1
|
Mohammadpanah M, Farrokhi S, Sani M, Moghaddam MH, Bayat AH, Boroujeni ME, Abdollahifar MA, Fathi M, Vakili K, Nikpour F, Omran HS, Ahmadirad H, Ghorbani Z, Peyvandi AA, Aliaghaei A. Exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol leads to a rise in caspase-3, morphological changes in microglial, and astrocyte reactivity in the cerebellum of rats. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2023; 12:1077-1094. [PMID: 38145099 PMCID: PMC10734605 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfad098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to elucidate the effect of 10 mg/kg Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on cerebellar neuronal and glial morphology, apoptosis and inflammatory gene expression using a series of histological assays including stereology, Sholl analysis, immunofluorescence and real-time qPCR in male Wistar rats. A decrease in the number of Purkinje neurons and the thickness of the granular layer in the cerebellum was reported in THC-treated rats. Increased expression of Iba-1 and arborization of microglial processes were evidence of microgliosis and morphological changes in microglia. In addition, astrogliosis and changes in astrocyte morphology were other findings associated with THC administration. THC also led to an increase in caspase-3 positive cells and a decrease in autophagy and inflammatory gene expression such as mTOR, BECN1 and LAMP2. However, there were no significant changes in the volume of molecular layers and white matter, the spatial arrangement of granular layers and white matter, or the spatial arrangement of granular layers and white matter in the cerebellum. Taken together, our data showed both neuroprotective and neurodegenerative properties of THC in the cerebellum, which require further study in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Mohammadpanah
- Hearing Disorders Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sheida Farrokhi
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Sani
- Department of Educational Neuroscience, Aras International Campus, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Meysam Hassani Moghaddam
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, AJA University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir-Hossein Bayat
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Sciences and Advanced Technology in Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mahdi Eskandarian Boroujeni
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Mohammad-Amin Abdollahifar
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mobina Fathi
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kimia Vakili
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Nikpour
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Salehi Omran
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Ahmadirad
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zeynab Ghorbani
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Asghar Peyvandi
- Hearing Disorders Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Aliaghaei
- Hearing Disorders Research Center, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
History of cannabis use is associated with altered gait. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 178:215-222. [PMID: 28666180 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite evidence that cannabinoid receptors are located in movement-related brain regions (e.g., basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum), and that chronic cannabis use is associated with structural and functional brain changes, little is known about the long-term effect of cannabis use on human movement. The aim of the current study was to investigate balance and walking gait in adults with a history of cannabis use. We hypothesised that cannabis use is associated with subtle changes in gait and balance that are insufficient in magnitude for detection in a clinical setting. METHODS Cannabis users (n=22, 24±6years) and non-drug using controls (n=22, 25±8years) completed screening tests, a gait and balance test (with a motion capture system and in-built force platforms), and a clinical neurological examination of movement. RESULTS Compared to controls, cannabis users exhibited significantly greater peak angular velocity of the knee (396±30 versus 426±50°/second, P=0.039), greater peak elbow flexion (53±12 versus 57±7°, P=0.038) and elbow range of motion (33±13 versus 36±10°, P=0.044), and reduced shoulder flexion (41±19 versus 26±16°, P=0.007) during walking gait. However, balance and neurological parameters did not significantly differ between the groups. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that history of cannabis use is associated with long-lasting changes in open-chain elements of walking gait, but the magnitude of change is not clinically detectable. Further research is required to investigate if the subtle gait changes observed in this population become more apparent with aging and increased cannabis use.
