Mycotoxins - prevention and decontamination by yeasts

Effective microorganism combinations improve the quality of compost-bedded pack products in heifer barns: exploring pack bacteria-fungi interaction mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Compost-bedded pack barns (CBP) are getting huge attention as an alternative housing system for dairy cows due to their beneficial impact on animal welfare. Effective microorganisms (EM) inoculums are believed to enhance compost quality, improve soil structure and benefit the environment. However, little information is available on the impact of incubation with external EM combinations on the barn environment, compost quality and microbial diversity in CBP. This experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of inoculating different combinations of EM [Lactobacillus plantarum (L), Compound Bacillus (B) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S)] on compost quality and microbial communities of CBP products, as well as the relationship with the heifers' barn environment. CBP barns were subjected to the following four treatments: CON with no EM inoculum, LB/LS/LBS were Incubated with weight ratios of 1:2 (L: B), 1:2 (L: S), 1:1:1 (L: B: S), respectively.

RESULTS

The EM inoculation (LB, LS, LBS) reduced the concentration of respirable particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in the CBP, and decreased the serum total protein and total cholesterol levels in heifers. Notably, LBS achieved the highest content of high-density lipoprotein compared to other treatments. Microbiome results revealed that EM inoculation reduced the bacterial abundance (Chao1 index) and fungal diversity (Shannon & Simpson indexes), while increasing the relative abundance of various bacterial genera (Pseudomonas, Paracoccus, Aequorivita) and fungi (Pestalotiopsis), which are associated with cellulose decomposition that ultimately resulted in accelerating organic matter degradation and humification. Furthermore, high nutrient elements (TK&TP) and low mycotoxin content were obtained with EM inoculation, with LBS showing a particularly pronounced effect. Meanwhile, LBS contributed to a decline in the proportion of fungal pathogen categories but also led to an increase in fungal saprotroph categories.

CONCLUSION

Generally, EM inoculation positively impacted compost product quality as organic fertilizer and barn environment by modifying the abundance of cellulolytic bacteria and fungi, while inhibiting the reproduction of pathogenic microbes, especially co-supplementing with L, B and S achieved an amplifying effect.

Biocontrol of Occurrence Ochratoxin A in Wine: A Review

Viticulture has been an important economic sector for centuries. In recent decades, global wine production has fluctuated between 250 and almost 300 million hectoliters, and in 2022, the value of wine exports reached EUR 37.6 billion. Climate change and the associated higher temperatures could favor the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine. OTA is a mycotoxin produced by some species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium and has nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic effects on animals and humans. The presence of this toxin in wine is related to the type of wine-red wines are more frequently contaminated with OTA-and the geographical location of the vineyard. In Europe, the lower the latitude, the greater the risk of OTA contamination in wine. However, climate change could increase the risk of OTA contamination in wine in other regions. Due to their toxic effects, the development of effective and environmentally friendly methods to prevent, decontaminate, and degrade OTA is essential. This review summarises the available research on biological aspects of OTA prevention, removal, and degradation.

Yeasts volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as potential growth enhancers and molds biocontrol agents of mushrooms mycelia

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by yeasts can positively affect crops, acting as antifungals or biostimulants. In this study, Aureobasidium pullulans and Metschnikowia pulcherrima were evaluated as potential antagonists of Trichoderma spp., common fungal pathogen in mushroom cultivation. To assess the biocontrol ability and biostimulant properties of the selected yeast species, in vitro co-culture and VOCs exposure assays were conducted. In both assays, VOCs produced by Aureobasidium spp. showed the stronger antifungal activity with a growth inhibition up to 30 %. This result was further confirmed by the higher volatilome alcohol content revealed by solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME/GC-MS). Overall, Aureobasidium strains can be potentially used as biocontrol agent in Pleorotus ostreatus and Cyclocybe cylindracea mycelial growth, without affecting their development as demonstrated by VOCs exposure assay and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Conversely, M. pulcherrima was characterized by a lower or absent antifungal properties and by a volatilome composition rich in isobutyl acetate, an ester often recognized as plant growth promoter. As confirmed by FT-IR, Lentinula mycelia exposed to M. pulcherrima VOCs showed a higher content of proteins and lipids, suggesting an improvement of some biochemical properties. Our study emphasizes that VOCs produced by specific yeast strains are potentially powerful alternative to synthetic fungicide in the vegetative growth of mushroom-forming fungi and also able to modify their biochemical composition.

