endurance, urine output, and water content of fecal were determined. The biochemical indexes such as D-xylose, SP, VIP and AChE in the digestive system, CRH, ACTH, CORT, E, T3, T4, T, E2 and 5-HT in the endocrine system, CS, NCR, IDH1, COX and Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase in the metabolism of substance and energy, cAMP and cGMP in the cyclic nucleotide system were analyzed by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits and biochemical kits. The serum metabolites were analyzed by UPLC-QTOF/MS. Furthermore, the gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in feces were analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing and headspace gas chromatography-mass method.

RESULTS

The pharmacological experiments showed that total saponin fraction (RGTSF), less polar fraction (RGLPF), and polysaccharides faction (RGPSF) significantly modulated the "brain-gut" axis-related indexes (the levels of VIP, AChE, and 5-HT). Besides, RGTSF also significantly modulated the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-related indexes as well as the substance and energy metabolism-related indexes (the levels of ACTH, CORT, A, Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase, COX, NCR and CS). RGPSF also significantly modulated the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis-related indexes (the levels of T3 and T4). Secondly, metabolomics indicated that RGTSF could significantly regulate the abnormal metabolic pathways associated with the development of SDS, which involved steroid hormone biosynthesis, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, primary bile acid biosynthesis, and amino acid metabolism. Subsequently, the study of gut microbiota indicated that RGLPF could increase the diversities of the gut microbiota and the relative abundance of Firmicutes in rats with SDS, while RGWEF significantly increased the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes. At the genus level, RGLPF could increase the relative abundance of Lactobacillus in rats with SDS and decrease that of Akkermansia. Meanwhile, the water-eluted fraction (RGWEF) showed a stronger regulation in SCFAs.

CONCLUSION

It is for the first time that the effective substances of red ginseng on spleen-deficiency syndrome were studied systematically, and the different mechanisms of the RG fractions involved in substance and energy metabolism as well as the "brain-gut" axis were revealed. The present study demonstrated that RGTSF, RGPSF, and RGLPF were the effective substances of red ginseng for ameliorating spleen-deficiency syndrome, indicating that ginsenosides composed of primary and secondary saponins as well as polysaccharides were the main effective substances for red ginseng in ameliorating spleen-deficiency syndrome.

Production of a Novel Protopanaxatriol-Type Ginsenoside by Yeast Cell Factories

Ginsenosides, the main active compounds in Panax species, are glycosides of protopanaxadiol (PPD) or protopanaxatriol (PPT). PPT-type ginsenosides have unique pharmacological activities on the central nervous system and cardiovascular system. As an unnatural ginsenoside, 3,12-Di-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-dammar-24-ene-3β,6α,12β,20S-tetraol (3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT) can be synthesized through enzymatic reactions but is limited by the expensive substrates and low catalytic efficiency. In the present study, we successfully produced 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT in Saccharomyces cerevisiae with a titer of 7.0 mg/L by expressing protopanaxatriol synthase (PPTS) from Panax ginseng and UGT109A1 from Bacillus subtilis in PPD-producing yeast. Then, we modified this engineered strain by replacing UGT109A1 with its mutant UGT109A1-K73A, overexpressing the cytochrome P450 reductase ATR2 from Arabidopsis thaliana and the key enzymes of UDP-glucose biosynthesis to increase the production of 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT, although these strategies did not show any positive effect on the yield of 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT. However, the unnatural ginsenoside 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT was produced in this study by constructing its biosynthetic pathway in yeast. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of producing 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT through yeast cell factories. Our work provides a viable route for the production of 3β,12β-Di-O-Glc-PPT, which lays a foundation for drug research and development.

Screening and characterization of a β-xylosidase from Bifidobacterium breve K-110 and its application in the biotransformation of the total flavonoids of epimedium to icariin with α-l-rhamnosidase

Among the flavonoids of epimedium, epimedin B, epimedin C, and icariin are considered to be representative components and their structures are quite similar. Besides sharing the same backbone, the main difference is the sugar groups attached at the positions of C-3 and C-7. Despite their structural similarities, their potencies differ significantly, and only icariin is currently included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as a quality marker (Q-marker) for epimedium flavonoids. Furthermore, icariin has the functions of anti-aging, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, anti-osteoporosis, and ameliorating fibrosis. We used bioinformatics to look for the GH43 family β-xylosidase genes BbXyl from Bifidobacterium breve K-110, which has a length of 1347 bp and codes for 448 amino acids. This will allow us to convert epimedin B and epimedin C into icariin in a specific way. The expression level of recombinant BbXyl in TB medium containing 1 % inulin as carbon source, with an inducer concentration of 0.05 mmol/L and a temperature of 28 °C, was 86.4 U/mL. Previous studies found that the α-l-rhamnosidase BtRha could convert epoetin C to produce icariin, so we combined BbXyl and BtRha to catalyze the conversion of epimedium total flavonoids in vitro and in vivo to obtain the product icariin. Under optimal conditions, in vitro hydrolysis of 5 g/L of total flavonoids of epimedium eventually yielded a concentration of icariin of 678.1 μmol/L. To explore the conversion of total flavonoids of epimedium in vivo. Under the optimal conditions, the yield of icariin reached 97.27 μmol/L when the total flavonoid concentration of epimedium was 1 g/L. This study is the first to screen xylosidases for the targeted conversion of epimedin B to produce icariin, and the first to report that epimedin B and epimedin C in the raw epimedium flavonoids can convert efficiently to icariin by a collaborative of β-xylosidase and α-l-rhamnosidase.

Protective Effect of 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol on D-Gal-Induced Cognitively Impaired Mice Based on Its Target Protein Brain-type Creatine Kinase

Ginseng is an important medicinal herb consumed as dietary supplements. Ginsenosides and their metabolites have been reported to enhance cognitive performance, but their underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Brain-type creatine kinase (CK-BB) was previously screened out as one of the potential targets in brain tissues. In vitro, the strongest direct interaction between 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a ginsenoside metabolite, and CK-BB was detected using biolayer interferometry (BLI). Drug affinity responsive target stability, cellular thermal shift assay, BLI, and isothermal titration calorimetry were subsequently used, and the binding of PPD to CK-BB was verified. The binding sites of the CK-BB/PPD complex were clarified by molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis. Enzyme activity assay showed that the binding of PPD to CK-BB in vitro enhanced its activity. In vivo, PPD increased CK-BB activity in D-gal-induced mice. PPD also improved the D-gal-induced cognitive deficits and ameliorated alterations in oxidative stress and hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Therefore, the integration of PPD with its target protein CK-BB may promote CK-BB activity, thereby ameliorating hippocampal synaptic plasticity and cognitive deficits in D-gal-treated mice.