Collapse
|
3
|
Abulseoud OA, Zuccoli ML, Zhang L, Barnes A, Huestis MA, Lin DT. The acute effect of cannabis on plasma, liver and brain ammonia dynamics, a translational study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2017; 27:679-690. [PMID: 28456476 PMCID: PMC6091863 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent reports of ammonia released during cannabis smoking raise concerns about putative neurotoxic effects. Cannabis (54mg) was administered in a double-blind, placebo-controlled design to healthy cannabis users (n=15) either orally, or through smoking (6.9%THC cigarette) or inhalation of vaporized cannabis (Volcano®). Serial assay of plasma ammonia concentrations at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 30, and 90min from onset of cannabis administration showed significant time (P=0.016), and treatment (P=0.0004) effects with robust differences between placebo and edible at 30 (P=0.002), and 90min (P=0.007) and between placebo and vaporized (P=0.02) and smoking routes (P=0.01) at 90min. Furthermore, plasma ammonia positively correlated with blood THC concentrations (P=0.03). To test the hypothesis that this delayed increase in plasma ammonia originates from the brain we administered THC (3 and 10mg/kg) to mice and measured plasma, liver, and brain ammonia concentrations at 1, 3, 5 and 30min post-injection. Administration of THC to mice did not cause significant change in plasma ammonia concentrations within the first 5min, but significantly reduced striatal glutamine-synthetase (GS) activity (P=0.046) and increased striatal ammonia concentration (P=0.016). Furthermore, plasma THC correlated positively with striatal ammonia concentration (P<0.001) and negatively with striatal GS activity (P=0.030). At 30min, we found marked increase in striatal ammonia (P<0.0001) associated with significant increase in plasma ammonia (P=0.042) concentration. In conclusion, the results of these studies demonstrate that cannabis intake caused time and route-dependent increases in plasma ammonia concentrations in human cannabis users and reduced brain GS activity and increased brain and plasma ammonia concentrations in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Osama A Abulseoud
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Maria Laura Zuccoli
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit, University of Genoa, Italy
| | - Lifeng Zhang
- Neural Engineering Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Allan Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Da-Ting Lin
- Neural Engineering Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
McCann UD, Lowe KA, Ricaurte GA. REVIEW ■ : Long-lasting Effects of Recreational Drugs of Abuse on the Central Nervous System. Neuroscientist 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/107385849700300613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although a wealth of knowledge exists regarding the acute pharmacological effects of recreational drugs on the CNS, much less is known about the long-term toxic effects of recreational drugs on the CNS. Recent findings in nonhuman primates treated with amphetamine analogs, such as ±3,4-methylenedioxymetham phetamine (MDMA), indicate that these drugs can produce long-lasting, probably permanent, changes in brain serotonin innervation. Similarly, animals treated with phencyclidine (PCP) and related drugs develop neurodegenerative changes in selected brain regions. It seems clear, then, that some psychoactive drugs have the potential to produce persistent changes in CNS structure and, possibly, function. The goal of this article is to summarize current knowledge regarding the long-term effects of several popular recreational drugs, including MDMA and related amphetamine analogs, cocaine, marijuana, alcohol, PCP, lysergic acid (LSD), and opiates. Gaps in the current knowledge base are identified, and areas ripe for future research efforts are suggested. NEUROSCIENTIST 3:399-411, 1997
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Una D. McCann
- Biological Psychiatry Branch NIMH-IRP Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kelly A. Lowe
- Department of Neurology Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
Baltimore, Maryland
| | - George A. Ricaurte
- Department of Neurology Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
Baltimore, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lorenzetti V, Solowij N, Yücel M. The Role of Cannabinoids in Neuroanatomic Alterations in Cannabis Users. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79:e17-31. [PMID: 26858212 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The past few decades have seen a marked change in the composition of commonly smoked cannabis. These changes primarily involve an increase of the psychoactive compound ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and a decrease of the potentially therapeutic compound cannabidiol (CBD). This altered composition of cannabis may be linked to persistent neuroanatomic alterations typically seen in regular cannabis users. In this review, we summarize recent findings from human structural neuroimaging investigations. We examine whether neuroanatomic alterations are 1) consistently observed in samples of regular cannabis users, particularly in cannabinoid receptor-high areas, which are vulnerable to the effects of high circulating levels of THC, and 2) associated either with greater levels of cannabis use (e.g., higher dosage, longer duration, and earlier age of onset) or with distinct cannabinoid compounds (i.e., THC and CBD). Across the 31 studies selected for inclusion in this review, neuroanatomic alterations emerged across regions that are high in cannabinoid receptors (i.e., hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum). Greater dose and earlier age of onset were associated with these alterations. Preliminary evidence shows that THC exacerbates, whereas CBD protects from, such harmful effects. Methodologic differences in the quantification of levels of cannabis use prevent accurate assessment of cannabis exposure and direct comparison of findings across studies. Consequently, the field lacks large "consortium-style" data sets that can be used to develop reliable neurobiological models of cannabis-related harm, recovery, and protection. To move the field forward, we encourage a coordinated approach and suggest the urgent development of consensus-based guidelines to accurately and comprehensively quantify cannabis use and exposure in human studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Lorenzetti