Deoxynivalenol Detoxification by a Novel Strain of Pichia kudriavzevii via Enzymatic Degradation and Cell Wall Adsorption

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that significantly threatens the food and feed industry. Corn steep liquor (CSL) is an acidic byproduct of the corn starch industry, and DON is concentrated in CSL once the material is contaminated. In this work, a Pichia kudriavzevii strain that could remove DON from CSL was isolated and characterized. The strain P. kudriavzevii E4-205 showed detoxifying activity in a pH range of 4.0~7.0 and temperature of 25~42 °C, and 39.4% DON was reduced by incubating this strain in CSL supernatant diluted by 2-fold (5 μg/mL DON) for 48 h at pH 5.0 and 30 °C. Further mechanism studies showed that P. kudriavzevii E4-205 could adsorb DON by the cell wall and degrade DON by intracellular enzymes with NADH as a cofactor. The degradation product was identified as 3,7,8,15-tetrahydroxyscirpene by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. DON adsorption by inactivated cells was characterized, and the adsorption followed pseudo first-order kinetics. This study revealed a novel mechanism by which microbes degrade DON and might serve as a guide for the development of DON biological detoxification methods.

Bioprotective yeasts: Potential to limit postharvest spoilage and to extend shelf life or improve microbial safety of processed foods

Yeasts are a widespread group of microorganisms that are receiving increasing attention from scientists and industry. Their diverse biological activities and broad-spectrum antifungal activity make them promising candidates for application, especially in postharvest biocontrol of fruits and vegetables and food biopreservation. The present review focuses on recent knowledge of the mechanisms by which yeasts inhibit pathogenic fungi and/or spoilage fungi and bacteria. The main mechanisms of action of bioprotective yeasts include competition for nutrients and space, synthesis and secretion of antibacterial compounds, mycoparasitism and the secretion of lytic enzymes, biofilm formation, quorum sensing, induced systemic resistance of fruit host, as well as the production of reactive oxygen species. Preadaptation of yeasts to abiotic stresses such as cold acclimatization and sublethal oxidative stress can improve the effectiveness of antagonistic yeasts and thus more effectively play biocontrol roles under a wider range of environmental conditions, thereby reducing economic losses. Combined application with other antimicrobial substances can effectively improve the efficacy of yeasts as biocontrol agents. Yeasts show great potential as substitute for chemical additives in various food fields, but their commercialization is still limited. Hence, additional investigation is required to explore the prospective advancements of yeasts in the field of biopreservation for food.

Biopreservative and Anti-Mycotoxigenic Potentials of Lactobacillus paracasei MG847589 and Its Bacteriocin in Soft White Cheese

Probiotics and their bacteriocins have increasingly attracted interest for their use as safe food preservatives. This study aimed to produce soft white cheese fortified with Lacticaseibacillus MG847589 (Lb. paracasei MG847589) and/or its bacteriocin; cheese with Lacticaseibacillus (CP), cheese with bacteriocin (CB), and cheese with both Lacticaseibacillus and bacteriocin (CPB) were compared to control cheese (CS) to evaluate their biopreservative and anti-mycotoxigenic potentials for prolonged shelf life and safe food applications. The effects of these fortifications on physiochemical, microbial, texture, microstructure, and sensory properties were studied. Fortification with Lacticaseibacillus (CP) increased acidity (0.61%) and microbial counts, which may make the microstructure porous, while CPB showed intact microstructure. The CPB showed the highest hardness value (3988.03 g), while the lowest was observed with CB (2525.73 g). Consequently, the sensory assessment reflected the panelists' preference for CPB, which gained higher scores than the control (CS). Fortification with Lb. paracasei MG847589 and bacteriocin (CPB) showed inhibition effects against S. aureus from 6.52 log10 CFU/g at time zero to 2.10 log10 CFU/g at the end of storage, A. parasiticus (from 5.06 to 3.03 log10 CFU/g), and P. chrysogenum counts (from 5.11 to 2.86 log10 CFU/g). Additionally, CPB showed an anti-mycotoxigenic effect against aflatoxins AFB1 and AFM1, causing them to be decreased (69.63 ± 0.44% and 71.38 ± 0.75%, respectively). These potentials can extend shelf life and pave the way for more suggested food applications of safe food production by fortification with both Lb. paracasei MG847589 and its bacteriocin as biopreservatives and anti-mycotoxigenic.