Ginsenoside and Its Therapeutic Potential for Cognitive Impairment

Cognitive impairment (CI) is one of the major clinical features of many neurodegenerative diseases. It can be aging-related or even appear in non-central nerve system (CNS) diseases. CI has a wide spectrum that ranges from the cognitive complaint with normal screening tests to mild CI and, at its end, dementia. Ginsenosides, agents extracted from a key Chinese herbal medicine (ginseng), show great promise as a new therapeutic option for treating CI. This review covered both clinical trials and preclinical studies to summarize the possible mechanisms of how ginsenosides affect CI in different diseases. It shows that ginsenosides can modulate signaling pathways associated with oxidative stress, apoptosis, inflammation, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis. The involved signaling pathways mainly include the PI3K/Akt, CREB/BDNF, Keap1/Nrf2 signaling, and NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathways. We hope to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of CI for related diseases by ginsenosides.

The correlations of adverse effect and tonifying effect of ginseng medicines

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng has been used for thousands of years, it is described as both a tonic for restoration of strength and a panacea. However, the adverse effect is also reported clinically. In the theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the occurrence of adverse reactions is closely related to warm property of ginseng, which can easily lead to fireness (, in Chinese). Several presumptions indicated that fireness of ginseng may be associated with the pathophysiology of inflammation, imbalance of metabolism, the disorder of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, and hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The tonifying effect of ginseng medicines was always focused on with little attention for their adverse effects. We selected red ginseng (RG), ginseng (GS), American ginseng (AG), and ginseng leaves (GL) as typical ginseng medicines to clarify correlations of adverse effect and tonifying effect of ginseng medicines.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The RG, GS, AG, and GL decoctions were orally administered to rats for 30 days consecutively. The appearance indicators such as saliva secretion, urinary output, fecal moisture, heart rate were determined, and hair condition, nose color were also observed. Furthermore, some biochemical indexes such as IL-6, T3, T4, TSH, ACTH, CORT, Ach, DA, EPI, NE, SP, VIP, cAMP, cGMP, AQP-5, AMPK, and the activity of SOD, GSH-PX, Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase were measured by biochemical reagent kits or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The metabolites profile was analyzed by UPLC-QTOF-MS. Finally, the diversity of gut microbiota was also analyzed with the 16S rDNA sequencing.

RESULTS

The study revealed the tonifying effects of ginseng medicines mainly on exciting nervous system, promoting immunity and antioxidative ability. While, the adverse effects were mainly associated with the abnormal nervous system, thyroid system, adrenal system, and oxidative stress. The GS group showed fireness symptoms, such as vertical and dirty hair, epistaxis, higher rectal temperature, lower salivary secretion, lower urinary output, lower fecal moisture. While the GL group showed the opposite symptoms. The levels of hormones, activities of the antioxidative enzyme, and Na⁺-K⁺-ATP enzyme were changed differently. From the second week to the fourth week, the levels of T3, T4, TSH, ACTH, CORT, and the activity of SOD, GSH-PX, Na⁺-K⁺-ATP enzymes were first increased, then decreased, and finally recovered to normal levels. We also found that the ginseng medicines mainly adjust the amino acid and TCA cycle metabolism exhibiting their tonifying and adverse effects. Meanwhile, GS and AG can modulate gut microbiota imbalance by increasing the gut microbial diversity as well as selectively promoting some probiotic populations, including Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first time to report the correlations between tonifying effects and adverse effects of four ginseng medicines. The present study demonstrated that the adverse effects of ginseng medicines mostly depended on their dosages, the higher dosage is, the more serious the adverse effects are. The adverse effects of ginseng and ginseng leaves are much more serious than red ginseng and American ginseng. The tendency of water regulation of ginseng and ginseng leaves was opposite may be related to their nature property.

Natural Therapeutics in Aid of Treating Alzheimer's Disease: A Green Gateway Toward Ending Quest for Treating Neurological Disorders

The current scientific community is facing a daunting challenge to unravel reliable natural compounds with realistic potential to treat neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The reported compounds/drugs mostly synthetic deemed the reliability and therapeutic potential largely due to their complexity and off-target issues. The natural products from nutraceutical compounds emerge as viable preventive therapeutics to fill the huge gap in treating neurological disorders. Considering that Alzheimer's disease is a multifactorial disease, natural compounds offer the advantage of a multitarget approach, tagging different molecular sites in the human brain, as compared with the single-target activity of most of the drugs so far used to treat Alzheimer's disease. A wide range of plant extracts and phytochemicals reported to possess the therapeutic potential to Alzheimer's disease includes curcumin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, morin, delphinidins, quercetin, luteolin, oleocanthal, and other phytochemicals such as huperzine A, limonoids, and azaphilones. Reported targets of these natural compounds include inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, amyloid senile plaques, oxidation products, inflammatory pathways, specific brain receptors, etc. We tenaciously aimed to review the in-depth potential of natural products and their therapeutic applications against Alzheimer's disease, with a special focus on a diversity of medicinal plants and phytocompounds and their mechanism of action against Alzheimer's disease pathologies. We strongly believe that the medicinal plants and phytoconstituents alone or in combination with other compounds would be effective treatments against Alzheimer's disease with lesser side effects as compared to currently available treatments.