- Brain and Mental Health Laboratory, Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne
| | - Nadia Solowij
- School of Psychology, Centre for Health Initiatives and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Brain and Mental Health Laboratory, Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lubman DI, Cheetham A, Yücel M. Cannabis and adolescent brain development. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 148:1-16. [PMID: 25460036 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Heavy cannabis use has been frequently associated with increased rates of mental illness and cognitive impairment, particularly amongst adolescent users. However, the neurobiological processes that underlie these associations are still not well understood. In this review, we discuss the findings of studies examining the acute and chronic effects of cannabis use on the brain, with a particular focus on the impact of commencing use during adolescence. Accumulating evidence from both animal and human studies suggests that regular heavy use during this period is associated with more severe and persistent negative outcomes than use during adulthood, suggesting that the adolescent brain may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of cannabis exposure. As the endocannabinoid system plays an important role in brain development, it is plausible that prolonged use during adolescence results in a disruption in the normative neuromaturational processes that occur during this period. We identify synaptic pruning and white matter development as two processes that may be adversely impacted by cannabis exposure during adolescence. Potentially, alterations in these processes may underlie the cognitive and emotional deficits that have been associated with regular use commencing during adolescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan I Lubman
- Turning Point, Eastern Health and Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Ali Cheetham
- Turning Point, Eastern Health and Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Victoria, Australia; Monash Clinical & Imaging Neuroscience, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lorenzetti V, Lubman DI, Whittle S, Solowij N, Yücel M. Structural MRI findings in long-term cannabis users: what do we know? Subst Use Misuse 2010; 45:1787-808. [PMID: 20590400 DOI: 10.3109/10826084.2010.482443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In animal studies, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has been found to affect brain morphology, particularly within areas rich in cannabinoid receptors (e.g., hippocampus, cerebral cortex). While cannabis remains the most widely used illicit drug worldwide, there has been limited work investigating its effects on human brain tissue. In this paper, we conducted a systematic review of existing structural magnetic resonance imaging studies to examine whether cannabis use is associated with significant changes in brain anatomy. We identified only 13 structural neuroimaging studies, which were diverse in terms of sample characteristics (e.g., age of participants, duration and frequency of use) and methodology (e.g., image analysis). No study found global structural changes in cannabis users, although six studies reported regional alterations. While changes in the hippocampus and parahippocampus were frequently identified, the findings were inconsistent across studies. The available literature also provides some evidence that regional structural changes are associated with cannabis use patterns (particularly cumulative dosage and frequency of use), as well as measures of psychopathology (e.g., measures of depressive and psychotic symptoms). Together, these structural imaging findings suggest that THC exposure does affect brain morphology, especially in medial-temporal regions. Given the small literature available and the limitations of studies to date, further research is clearly required, particularly given the prevalence of cannabis use worldwide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Lorenzetti
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Victoria, Australia
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Medina KL, Hanson KL, Schweinsburg AD, Cohen-Zion M, Nagel BJ, Tapert SF. Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent marijuana users: subtle deficits detectable after a month of abstinence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2007; 13:807-20. [PMID: 17697412 PMCID: PMC2269704 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617707071032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2006] [Revised: 03/13/2007] [Accepted: 03/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In adults, studies examining the long-lasting cognitive effects of marijuana use demonstrate subtle deficits in attention, executive function, and memory. Because neuromaturation continues through adolescence, these results cannot necessarily generalize to adolescent marijuana users. The goal of this study was to examine neuropsychological functioning in abstinent marijuana using and demographically similar control adolescents. Data were collected from 65 adolescent marijuana users (n=31, 26% females) and controls (n=34, 26% females) 16-18 years of age. Extensive exclusionary criteria included independent psychiatric, medical, and neurologic disorders. Neuropsychological assessments were conducted after>23 days of monitored abstinence. After controlling for lifetime alcohol use and depressive symptoms, adolescent marijuana users demonstrated slower psychomotor speed (p<.05), and poorer complex attention (p<.04), story memory (p<.04), and planning and sequencing ability (p<.001) compared with controls. Post hoc analysis revealed that the number of lifetime marijuana use episodes was associated with poorer cognitive function, even after controlling for lifetime alcohol use. The general pattern of results suggested that, even after a month of monitored abstinence, adolescent marijuana users demonstrate subtle neuropsychological deficits compared with nonusers. It is possible that frequent marijuana use during adolescence may negatively influence neuromaturation and cognitive development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krista Lisdahl Medina