Detoxification of Selenium Yeast on Mycotoxins and Heavy Metals: a Review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific fungi. More than 400 different mycotoxins are known in the world, and the concentration of these toxins in food and feed often exceeds the acceptable limit, thus causing serious harm to animals and human body. At the same time, modern industrial agriculture will also bring a lot of environmental pollution in the development process, including the increase of heavy metal content, and often the clinical symptoms of low/medium level chronic heavy metal poisoning are not obvious, thus delaying the best treatment opportunity. However, the traditional ways of detoxification cannot completely eliminate the adverse effects of these toxins on the body, and sometimes bring some side effects, so it is essential to find a new type of safe antidote. Trace element selenium is among the essential mineral nutrient elements of human and animal bodies, which can effectively remove excessive free radicals and reactive oxygen species in the body, and has the effects of antioxidant, resisting stress, and improving body immunity. Selenium is common in nature in inorganic selenium and organic selenium. In previous studies, it was found that the use of inorganic selenium (sodium selenite) can play a certain protective role against mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning. However, while it plays the role of antioxidant, it will also have adverse effects on the body. Therefore, it was found in the latest study that selenium yeast could not only replace the protective effect of sodium selenite on mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning, but also improve the immunity of the body. Selenium yeast is an organic selenium source with high activity and low toxicity, which is produced by selenium relying on the cell protein structure of growing yeast. It not only has high absorption rate, but also can be stored in the body after meeting the physiological needs of the body for selenium, so as to avoid selenium deficiency again in the short term. However, few of these studies can clearly reveal the protective mechanism of yeast selenium. In this paper, the detoxification mechanism of selenium yeast on mycotoxins and heavy metal poisoning was reviewed, which provided some theoretical support for further understanding of the biological function of selenium yeast and its replacement for inorganic selenium. The conclusions suggest that selenium yeast can effectively alleviate the oxidative damage by regulating different signaling pathways, improving the activity of antioxidant enzymes, reversing the content of inflammatory factors, regulating the protein expression of apoptosis-related genes, and reducing the accumulation of mycotoxins and heavy metals in the body.

Removal of Aflatoxin B1 Using Alfalfa Leaves as an Adsorbent Material: A Comparison between Two In Vitro Experimental Models

An adsorbent material derived from alfalfa leaves was prepared and further characterized, and its efficacy for removing aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was investigated. Characterization consisted of the use of attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), point of zero charge (pHpzc), zeta potential (ζ-potential), UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and spectral analysis. To determine the adsorption capacity against AFB1 (250 ng AFB1/mL), pH-dependent and avian intestinal in vitro models were used. The adsorbent inclusion percentage was 0.5% (w/w). In general, the pH-dependent model gave adsorption percentages of 98.2%, 99.9%, and 98.2%, evaluated at pH values of 2, 5, and 7, respectively. However, when the avian intestinal model was used, it was observed that the adsorption percentage of AFB1 significantly decreased (88.8%). Based on the characterization results, it is proposed that electrostatic, non-electrostatic, and the formation of chlorophyll-AFB1 complexes were the main mechanisms for AFB1 adsorption. From these results, it can be concluded that the adsorbent derived from alfalfa leaves could be used as an effective material for removing AFB1 in in vitro digestion models that mimic the physiological reality.

Yeasts as sustainable biocontrol agents against ochratoxigenic Aspergillus species and in vitro optimization of ochratoxin A detoxification

AIMS

The aims of this study were to evaluate the potential of Hanseniaspora opuntiae, Meyerozyma caribbica, and Kluyveromyces marxianus for in vitro biocontrol of Aspergillus ochraceus, A. westerdijkiae, and A. carbonarius growth, the ochratoxin A (OTA) effect on yeast growth, and yeast in vitro OTA detoxification ability using an experimental design to predict the combined effects of inoculum size, incubation time, and OTA concentration.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Predictive models were developed using an incomplete Box-Behnken experimental design to predict the combined effects of inoculum size, incubation time, and OTA concentration on OTA detoxification by the yeasts. The yeasts were able to inhibit fungal growth from 13% to 86%. Kluyveromyces marxianus was the most efficient in inhibiting the three Aspergillus species. Furthermore, high OTA levels (100 ng ml-1) did not affect yeast growth over 72 h incubation. The models showed that the maximum OTA detoxification under optimum conditions was 86.8% (H. opuntiae), 79.3% (M. caribbica), and 73.7% (K. marxianus), with no significant difference (P > 0.05) between the values predicted and the results obtained experimentally.