The Effect of Guilingji Capsules on Vascular Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial

Guilingji capsules (GLJC) have been shown to have antiaging effects and improve cognitive function. The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of GLJC for the treatment of vascular mild cognitive impairment (VaMCI). A total of 96 patients with VaMCI (aged 60–85 years) were enrolled in this 24-week, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. The patients were randomly assigned to a GLJC group (n = 48) or a Ginkgo group (n = 48). Patients in the GLJC group were treated using GLJC, whereas those in the Ginkgo group received Ginkgo extract tablets. We evaluated the participants at baseline and after a 12- and 24-week treatment period using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-Cog), and Chinese Medicine Symptom Scale (CM-SS). The serum acetylcholine (Ach), acetylcholinesterase (AchE), homocysteine (Hcy), and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) serum levels of the patients were measured before and after 24-week treatment. Analysis of the results of both groups showed that both interventions significantly increased the MoCA and MMSE scores of the patients and decreased their ADAS-Cog and CM-SS scores (P < 0.05). The GLJC group showed greater improvement in MoCA, MMSE, and CM-SS scores than the Ginkgo group (P < 0.05). However, both groups showed a significant increase in serum Ach and a decrease in serum AchE, Hcy, and hs-CRP levels (P < 0.05). Furthermore, serum Ach increased and Hcy decreased more significantly in the GLJC group than in the Ginkgo group (P < 0.05). These findings indicate that GLJC can improve the cognitive function, cholinergic system, and inflammatory cytokine levels of patients with VaMCI. Furthermore, this treatment can improve symptoms of syndromes diagnosed according to traditional Chinese medicine practice in patients with VaMCI.

The next step of neurogenesis in the context of Alzheimer's disease

Among different pathological mechanisms, neuronal loss and neurogenesis impairment in the hippocampus play important roles in cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is a progressive and complex neurodegenerative diseases, which is very debilitating. The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into neurogenesis and AD and discuss how pharmacological drugs and herbal active components have impacts on neurogenesis and consequently improve cognitive functions. To date, despite huge research, no effective treatment has been approved for AD. Therefore, an avenue for future research and drug discovery is stimulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). Evidence suggests that neurogenesis is regulated by the pharmacological treatment that may be recommended as a part of prophylaxis and therapeutic options for AD. However, the underlying mechanisms of regulating neurogenesis in AD are not well understood. To this point, we highlight to achieve an efficient treatment in AD by manipulating neurogenesis, it's necessary to target all steps of neurogenesis.

Preclinical systematic review of ginsenoside Rg1 for cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease

Ginseng has been used for the treatment of aging and memory impairment for thousands of years. Several studies have found that ginsenoside Rg1, as one of the main active components of ginseng, could potentially improve cognitive function in several different animal models. A preclinical systematic review to evaluate the efficacy and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg1 for ameliorating cognitive impairments in Alzheimer's disease is reported here. We searched six databases from their inceptions to January 2019. Thirty-two studies were selected, which included a total of 1,643 animals. According to various cognitive behavioral tests, the results of the meta-analyses showed that ginsenoside Rg1 significantly improved cognitive behavioral impairments in most Alzheimer's disease models (P < 0.05), but there were no significant effects in animals with neuronal degeneration induced by chronic stress or in SAMP8 transgenic mice. The potential mechanisms included antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, amelioration of Alzheimer's disease-related pathology, synapse protection, and up-regulation of nerve cells via multiple signaling pathways.

Therapeutic potential of targeting G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels in the central nervous system

G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channels (Kir3/GirK) are important for maintaining resting membrane potential, cell excitability and inhibitory neurotransmission. Coupled to numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), they mediate the effects of many neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and hormones contributing to the general homeostasis and particular synaptic plasticity processes, learning, memory and pain signaling. A growing number of behavioral and genetic studies suggest a critical role for the appropriate functioning of the central nervous system, as well as their involvement in many neurologic and psychiatric conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, mood disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, epilepsy, alcoholism and drug addiction. Hence, GirK channels emerge as a very promising tool to be targeted in the current scenario where these conditions already are or will become a global public health problem. This review examines recent findings on the physiology, function, dysfunction, and pharmacology of GirK channels in the central nervous system and highlights the relevance of GirK channels as a worthful potential target to improve therapies for related diseases.

Ginsenoside Rb1 prevents MPTP-induced changes in hippocampal memory via regulation of the α-synuclein/PSD-95 pathway

Memory deficiency is a common non-motor symptom of Parkinson’s disease (PD), and conventionally, α-synuclein is considered to be an important biomarker for both motor and cognitive characteristics attributed to PD. However, the role of physiological α-synuclein in cognitive impairment remains undetermined. Ginsenoside Rb1 has been shown to protect dopaminergic neurons (DA) from death and inhibit α-synuclein fibrillation and toxicity in vitro. Our recent study also revealed that ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorates motor deficits and prevents DA neuron death via upregulating glutamate transporter GLT-1 in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of PD. Whether Rb1 can improve memory deficiency and the underlying mechanism is still unknown. In this study, we found that Rb1 can prevent the spatial learning and memory deficits, increase long-term potentiation (LTP) and hippocampal glutamatergic transmission in the MPTP mouse model. The underlying neuroprotective mechanism of Rb1-improved synaptic plasticity involves Rb1 promoting hippocampal CA3 α-synuclein expression, restoring the glutamate in the CA3-schaffer collateral-CA1 pathway, and sequentially increasing postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95) expression. Thus, we provide evidence that Rb1 modulates memory function, synaptic plasticity, and excitatory transmission via the trans-synaptic α-synuclein/PSD-95 pathway. Our findings suggest that Rb1 may serve as a functional drug in treating the memory deficiency in PD.

Minor ginsenoside F1 improves memory in APP/PS1 mice

Ginseng has been shown to produce a cognitive improvement effect. The key molecular components in ginseng that produce pharmacological effects are ginsenosides. Previous studies reported a memory improvement effect of a few major ginsenosides. However, the identity of specific minor ginsenosides mediating such function remains unknown. Here, we report that a minor ginsenoside F1 improves memory function in APPswe/PSEN1dE9 (APP/PS1) double-transgenic Alzheimer's disease (AD) model mice. After 8-wk oral administration of F1 jelly, we observed that spatial working memory, but not context-dependent fear memory, was restored in AD mice. To search for a possible underlying molecular and cellular mechanism, we investigated the effect of F1 on Aβ plaque. We observed F1 administration reduced the Aβ plaque area and density in the cortex, but not in the hippocampus of AD mice. Next, we tested for the effect of F1 on the expression level of key molecules involved in learning and memory. Results from Western blot assay revealed that an abnormally reduced level of a phosphorylated form of CREB in the hippocampus of AD mice was restored to a normal level by F1 administration. Moreover, in the same animals, BDNF level was augmented in the cortex. Our results, therefore, suggest that minor ginsenoside F1 constitutes a promising target to develop therapeutic agents for AD.