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, and Psychology Department, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California 92161, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Matochik JA, Eldreth DA, Cadet JL, Bolla KI. Altered brain tissue composition in heavy marijuana users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005; 77:23-30. [PMID: 15607838 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2004] [Revised: 06/25/2004] [Accepted: 06/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana is the most widely used illicit substance in the United States; however, previous imaging studies have not detected altered brain structure in marijuana users compared to non-users. Voxel-based morphometry was used to investigate possible differences in brain tissue composition in a group of 11 heavy marijuana users and a group of 8 non-users. All participants were male. Statistical comparisons were made at the voxel level on T1-weighted magnetic resonance images to determine differences in gray matter and white matter tissue density. Compared to non-users, marijuana users had lower gray matter density in a cluster of voxels in the right parahippocampal gyrus (P = 0.0001), and greater density bilaterally near the precentral gyrus and the right thalamus (P < 0.04). Marijuana users also had lower white matter density in the left parietal lobe (P = 0.03), and higher density around the parahippocampal and fusiform gyri on the left side compared to non-users (P < 0.002). Longer duration of marijuana use (in years) was significantly correlated with higher white matter tissue density in the left precentral gyrus (P = 0.045). Our preliminary results suggest evidence of possible structural differences in the brain of heavy marijuana users, and localize regions for further investigation of the effects of marijuana in the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Matochik
- Intramural Research Program, Neuroimaging Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH/DHHS, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224-6823, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
The active compound in herbal cannabis, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, exerts all of its known central effects through the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor. Research on cannabinoid mechanisms has been facilitated by the availability of selective antagonists acting at CB(1) receptors and the generation of CB(1) receptor knockout mice. Particularly important classes of neurons that express high levels of CB(1) receptors are GABAergic interneurons in hippocampus, amygdala and cerebral cortex, which also contain the neuropeptides cholecystokinin. Activation of CB(1) receptors leads to inhibition of the release of amino acid and monoamine neurotransmitters. The lipid derivatives anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol act as endogenous ligands for CB(1) receptors (endocannabinoids). They may act as retrograde synaptic mediators of the phenomena of depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition or excitation in hippocampus and cerebellum. Central effects of cannabinoids include disruption of psychomotor behaviour, short-term memory impairment, intoxication, stimulation of appetite, antinociceptive actions (particularly against pain of neuropathic origin) and anti-emetic effects. Although there are signs of mild cognitive impairment in chronic cannabis users there is little evidence that such impairments are irreversible, or that they are accompanied by drug-induced neuropathology. A proportion of regular users of cannabis develop tolerance and dependence on the drug. Some studies have linked chronic use of cannabis with an increased risk of psychiatric illness, but there is little evidence for any causal link. The potential medical applications of cannabis in the treatment of painful muscle spasms and other symptoms of multiple sclerosis are currently being tested in clinical trials. Medicines based on drugs that enhance the function of endocannabinoids may offer novel therapeutic approaches in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Iversen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Fujiwara M. [Characteristics of abnormal behavior induced by delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in rats]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2001; 117:35-41. [PMID: 11233294 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.117.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of the active compounds of marihuana, is known to induce drug dependence and tolerance, and its action is weaker than those of other abused drugs in humans and animals. Acute effects of THC, "high", "irritable" and "cognitive deficits" are more important than the drug dependence and tolerance. For this reason, we examined characteristics of abnormal behavior such as catalepsy-like immobilization, aggressive behavior including irritable aggression and muricide, and spatial cognition impairment induced by acute and chronic treatments of THC in rats. The catalepsy-like immobilization is related to a decrease in catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the nucleus accumbens and amygdaloid nucleus and thus serves as a useful model for amotivational syndrome, one of cannabis psychoses. In aggressive behavior, muricide was determined by the housing condition. Muricide was induced if the rat was placed under an isolated housing condition within the period of the effect of single injection of THC. The behavioral change resembles exacerbation and flashback in humans. Spatial cognition is impaired by the interaction between cannabinoid (CB1) and 5-HT2 receptor in the dorsal raphe-hippocampal serotonergic neurons. Thus the abnormal behavior induced by THC can be a useful model for investigating mental function in humans and new drugs for the treatment of mental disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Fujiwara