CONCLUSION

The yeasts showed potential for biocontrol of ochratoxigenic fungi and OTA detoxification, and the models developed are important tools for predicting the best conditions for the application of these yeasts as detoxification agents.

Mycotoxin Contamination Status of Cereals in China and Potential Microbial Decontamination Methods

The presence of mycotoxins in cereals can pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. China is one of the countries that is facing cereal contamination by mycotoxins. Treating mycotoxin-contaminated cereals with established physical and chemical methods can lead to negative effects, such as the loss of nutrients, chemical residues, and high energy consumption. Therefore, microbial detoxification techniques are being considered for reducing and treating mycotoxins in cereals. This paper reviews the contamination of aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A in major cereals (rice, wheat, and maize). Our discussion is based on 8700 samples from 30 provincial areas in China between 2005 and 2021. Previous research suggests that the temperature and humidity in the highly contaminated Chinese cereal-growing regions match the growth conditions of potential antagonists. Therefore, this review takes biological detoxification as the starting point and summarizes the methods of microbial detoxification, microbial active substance detoxification, and other microbial inhibition methods for treating contaminated cereals. Furthermore, their respective mechanisms are systematically analyzed, and a series of strategies for combining the above methods with the treatment of contaminated cereals in China are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide a reference for subsequent solutions to cereal contamination problems and for the development of safer and more efficient methods of biological detoxification.

Probiotic cultures as a potential protective strategy against the toxicity of environmentally relevant chemicals: State-of-the-art knowledge

Environmentally relevant toxic substances may affect human health, provoking numerous harmful effects on central nervous, respiratory, cardiovascular, endocrine and reproductive system, and even cause various types of carcinoma. These substances, to which general population is constantly and simultaneously exposed, enter human body via food and water, but also by inhalation and dermal contact, while accumulating evidence suggests that probiotic cultures are able to efficiently adsorb and/or degrade them. Cell wall of probiotic bacteria/fungi, which contains structures such as exopolysaccharide, teichoic acid, protein and peptidoglycan components, is considered the main place of toxic substances adsorption. Moreover, probiotics are able to induce metabolism and degradation of various toxic substances, making them less toxic and more suitable for elimination. Other probable in vivo protective effects have also been suggested, including decreased intestinal absorption and increased excretion of toxic substances, prevented gut microbial dysbiosis, increase in the intestinal mucus secretion, decreased production of reactive oxygen species, reduction of inflammation, etc. Having all of this in mind, this review aims to summarize the state-of-the-art knowledge regarding the potential protective effects of different probiotic strains against environmentally relevant toxic substances (mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, phthalates, bisphenol A and toxic metals).

Non-saccharomyces yeast probiotics: revealing relevance and potential

Non-Saccharomyces yeasts are unicellular eukaryotes that play important roles in diverse ecological niches. In recent decades, their physiological and morphological properties have been reevaluated and reassessed, demonstrating the enormous potential they possess in various fields of application. Non-Saccharomyces yeasts have gained relevance as probiotics, and in vitro and in vivo assays are very promising and offer a research niche with novel applications within the functional food and nutraceutical industry. Several beneficial effects have been described, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and gastrointestinal modulation and regulation functions. In addition, several positive effects of bioactive compounds or production of specific enzymes have been reported on physical, mental and neurodegenerative diseases as well as on the organoleptic properties of the final product. Other points to highlight are the multiomics as a tool to enhance characteristics of interest within the industry; as well as microencapsulation offer a wide field of study that opens the niche of food matrices as carriers of probiotics; in turn, non-Saccharomyces yeasts offer an interesting alternative as microencapsulating cells of various compounds of interest.

An updated overview of anticancer effects of alternariol and its derivatives: underlying molecular mechanisms

Alternariol is a toxic metabolite of Alternaria fungi and studies have shown multiple potential pharmacological effects. To outline the anticancer effects and mechanisms of alternariol and its derivatives based on database reports, an updated search of PubMed/MedLine, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus databases was performed with relevant keywords for published articles. The studies found to suggest that this mycotoxin and/or its derivatives have potential anticancer effects in many pharmacological preclinical test systems. Scientific reports indicate that alternariol and/or its derivatives exhibit anticancer through several pathways, including cytotoxic, reactive oxygen species leading to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction-linked cytotoxic effect, anti-inflammatory, cell cycle arrest, apoptotic cell death, genotoxic and mutagenic, anti-proliferative, autophagy, and estrogenic and clastogenic mechanisms. In light of these results, alternariol may be one of the hopeful chemotherapeutic agents.