Major compounds of red ginseng oil attenuate Aβ25-35-induced neuronal apoptosis and inflammation by modulating MAPK/NF-κB pathway

β-Amyloid (Aβ)-induced neuronal toxicity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with complex mechanisms. Thus, a multi-target approach might be suitable for AD treatment. Following our previous study on the neuroprotective effects of red ginseng oil extract, its major compounds, including linoleic acid (LA), β-sitosterol (BS), and stigmasterol (SS), were examined to elucidate the mechanism of anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammation in Aβ25-35-stimulated PC12 cells. The results showed that the three compounds mitigated Aβ25-35 toxicity by regulating oxidative stress, apoptotic responses, and pro-inflammatory mediators. LA and SS strongly regulated intrinsic apoptosis markers, such as mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular Ca2+, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and caspases-9, -3, and -8. However, BS blocked only the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, particularly by suppressing Ca2+ accumulation. Furthermore, all three compounds downregulated iNOS and phospho-nuclear factor-κB, but only LA and SS inhibited the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and phospho-IκB. In assays to evaluate MAPK expression for confirming upstream signal pathways, BS decreased the phosphorylation of p38 and ERK, but not JNK, while SS markedly decreased the phosphorylation of all three MAPKs, and LA clearly decreased the phosphorylation of ERK and JNK, but not p38. These results indicate that LA, BS, and SS act as neuroprotectives against Aβ25-35-induced injury by distinct molecular mechanisms, indicating their preventive and/or therapeutic potential to treat AD.

Trehalose Improves Cognition in the Transgenic Tg2576 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

This study assessed the therapeutic utility of the autophagy enhancing stable disaccharide trehalose in the Tg2576 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) via an oral gavage of a 2% trehalose solution for 31 days. Furthermore, as AD is a neurodegenerative condition in which the transition metals, iron, copper, and zinc, are understood to be intricately involved in the cellular cascades leading to the defining pathologies of the disease, we sought to determine any parallel impact of trehalose treatment on metal levels. Trehalose treatment significantly improved performance in the Morris water maze, consistent with enhanced learning and memory. The improvement was not associated with significant modulation of full length amyloid-β protein precursor or other amyloid-β fragments. Trehalose had no effect on autophagy as assessed by western blot of the LC3-1 to LC3-2 protein ratio, and no alteration in biometals that might account for the improved cognition was observed. Biochemical analysis revealed a significant increase in the hippocampus of both synaptophysin, a synaptic vesicle protein and surrogate marker of synapses, and doublecortin, a reliable marker of neurogenesis. The growth factor progranulin was also significantly increased in the hippocampus and cortex with trehalose treatment. This study suggests that trehalose might invoke a suite of neuroprotective mechanisms that can contribute to improved cognitive performance in AD that are independent of more classical trehalose-mediated pathways, such as Aβ reduction and activation of autophagy. Thus, trehalose may have utility as a potential AD therapeutic, with conceivable implications for the treatment of other neurodegenerative disorders.

Compound K derived from ginseng: neuroprotection and cognitive improvement

The evidence for the neuroprotective and cognitive effects of compound K, a metabolite biotransformed from ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc, is reviewed here. Compound K is more bioavailable than other ginsenosides and therefore has greater potential to exert bioactive functions in the body. Although the capability of compound K to cross the blood-brain barrier is not clear, it has been reported to have neuroprotective and cognition enhancing effects and decrease inflammatory biomarkers in animal models of Alzheimer's disease and cerebral ischemia. The plethora of potential health benefits of compound K warrants further research to evaluate its biochemical mechanisms and its ability to protect healthy populations from neurodegenerative diseases.

Octyl ester of ginsenoside compound K as novel anti-hepatoma compound: Synthesis and evaluation on murine H22 cells in vitro and in vivo

Ginsenoside compound K (M1) is the active form of major ginsenosides deglycosylated by intestinal bacteria after oral administration. However, M1 was reported to selectively accumulate in liver and transform to fatty acid esters. Ester of M1 was not excreted by bile as M1 was, which means it was accumulated in the liver longer than M1. This study reported a synthetic method of M1-O, a mono-octyl ester of M1, and evaluated the anticancer property against murine H22 cell both in vitro and in vivo. As a result, both M1 and M1-O showed a dose-dependent manner in cytotoxicity assay in vitro. At lower dose of 12.5 μm, M1-O showed moderate detoxification. Instead, M1-O exhibited significantly higher inhibition in H22-bearing mice than M1. M1-O induced murine H22 tumor cellular apoptosis in caspase-dependent pathway given that pan-caspase inhibitor, Z-VAD-FMK, could reverse the cytotoxicity induced by M1-O. Additionally, pro- and anti-apoptosis proteins, Bcl-2 and Bax, altered and consequently induced increased expression of cleaved caspase-3. Interestingly, cyclophosphamide regimen significantly induced atrophy of spleen and thymus, main immune organs, while M1-O treatment greatly alleviated this atrophy. Collectively, we propose M1-O as a candidate for live cancer treatment.

Subchronic oral toxicity study of Korean red ginseng extract in Sprague-Dawley rats with a 4-week recovery period

Ginseng is a major herbal remedy used in Asian countries for thousands of years and known to restore and enhance vital energy. Korean red ginseng, which is processed by steaming and drying fresh Panax ginseng, is most popular and contains unique ginsenosides, which have anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study was carried out to evaluate the repeated oral dose toxicity of Korean red ginseng extract. The test article was administered orally once a day to male and female Sprague-Dawley rats at dose levels of 0, 500, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg/day for 13 consecutive weeks (15 animals/sex/group in the vehicle control and 2000 mg/kg/day groups, and 10 animals/sex/group in the 500 and 1000 mg/kg/day groups). Ten animals per group were sacrificed at the end of the 13-week treatment period, and the remaining rats were sacrificed after a 4-week recovery period. Administration of Korean red ginseng extract did not result in any toxicologically significant changes in mortality, body weight, food consumption, ophthalmoscopy, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross pathological findings, absolute/relative organ weights, or histopathology. It was established that the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of the test article was 2000 mg/kg/day for both sexes in this study.