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Jounan-ku, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of the paper is to review the effects of Cannabis sativa on the human brain. METHOD A selective literature review was undertaken. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS Cannabis sativa causes an acute and, with regular heavy ingestion, a subacute encephalopathy. There is no evidence of irreversible cerebral damage resulting from its use, although impairment of information processing might be a long-term consequence of heavy prolonged use. The precise relationship of cannabis to the functional psychoses such as schizophrenia has yet to be clarified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D J Castle
- Mills Street Clinical Research Unit, Bentley, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
Several laboratories have reported that chronic exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) or marijuana extracts persistently altered the structure and function of the rat hippocampus, a paleocortical brain region involved with learning and memory processes in both rats and humans. Certain choices must be made in designing experiments to evaluate cannabis neurotoxicity, such as dose, route of administration, duration of exposure, age at onset of exposure, species of subjects, whether or how long to allow withdrawal, and which endpoints or biomarkers of neurotoxicity to measure. A review of the literature suggests that both age during exposure and duration of exposure may be critical determinants of neurotoxicity. Cannabinoid administration for at least three months (8-10% of a rat's lifespan) was required to produce neurotoxic effects in peripubertal rodents, which would be comparable to about three years exposure in rhesus monkeys and seven to ten years in humans. Studies of monkeys after up to 12 months of daily exposure have not consistently reported neurotoxicity, and the results of longer exposures have not yet been studied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A C Scallet
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Landfield PW, Cadwallader LB, Vinsant S. Quantitative changes in hippocampal structure following long-term exposure to delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: possible mediation by glucocorticoid systems. Brain Res 1988; 443:47-62. [PMID: 2834017 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(88)91597-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Although cannabinoids exert strong effects on brain function, there have been no extensive analyses of the long-term effects of cannabinoids on mammalian brain structure. Consequently, we conducted quantitative light and electron microscopic studies on the brains of rats treated chronically with delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (5 X weekly for 8 months--approximately 30% of the life-span). In these studies, we found significant THC-induced changes in hippocampal structure: specifically, THC-treated animals exhibited decreased neuronal density and increased glial cell reactivity (i.e. an increase of cytoplasmic inclusions). In addition, we confirmed prior reports of THC-induced increases in adrenal-pituitary activity, since both adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone were elevated substantially during an acute stress. However, the animals appeared to be only minimally affected behaviorally by the doses used (highest dose: 8 mg/kg) and no effects of THC were observed on several ultrastructural variables, including synaptic density. The observed hippocampal morphometric effects of chronic THC are similar to apparent glucocorticoid-dependent changes that previously have been found to develop in rat hippocampus during normal aging. Given that cannabinoids and steroids are similar in chemical structure in several respects, therefore, the present results seem to raise the possibility that chronic THC exposure may alter hippocampal anatomical structure by interactions with, or mimicry of, adrenal steroid activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P W Landfield
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Bowman Gray School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27103
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Meyers WA, Heath RG. Cannabis sativa: ultrastructural changes in organelles of neurons in brain septal region of monkeys. J Neurosci Res 1979; 4:9-17. [PMID: 106134 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.490040103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ultrastructural studies of layer V pyramidal neurons of the septal region of rhesus monkeys exposed to smoke of active marihuana and of those exposed to intravenous delta-9-THC revealed low volume density and various degrees of fragmentation and disorganization of rough endoplasmic reticulum. In contrast, no changes were observed in these neurons of the septal region of control monkeys (unexposed monkeys and one monkey exposed to smoke of inactive marihuana). There were no significant differences in volume density of mitochondria or golgi apparatus between exposed animals and controls.
Collapse
|
16
|
Heath RG, Fitzjarrell AT, Garey RE, Myers WA. Chronic marihuana smoking: its effect on function and structure of the primate brain. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:713-30. [PMID: 116884 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50058-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
17
|
Fehr KO, Kalant H, Knox GV. Residual effects of high-dose cannabis treatment on learning, muricidal behavior and neurophysiological correlates in rats. ADVANCES IN THE BIOSCIENCES 1978; 22-23:681-91. [PMID: 574472 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-08-023759-6.50056-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|