Ecology and functional potential of phyllosphere yeasts

The phyllosphere (i.e., the aerial parts of plants) harbors a rich microbial life, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and yeasts. Current knowledge of yeasts stems primarily from industrial and medical research on Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans, both of which can be found on plant tissues. For most other yeasts found in the phyllosphere, little is known about their ecology and functions. Here, we explore the diversity, dynamics, interactions, and genomics of yeasts associated with plant leaves and how tools and approaches developed for model yeasts can be adopted to disentangle the ecology and natural functions of phyllosphere yeasts. A first genomic survey exemplifies that we have only scratched the surface of the largely unexplored functional potential of phyllosphere yeasts.

Transcriptome analysis reveals gene expression changes of the basidiomycetous yeast Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans in response to ochratoxin A exposure

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most common and deleterious mycotoxins found in food and feedstuffs worldwide; however, Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans can detoxify OTA. Our results show that A. mycotoxinivorans GUM1709 efficiently degraded OTA, but it caused the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. The main aim of this study was to identify potential OTA-detoxifying enzymes and to explore the effects of OTA on A. mycotoxinivorans GMU1709. RNA-seq data revealed that 1643 and 1980 genes were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively, after OTA exposure. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that OTA exposure enhanced defense capability, protein transport, endocytosis, and energy metabolism; caused ribosomal stress; suppressed DNA replication and transcription; inhibited cell growth and division; and promoted cell death. The integration of secretome, gene expression, and molecular docking analyses revealed that two carboxypeptidase homologues (members of the metallocarboxypeptidase family) were most likely responsible for the detoxification of both extracellular and intracellular OTA. Superoxide dismutase and catalase were the main genes activated in response to oxidative stress. In addition, analysis of key genes associated with cell division and apoptosis showed that OTA exposure inhibited mitosis and promoted cell death. This study revealed the possible OTA response and detoxification mechanisms in A. mycotoxinivorans.

An integrated systems-level model of ochratoxin A toxicity in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo based on NMR metabolic profiling

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most widespread mycotoxin contaminants of agricultural crops. Despite being associated with a range of adverse health effects, a comprehensive systems-level mechanistic understanding of the toxicity of OTA remains elusive. In the present study, metabolic profiling by high-resolution magic angle spinning (HRMAS) NMR, coupled to intact zebrafish embryos, was employed to identify metabolic pathways in relation to a systems-level model of OTA toxicity. Embryotoxicity was observed at sub-micromolar exposure concentrations of OTA. Localization of OTA, based on intrinsic fluorescence, as well as a co-localization of increased reactive oxygen species production, was observed in the liver kidney, brain and intestine of embryos. Moreover, HRMAS NMR showed significant alteration of metabolites related to targeting of the liver (i.e., hepatotoxicity), and pathways associated with detoxification and oxidative stress, and mitochondrial energy metabolism. Based on metabolic profiles, and complementary assays, an integrated model of OTA toxicity is, thus, proposed. Our model suggests that OTA hepatotoxicity compromises detoxification and antioxidant pathways, leading to mitochondrial membrane dysfunction manifested by crosstalk between pathways of energy metabolism. Interestingly, our data additionally aligns with a possible role of mitochondrial fusion as a "passive mechanism" to rescue mitochondrial integrity during OTA toxicity.

Reduction of the Fusarium Mycotoxins: Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol and Zearalenone by Selected Non-Conventional Yeast Strains in Wheat Grains and Bread

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, are important contaminants in food and agricultural industries around the world. These toxins have a multidirectional toxic effect on living organisms, causing damage to the kidneys and liver, and disrupting the functions of the digestive tract and the immune system. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the biological control of pathogens and the mycotoxins they produce. In this study, selected yeasts were used to reduce the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and zearalenone (ZEA) produced by Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, and F. poae on wheat grain and bread. In a laboratory experiment, an effective reduction in the content of DON, NIV, and ZEA was observed in bread prepared by baking with the addition of an inoculum of the test yeast, ranging from 16.4% to 33.4%, 18.5% to 36.2% and 14.3% to 35.4%, respectively. These results indicate that the selected yeast isolates can be used in practice as efficient mycotoxin decontamination agents in the food industry.