Ginsenoside Rb1 improves leptin sensitivity in the prefrontal cortex in obese mice

AIM

Obesity impairs leptin-induced regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and synaptogenesis, which has been considered to be associated with the incidence of neuronal degenerative diseases, cognitive decline, and depression. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), a major bioactive component of ginseng, is known to have an antiobesity effect and improve cognition. This study examined whether Rb1 can improve central leptin effects on BDNF expression and synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex during obesity using an in vivo and an in vitro model.

RESULT

Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) chronic treatment improved central leptin sensitivity, leptin-JAK2-STAT3 signaling, and leptin-induced regulation of BDNF expression in the prefrontal cortex of high-fat diet-induced obese mice. In cultured prefrontal cortical neurons, palmitic acid, the saturated fat, impaired leptin-induced BDNF expression, reduced the immunoreactivity and mRNA expression of synaptic proteins, and impaired leptin-induced neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis. Importantly, Rb1 significantly prevented these pernicious effects induced by palmitic acid.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that Rb1 reverses central leptin resistance and improves leptin-BDNF-neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortical neurons. Thus, Rb1 supplementation may be a beneficial avenue to treat obesity-associated neurodegenerative disorders.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Ameliorates Behavioral Abnormalities and Modulates the Hippocampal Proteomic Change in Triple Transgenic Mice of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, so far, there are no effective measures to prevent and cure this deadly condition. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) was shown to improve behavioral abnormalities in AD; however, the potential mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we pretreated 7-month-old 3xTg-AD mice for 6 weeks with Rg1 and evaluated the effects of Rg1 on the behaviors and the protein expression of hippocampal tissues. The behavioral tests showed that Rg1 could improve the memory impairment and ameliorate the depression-like behaviors of 3xTg-AD mice. Proteomic results revealed a total of 28 differentially expressed hippocampal proteins between Rg1-treated and nontreated 3xTg-AD mice. Among these proteins, complexin-2 (CPLX2), synapsin-2 (SYN2), and synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNP25) were significantly downregulated in the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice compared with the WT mice, and the treatment of Rg1 modulated the expression of CPLX2 and SNP25 in the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice. The expression of CPLX2, SYN2, and SNP25 was further validated by Western blot analysis. Taken together, we concluded that Rg1 could be a potential candidate drug to improve the behavioral deficits in AD via modulating the expression of the proteins (i.e., CPLX2, SYN2, and SNP25).

Baicalin and ginsenoside Rb1 promote the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells in Alzheimer's disease model rats

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to explore the effects of ginsenoside Rb1 and baicalin on the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSC) in Alzheimer's disease model rats.

METHOD

The healthy Sprague Dawley male rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: control group, model group, ginsenoside Rb1 group and baicalin group. Besides, the animal model of dementia was induced by the injection of Aβ1-40. 2 weeks later, the rats in the baicalin and ginsenoside Rb1 groups were injected with baicalin and ginsenoside Rb1, respectively. The contents, expression sites of Nestin, GFAP and NSE and the percentage of viable cells were detected by immunohistochemistry. In addition, the expression levels of Nestin, GFAP and NSE in hippocampus of rats were detected by western-blot and metrology analysis was performed using quantity.

RESULTS

Injection of Aβ1-40 significantly reduced the number of neuronal cells (p < .05). In addition, compared with the control group, the percentages of positive cells of NSCs, astrocytes and neuronal were increased. Besides, compared with the model group, the percentage of positive neural cells was improved by ginsenoside Rb1 (p < .05), and the percentages of astrocytes and neuronal were increased by ginsenoside Rb1 and baicalin (p < .05). Moreover, the expressions of Nestin and NSE were enhanced by ginsenoside Rb1 and baicalin (p < .05), while the GFAP level was only affected by ginsenoside Rb1 (p < .05) when compared with the model group.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rb1 and baicalin might promote the proliferation and differentiation of endogenous NSCs in AD rat model.

Ginsenoside Rg1 modulates medial prefrontal cortical firing and suppresses the hippocampo-medial prefrontal cortical long-term potentiation

Background

Panax ginseng is one of the most commonly used medicinal herbs worldwide for a variety of therapeutic properties including neurocognitive effects. Ginsenoside Rg1 is one of the most abundant active chemical constituents of this herb with known neuroprotective, anxiolytic, and cognition improving effects.

Methods

We investigated the effects of Rg1 on the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a key brain region involved in cognition, information processing, working memory, and decision making. In this study, the effects of systemic administration of Rg1 (1 mg/kg, 3 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg) on (1) spontaneous firing of the medial prefrontal cortical neurons and (2) long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampal–medial prefrontal cortical (HP–mPFC) pathway were investigated in male Sprague–Dawley rats.

Results

The spontaneous neuronal activity of approximately 50% the recorded pyramidal cells in the mPFC was suppressed by Rg1. In addition, Rg1 attenuated LTP in the HP–mPFC pathway. These effects were not dose-dependent.

Conclusion

This report suggests that acute treatment of Rg1 impairs LTP in the HP–mPFC pathway, perhaps by suppressing the firing of a subset of mPFC neurons that may contribute to the neurocognitive effects of Rg1.

New Age Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease by Neuronal Network Reconstruction

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a recognized incurable neurodegenerative disorder. Clinically prescribed medicines for AD are expected to bring about only slight symptomatic improvement or a delay of its progression. Another strategy, amyloid β (Aβ) lowing agents, has not been successful at memory improvement. We have hypothesized that an improvement in cognitive function requires the construction of neuronal networks, including neurite regeneration and synapse formation; therefore, we have been exploring candidates for radical anti-AD drugs that can restore Aβ-induced neurite atrophy and memory impairment. Our studies found several promising drug candidates that may improve memory dysfunction in AD model mice. The main activity of these drugs is the restoration of damaged axons. Focusing on candidates based on the recovery of neurite atrophy in vitro certainly leads to positive effects on memory improvement also in vivo. This suggests that neuronal network reconstruction may importantly relate to functional recovery in the brain. When identifying the signaling mechanisms of exogenous compounds like natural medicine-derived constituents, molecules directly activated by the compound are hard to be identified. However, the drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) analysis may pave the way to an approach to determine the initial molecule of the signaling pathway. Exploring new drug candidates and clarifying their signaling pathways directly relating to neuronal network reconstruction may provide promising therapeutic strategies with which to overcome AD.