Evaluation of the Role of Probiotics As a New Strategy to Eliminate Microbial Toxins: a Review

Probiotics are living microorganisms that have favorable effects on human and animal health. The most usual types of microorganisms recruited as probiotics are lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria. To date, numerous utilizations of probiotics have been reported. In this paper, it is suggested that probiotic bacteria can be recruited to remove and degrade different types of toxins such as mycotoxins and algal toxins that damage host tissues and the immune system causing local and systemic infections. These microorganisms can remove toxins by disrupting, changing the permeability of the plasma membrane, producing metabolites, inhibiting the protein translation, hindering the binding to GTP binding proteins to GM1 receptors, or by preventing the interaction between toxins and adhesions. Here, we intend to review the mechanisms that probiotic bacteria use to eliminate and degrade microbial toxins.

Discovering the Influence of Microorganisms on Wine Color

Flavor, composition and quality of wine are influenced by microorganisms present on the grapevine surface which are transferred to the must during vinification. The microbiota is highly variable with a prevalence of non-Saccharomyces yeasts, whereas Saccharomyces cerevisiae is present at low number. For wine production an essential step is the fermentation carried out by different starter cultures of S. cerevisiae alone or in mixed fermentation with non-Saccharomyces species that produce wines with significant differences in chemical composition. During vinification wine color can be influenced by yeasts interacting with anthocyanin. Yeasts can influence wine phenolic composition in different manners: direct interactions—cell wall adsorption or enzyme activities—and/or indirectly—production of primary and secondary metabolites and fermentation products. Some of these characteristics are heritable trait in yeast and/or can be strain dependent. For this reason, the stability, aroma, and color of wines depend on strain/strains used during must fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae or non-Saccharomyces can produce metabolites reacting with anthocyanins and favor the formation of vitisin A and B type pyranoanthocyanins, contributing to color stability. In addition, yeasts affect the intensity and tonality of wine color by the action of β-glycosidase on anthocyanins or anthocyanidase enzymes or by the pigments adsorption on the yeast cell wall. These activities are strain dependent and are characterized by a great inter-species variability. Therefore, they should be considered a target for yeast strain selection and considered during the development of tailored mixed fermentations to improve wine production. In addition, some lactic acid bacteria seem to influence the color of red wines affecting anthocyanins’ profile. In fact, the increase of the pH or the ability to degrade pyruvic acid and acetaldehyde, as well as anthocyanin adsorption by bacterial cells are responsible for color loss during malolactic fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria show different adsorption capacity probably because of the variable composition of the cell walls. The aim of this review is to offer a critical overview of the roles played by wine microorganisms in the definition of intensity and tonality of wines’ color.

Diversity of Mycobiota in Spanish Grape Berries and Selection of Hanseniaspora uvarum U1 to Prevent Mycotoxin Contamination

The occurrence of mycotoxins on grapes poses a high risk for food safety; thus, it is necessary to implement effective prevention methods. In this work, a metagenomic approach revealed the presence of important mycotoxigenic fungi in grape berries, including Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger aggregate species, or Aspergillus section Circumdati. However, A. carbonarius was not detected in any sample. One of the samples was not contaminated by any mycotoxigenic species, and, therefore, it was selected for the isolation of potential biocontrol agents. In this context, Hanseniaspora uvarum U1 was selected for biocontrol in vitro assays. The results showed that this yeast is able to reduce the growth rate of the main ochratoxigenic and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. occurring on grapes. Moreover, H. uvarum U1 seems to be an effective detoxifying agent for aflatoxin B₁ and ochratoxin A, probably mediated by the mechanisms of adsorption to the cell wall and other active mechanisms. Therefore, H. uvarum U1 should be considered in an integrated approach to preventing AFB₁ and OTA in grapes due to its potential as a biocontrol and detoxifying agent.