Effects of processing method on the pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of orally administered ginseng

Background

The use of different methods for the processing of ginseng can result in alterations in its medicinal properties and efficacy. White ginseng (WG), frozen ginseng (FG), and red ginseng (RG) are produced using different methods. WG, FG, and RG possess different pharmacological properties.

Methods

WG, FG, and RG extracts and pure ginsenosides were administered to rats to study the pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution characteristics of the following ginsenosides—Rg1, Re, Rb1, and Rd. The concentrations of the ginsenosides in the plasma and tissues were determined using UPLC-MS/MS.

Results

The rate and extent of absorption of Rg1, Re, Rb1, and Rd appeared to be affected by the different methods used in processing the ginseng samples. The areas under the plasma drug concentration-time curves (AUCs) of Rg1, Re, Rb1, and Rd were significantly higher than those of the pure ginsenosides. In addition, the AUCs of Rg1, Re, Rb1, and Rd were different for WG, FG, and RG. The amounts of Rg1, Re, Rd, and Rb1 were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the tissues than those of the pure ginsenosides. The amounts of Re, Rb1, and Rd from the RG extract were significantly higher than those from the WG and FG extracts in the heart, lungs, and kidneys of the rats.

Conclusion

Our results show that the use of different methods to process ginseng might affect the pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of ginseng as well as the tissue concentrations of Rg1, Re, Rd, and Rb1.

SMND-309 promotes neuron survival through the activation of the PI3K/Akt/CREB-signalling pathway

Context In clinical practice, the promotion of neuron survival is necessary to recover neurological functions after the onset of stroke. Objective This study aimed to investigate the post-ischaemic neuroprotective effect of SMND-309, a novel metabolite of salvianolic acid, on differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Materials and methods SH-SY5Y cells were differentiated by pre-treating with 5 μM all-trans-retinoic acid for 6 d. The differentiated SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) for 2 h and reperfusion (R) for 24 h to induce OGD/R injury. After OGD injury, differentiated SH-SY5Y cells were treated with or without SMND-309 (5, 10, 20 μM) for another 24 h. Cell viability was detected through Cell counting kit-8 assay and lactate dehydrogenase leakage assay. Apoptosis was evaluated through flow cytometry, caspase-3 activity assay. Changes in protein levels were assessed through Western blot. Results SMND-309 ameliorated the degree of injury in the differentiated SH-SY5Y cells by increasing cell viabilities (5 μM, 65.4% ± 4.1%; 10 μM, 69.8% ± 3.7%; 20 μM, 75.3% ± 5.1%) and by reducing LDH activity (20 μM, 2.5 fold) upon OGD/R stimulation. Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide staining results suggested that apoptotic rate of differentiated SH-SY5Y cells decreased from 43.8% induced by OGD/R injury to 19.2% when the cells were treated with 20 μM SMND-309. SMND-309 significantly increased the Bcl-2 level of the injured differentiated SH-SY5Y cells but decreased the caspase-3 activity of these cells by 1.6-fold. In contrast, SMND-309 did not affect the Bax level of these cells. SMND-309 evidently increased the protein expression of BDNF when Akt and CREB were activated. This function was antagonized by the addition of LY294002. Conclusion SMND-309 can prevent neuronal cell death in vitro. This process may be related to the activation of the PI3K/Akt/CREB-signalling pathway.

Involvement of Connexin40 in the Protective Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 Against Traumatic Brain Injury

Ginsenosides are the major active components of ginseng, which have been proven to be effective in therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GS-Rb1) is the most abundant among all the identified ginsenosides and has been shown to exert neuroprotective effects, although the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Connexins are a family of transmembrane proteins that form gap junctions, which are important for diffusion of cytosolic factors such as ions and second messenger signaling molecules. Previous studies have shown that a subset of connexin proteins is involved in neuroprotection. We investigated the protective effects of GS-Rb1 against traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the potential mechanism using TBI mouse model. We discovered that TBI-induced brain injury and up-regulation of connexin40 (Cx40) protein expression as early as 6 h post-TBI, which was reversed by administration of GS-Rb1. In addition, we found that the protective effects of GS-Rb1 are dose and time dependent and are partially mediated through phosphorylation of ERK1/2 signaling pathway, as evidenced by the abolishment of GS-Rb1-mediated elevation of p-ERK1/2 expression and inhibition of Cx40 expressions when ERK inhibitor U0126 was used. Our study provides evidence that Cx40 is implicated in TBI-induced brain injuries, and GS-Rb1 exerts neuroprotective activity against TBI involving down-regulation of Cx40 expression.

Ginsenoside Rg1 protects against neurodegeneration by inducing neurite outgrowth in cultured hippocampal neurons

Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) has anti-aging and anti-neurodegenerative effects. However, the mechanisms underlying these actions remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to determine whether Rg1 affects hippocampal survival and neurite outgrowth in vitro after exposure to amyloid-beta peptide fragment 25-35 (Aβ25-35), and to explore whether the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt signaling pathways are involved in these biological processes. We cultured hippocampal neurons from newborn rats for 24 hours, then added Rg1 to the medium for another 24 hours, with or without pharmacological inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family or Akt signaling pathways for a further 24 hours. We then immunostained the neurons for growth associated protein-43, and measured neurite length. In a separate experiment, we exposed cultured hippocampal neurons to Aβ25-35 for 30 minutes, before adding Rg1 for 48 hours, with or without Akt or MAPK inhibitors, and assessed neuronal survival using Hoechst 33258 staining, and phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt by western blot analysis. Rg1 induced neurite outgrowth, and this effect was blocked by API-2 (Akt inhibitor) and PD98059 (MAPK/ERK kinase inhibitor), but not by SP600125 or SB203580 (inhibitors of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 MAPK, respectively). Consistent with this effect, Rg1 upregulated the phosphorylation of Akt and ERK1/2; these effects were reversed by API-2 and PD98059, respectively. In addition, Rg1 significantly reversed Aβ25-35-induced apoptosis; this effect was blocked by API-2 and PD98059, but not by SP600125 or SB203580. Finally, Rg1 significantly reversed the Aβ25-35-induced decrease in Akt and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, but API-2 prevented this reversal. Our results indicate that Rg1 enhances neurite outgrowth and protects against Aβ25-35-induced damage, and that its mechanism may involve the activation of Akt and ERK1/2 signaling.

Neuroprotective effects of ginseng protein on PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in the hippocampus of D-galactose/AlCl3 inducing rats model of Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, with progressive memory loss, cognitive deterioration, and behavioral disorders. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is widely used in China to treat various kinds of nervous system disorders. The study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of ginseng protein (GP) on Alzheimer's disease and its correlation with the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway to understand the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of ginseng.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The AD rat model was established by intraperitoneally injecting D-galactose [60mg/(kgd)] followed by intragastrically administering AlCl3 [40mg/(kgd)] for 90 days. From day 60, the GP groups were intragastrically administered with GP 0.05 or 0.1g/kg twice daily for 30 days. The ethology of rats was tested by Morris water maze test. The content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau in the hippocampus of rats was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The expression of mRNAs and proteins of PI3K, Akt, phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt), Bcl-2, and Bax in the hippocampus was detected by real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot assay.

RESULTS

GP was found to significantly improve the memory ability of AD rats and prolong the times of crossing the platform and the percentage of residence time in the original platform quadrant of spatial probe test. GP also reduced the content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau and improved the mRNA and protein expression of PI3K, p-Akt/Akt, and Bcl-2/Bax in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

GP could improve the memory ability and reduce the content of Aβ1-42 and p-tau in AD rats. The anti-AD effects of GP were in part mediated by PI3K/Akt signaling pathway activation.

NanoESI-MS-based lipidomics to discriminate between cultivars, cultivation ages, and parts of Panax ginseng

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is one of the most popular medicinal herbs used in Asia, including Korea and China. In the present study lipid profiling of two officially registered cultivars (P. ginseng 'Chunpoong' and P. ginseng 'Yunpoong') was performed at different cultivation ages (5 and 6 years) and on different parts (tap roots, lateral roots, and rhizomes) using nano-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (nanoESI-MS). In total, 30 compounds including galactolipids, phospholipids, triacylglycerols, and ginsenosides were identified. Among them, triacylglycerol 54:6 (18:2/18:2/18:2), phosphatidylglycerol 34:3 (16:0/18:3), monogalactosyldiacylglycerol 36:4 (18:2/18:2), phosphatidic acid species 36:4 (18:2/18:2), and 34:1 (16:0/18:1) were selected as biomarkers to discriminate cultivars, cultivation ages, and parts. In addition, an unknown P. ginseng sample was successfully predicted by applying validated partial least squares projection to latent structures regression models. This is the first study regarding the identification of intact lipid species from P. ginseng and to predict cultivars, cultivation ages, and parts of P. ginseng using nanoESI-MS-based lipidomic profiling with a multivariate statistical analysis.

Ginsenoside Rg1 inhibits high-voltage-activated calcium channel currents in hippocampal neurons of beta-amyloid peptide-exposed rat brain slices

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) inhibits the high-voltage-activated calcium currents (ICa,HVA) via mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in hippocampal neurons in rat brain slices exposed to beta-amyloid peptide 25-35 (Aβ25-35).

METHODS

An experimental Alzheimer disease (AD) model was prepared by exposure of rat brain slices to Aβ25-35 (10 µmol/L). After treatment with Rg1 (20 µmol/L), the ICa,HVA elicited in hippocampal neurons in these rat brain slices upon depolarization from-40 to 40 mV for 200 ms was recorded by a whole-cell patch clamp to analyze the changes in the peak current density, I-V curve, activation-V curve, and inactivation-V curve.

RESULTS

Exposure of rat brain slices to Aβ led to a significant increase in ICa,HVA, enhancement of the voltage sensitivity of channel activation, and reduction of the voltage sensitivity of channel inactivation in neurons in the hippocampus of rat brain slices. Rg1 treatment significantly inhibited these changes. These effects of Rg1 could be effectively inhibited by the MAPK inhibitor PD98059.

CONCLUSION

Rg1 can inhibit Ica,HVA via MAPK in hippocampal neurons in Aβ-exposed rat brain slices.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Improves In vitro-produced Embryo Quality by Increasing Glucose Uptake in Porcine Blastocysts

Ginsenoside Rg1 is a natural compound with various efficacies and functions. It has beneficial effects on aging, diabetes, and immunity, as well as antioxidant and proliferative functions. However, its effect on porcine embryo development remains unknown. We investigated the effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on the in vitro development of preimplantation porcine embryos after parthenogenetic activation in high-oxygen conditions. Ginsenoside treatment did not affect cleavage or blastocyst formation rates, but did increase the total cell number and reduced the rate of apoptosis. In addition, it had no effect on the expression of four apoptosis-related genes (Bcl-2 homologous antagonist/killer, B-cell lymphoma-extra large, Caspase 3, and tumor protein p53) or two metabolism-related genes (mechanistic target of rapamycin, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1B), but increased the expression of Glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), indicating that it may increase glucose uptake. In summary, treatment with the appropriate concentration of ginsenoside Rg1 (20 μg/mL) can increase glucose uptake, thereby improving the quality of embryos grown in high-oxygen conditions.

Ginsenoside Rb1 increases insulin sensitivity by activating AMP-activated protein kinase in male rats

Although ginseng has been reported to ameliorate hyperglycemia in animal models and clinical studies, the molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. We previously reported that chronic treatment with ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), a major component of ginseng, significantly reduced fasting glucose and improved glucose tolerance in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats. These effects were greater than those observed in pair-fed rats, suggesting a direct effect of Rb1 on glucose homeostasis, and this possibility was confirmed in the present study. In lean rats fed standard rodent chow, 5-day treatment with Rb1 significantly improved glucose tolerance and enhanced insulin sensitivity. Notably, those effects were not accompanied by reduced food intake or changed body weight. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms, rats fed a HFD for 4 weeks were treated with Rb1 for 5 days. Subsequently, euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp studies found that compared to vehicle, Rb1, while not changing food intake or body weight, significantly increased glucose infusion rate required to maintain euglycemia. Consistent with this, insulin-induced inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis was significantly enhanced and hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose-6-phosphatase gene expression was suppressed. Additionally, glucose uptake was significantly increased in skeletal muscle. While proximal insulin signaling was not changed after Rb1 treatment, increased phosphorylation of TBC1D4, a downstream target of AMPK signaling, appears to be a key part of the mechanism for Rb1-stimulated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle. These findings indicate that Rb1 has multiple effects on glucose homeostasis, and provide strong rationale for further evaluation of its potential therapeutic role.