Mitigation of AFB1-Related Toxic Damage to the Intestinal Epithelium in Broiler Chickens Consumed a Yeast Cell Wall Fraction

In vivo experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a yeast cell wall fraction (YCW) to reduce the negative impact of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) to the intestinal epithelium in broiler chickens. Zeta potential (ζ-potential), point of zero charge (pH_pzc), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques were used to characterize the YCW. Two hundred one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chickens were randomly allocated into four treatments: (1) control, chickens fed an AFB₁-free diet; (2) AF, chickens feed an AFB₁-contaminated diet (500 ng AFB₁/g); (3) YCW, chickens fed an AFB₁-free diet + 0.05% YCW; and (4) AF + YCW, chickens fed an AFB₁-contaminated diet (500 ng AFB₁/g) + 0.05% YCW. At the end of the 21-day feeding period, fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-d) was administered to chicks by oral gavage to evaluate gastrointestinal leakage. Blood and duodenum samples were collected to assess serum biochemistry and histomorphology, respectively. Compared to the control group, chicks of the AF group significantly diminished weight gain (WG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI), and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR), mortality rate (MR), and intestinal lesion scores (p < 0.05). Alterations in some serum biochemical parameters, and damage to the intestinal integrity were also evident in the AF-intoxicated birds. YCW supplementation improved WG and FCR and increased villus height, villus area, crypt depth, and the number of goblet cells in villi. The effects of YCW on growth performance were not significant in chicks of the AF + YCW group; however, the treatment decreased MR and significantly ameliorated some biochemical and histomorphological alterations. The beneficial effect of YCW was more evident in promoting gut health since chickens of the AF + YCW group presented a significant reduction in serum FITC-d concentration. This positive effect was mainly related to the changes in negative charges of YCW due to changes in pH, the net negative surface charge above the pH_pzc, the higher quantities of negative charged functional groups on the YCW surface, and its ability to form large aggregates. From these results, it can be concluded that YCW at low supplementation level can partially protect broilers' intestinal health from chronic exposure to AFB₁.

Magnetic-Propelled Janus Yeast Cell Robots Functionalized with Metal-Organic Frameworks for Mycotoxin Decontamination

Cell robots that transform natural cells into active platforms hold great potential to enrich the biomedical prospects of artificial microrobots. Here, we present Janus yeast cell microrobots (JYC-robots) prepared by asymmetrically coating Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) and subsequent in situ growth of zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 (ZIF-67) on the surface of yeast cells. The magnetic actuation relies on the Fe₃O₄ NPs wrapping. As the compositions of cell robots, the cell wall with abundant polysaccharide coupling with porous and oxidative ZIF-67 can concurrently remove mycotoxin (e.g., zearalenone (ZEN)). The magnetic propulsion accelerates the decontamination efficiency of JYC-robots against ZEN. Although yeast cells with fully coating of Fe₃O₄ NPs and ZIF-67 (FC-yeasts) show faster movement than JYC-robots, higher toxin-removal efficacy is observed for JYC-robots compared with that of FC-yeasts, reflecting the vital factor of the yeast cell wall in removing mycotoxin. Such design with Janus modification of magnetic NPs (MNPs) and entire coating of ZIF-67 generates active cell robot platform capable of fuel-free propulsion and enhanced detoxification, offering a new formation to develop cell-based robotics system for environmental remediation.

Aflatoxin in Dairy Cows: Toxicity, Occurrence in Feedstuffs and Milk and Dietary Mitigation Strategies

Aflatoxins are poisonous carcinogens produced by fungi, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins can contaminate a variety of livestock feeds and cause enormous economic losses, estimated at between US$52.1 and US$1.68 billion annually for the U.S. corn industry alone. In addition, aflatoxin can be transferred from the diet to the milk of cows as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), posing a significant human health hazard. In dairy cows, sheep and goats, chronic exposure to dietary aflatoxin can reduce milk production, impair reproduction and liver function, compromise immune function, and increase susceptibility to diseases; hence, strategies to lower aflatoxin contamination of feeds and to prevent or reduce the transfer of the toxin to milk are required for safeguarding animal and human health and improving the safety of dairy products and profitability of the dairy industry. This article provides an overview of the toxicity of aflatoxin to ruminant livestock, its occurrence in livestock feeds, and the effectiveness of different strategies for preventing and mitigating aflatoxin contamination of feeds.