A UHPLC-TOF/MS method based metabonomic study of total ginsenosides effects on Alzheimer disease mouse model

A metabonomic method was established to find potential biomarkers and study the metabolism disturbance in Alzheimer disease animal model. Total ginsenosides, as potential agent in neuroprotection and anti-inflammation, was also studied to learn the regulation mechanism to plasma metabolites in model animals. In experiment, amyloid beta 1-42 was occupied to form Alzheimer disease animal model. After drug administration, animals were evaluated by Morris water maze behavior test and sacrificed. Plasma samples were then analyzed using UHPLC-TOF/MS method to determine the endogenous metabolites. Behavior test results revealed that the spatial learning and memory abilities were deficit in model mice, and total ginsenosides could improve cognition abilities in dose-dependent manners. Principal component analysis showed that model and sham were divided into two groups, which means the metabolic network of mice was disturbed after modeling. Accordingly, 19 biomarkers were found and identified. In model group, the levels of proline, valine, tryptophan, LPC (14:0), LPC (15:0), LPC (15:1), LPC (17:0), LPC (18:2), LPC (18:3) and LPC (20:4) were up-regulated, while the levels of acetylcarnitine, palmitoylcarnitine, vaccenylcarnitine, phytosphingosine, N-eicosanoylethanolamine, hexadecenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, docosapentaenoic acid and octadecadienoic acid were down-regulated. The levels of these metabolites were recovered in different degrees after total ginsenosides administration. Combining with behavior study results, total ginsenosides could ameliorate both cognition symptoms and metabolic changes in model animals. This metabonomic approach provided a feasible way to understand the endogenous alterations of AD and to study the pharmacodynamic activity of novel agents.

Administration of red ginseng ameliorates memory decline in aged mice

Background

It has been known that ginseng can be applied as a potential nutraceutical for memory impairment; however, experiments with animals of old age are few.

Methods

To determine the memory enhancing effect of red ginseng, C57BL/6 mice (21 mo old) were given experimental diet pellets containing 0.12% red ginseng extract (approximately 200 mg/kg/d) for 3 mo. Young and old mice (4 mo and 21 mo old, respectively) were used as the control group. The effect of red ginseng, which ameliorated memory impairment in aged mice, was quantified using Y-maze test, novel objective test, and Morris water maze. Red ginseng ameliorated age-related declines in learning and memory in older mice. In addition, red ginseng's effect on the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase and proinflammatory cytokines was investigated in the hippocampus of aged mice.

Results

Red ginseng treatment suppressed the production of age-processed inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-1β expressions. Moreover, it was observed that red ginseng had an antioxidative effect on aged mice. The suppressed glutathione level in aged mice was restored with red ginseng treatment. The antioxidative-related enzymes Nrf2 and HO-1 were increased with red ginseng treatment.

Conclusion

The results revealed that when red ginseng is administered over long periods, age-related decline of learning and memory is ameliorated through anti-inflammatory activity.

Ginseng: a promising neuroprotective strategy in stroke

Ginseng is one of the most widely used herbal medicines in the world. It has been used in the treatment of various ailments and to boost immunity for centuries; especially in Asian countries. The most common ginseng variant in traditional herbal medicine is ginseng, which is made from the peeled and dried root of Panax Ginseng. Ginseng has been suggested as an effective treatment for a vast array of neurological disorders, including stroke and other acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Ginseng’s neuroprotective effects are focused on the maintenance of homeostasis. This review involves a comprehensive literature search that highlights aspects of ginseng’s putative neuroprotective effectiveness, focusing on stroke. Attenuation of inflammation through inhibition of various proinflammatory mediators, along with suppression of oxidative stress by various mechanisms, including activation of the cytoprotective transcriptional factor Nrf2, which results in decrease in reactive oxygen species, could account for its neuroprotective efficacy. It can also prevent neuronal death as a result of stroke, thus decreasing anatomical and functional stroke damage. Although there are diverse studies that have investigated the mechanisms involved in the efficacy of ginseng in treating disorders, there is still much that needs to be clarified. Both in vitro and in vivo studies including randomized controlled clinical trials are necessary to develop in-depth knowledge of ginseng and its practical applications.

Effects of Korean red ginseng extract on behavior in children with symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial

Abstract Objective: There is evidence that Korean red ginseng (KRG) can reduce the production of the adrenal corticosteroids, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and thus may be a viable treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial tested the effect of KRG on children with ADHD symptoms.

METHODS

Subjects 6-15 years, who satisfied the inclusion criteria and had ADHD symptoms, were randomized into a KRG group (n=33) or a control group (n=37). The KRG group received one pouch of KRG (1g KRG extract/pouch) twice a day, and the control group received one pouch of placebo twice a day. At the 8 week point, the primary outcomes were the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) criteria for inattention and hyperactivity scale scores, which were measured at baseline and 8 weeks after starting treatment. Secondary outcomes were quantitative electroencephalography theta/beta ratio (QEEG TBR) (measured at baseline and week 8) and salivary cortisol and DHEA levels (measured at baseline and at 4 and 8 weeks).

RESULTS

The baseline characteristics of the KRG and control groups were not statistically different. The mean ages of the KRG and control groups were 10.94±2.26 and 10.86±2.41, respectively. The KRG group had significantly decreased inattention/hyperactivity scores compared with the control group at week 8 (least squared means of the differences in inattention adjusted for baseline scores: -2.25 vs. -1.24, p=0.048; hyperactivity: -1.53 vs. -0.61, p=0.047). The KRG group had significantly decreased QEEG TBR compared with the control group (least squared means of the differences: -0.94 vs. -0.14, p=0.001). However, neither the KRG group nor the control group exhibited significant differences in salivary cortisol or DHEA levels at week 8 compared with the baseline levels. No serious adverse events were reported in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that KRG extract may be an effective and safe alternative treatment for children with inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms. Further studies to investigate the efficacy and safety of KRG are warranted.