Possibilities for the Biological Control of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed

Seeking useful biological agents for mycotoxin detoxification has achieved success in the last twenty years thanks to the participation of many multidisciplinary teams. We have recently witnessed discoveries in the fields of bacterial genetics (inclusive of next-generation sequencing), protein encoding, and bioinformatics that have helped to shape the latest perception of how microorganisms/mycotoxins/environmental factors intertwine and interact, so the road is opened for new breakthroughs. Analysis of literature data related to the biological control of mycotoxins indicates the ability of yeast, bacteria, fungi and enzymes to degrade or adsorb mycotoxins, which increases the safety and quality of susceptible crops, animal feed and, ultimately, food of animal origin (milk, meat and eggs) by preventing the presence of residues. Microbial detoxification (transformation and adsorption) is becoming a trustworthy strategy that leaves no or less toxic compounds and contributes to food security. This review summarizes the data and highlights the importance and prospects of these methods.

Effect of Debaryomyces hansenii and the antifungal PgAFP protein on Alternaria spp. growth, toxin production, and RHO1 gene expression in a tomato-based medium

Tomato fruit is susceptible to Alternaria spp. spoilage, which poses a health risk due to their mycotoxin production. Biopreservation relies on the use of whole microorganisms or their metabolites to manage spoilage microorganisms including filamentous fungi. However, the use of treatments at fungistatic level might activate intracellular pathways, which can cause an increment in mycotoxin accumulation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of two strains of Debaryomyces hansenii and the antifungal protein PgAFP at 10 and 40 μg/mL. Both growth and production of two of the most common mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid and alternariol monomethyl ether) by Alternaria tenuissima sp.-grp. and Alternaria arborescens sp.-grp. on a tomato-based matrix, were analysed at 12 °C. Additionally, the impact of these biocontrol agents on the stress-related RHO1 gene expression was assessed. All treatments reduced mycotoxin accumulation (from 27 to 92% of inhibition). Their mode of action against Alternaria spp. in tomato seems unrelated to damages to fungal cell wall integrity at the genomic level. Therefore, the two D. hansenii strains (CECT 10352 and CECT 10353) and the antifungal protein PgAFP at 10 μg/mL are suggested as biocontrol strategies in tomato fruit at postharvest stage.

Efficacy of commercial products on nursery pig growth performance fed diets with fumonisin contaminated corn

Two experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of various commercial products on growth performance of nursery pigs fed diets high in fumonisin. In experiment 1, 350 pigs (241 × 600; DNA, Columbus, NE; initially 9.9 kg) were used with five pigs per pen and 14 replicates per treatment. After weaning, pigs were fed common diets for 21 d before the experiment started. The five dietary treatments consisted of a positive control (low fumonisin), a negative control (60 mg/kg of fumonisin B1 + B2 in complete diet), and the negative control with one of three products (0.3% of Kallsil Dry, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA; 0.3% of Feed Aid Wide Spectrum, NutriQuest, Mason City, IA; 0.17% of Biofix Select Pro, Biomin America Inc., Overland Park, KS). Diets were fed in mash form for 14 d and followed with a low fumonisin diet for 13 d. For the 14-d treatment period, pigs fed the positive control diet and Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) compared to those fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. Serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratios (SA:SO) were greater (P < 0.05) in all pigs fed high fumonisin diets compared to the positive control. In experiment 2, 300 pigs (241 × 600; DNA; initially 10.4 kg) were used. Procedures were similar to experiment 1 except there were 12 replicate pens per treatment, high fumonisin diets contained 30 mg/kg fumonisin, and experimental diets were fed for 28 d. Similar to experiment 1, pigs fed the positive control diet and treatment with Biofix Select Pro had greater (P < 0.05) ADG and G:F, and lower (P < 0.05) serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed the high fumonisin negative control, or high fumonisin diets with Kallsil Dry or Feed Aid Wide Spectrum. In summary, pigs fed diets containing 60 mg/kg of fumonisin for 14 d or 30 mg/kg of fumonisin for 28 d had poorer ADG and G:F and greater serum SA:SO compared to pigs fed a diet with less than 5 mg/kg of fumonisin. Adding Biofix Select Pro to diets appeared to mitigate the negative effects of high fumonisin concentrations, while Kallsil Dry and Feed Aid Wide Spectrum did not.

Identification of degradation products of aflatoxin B1 and B2 resulting after their biodetoxification by aqueous extracts of Acacia nilotica

Contamination of food and feed items with mycotoxins causes extensive economic damage. It is therefore important to explore environmentally friendly approaches to manage these toxins with less drawbacks. Phytochemicals can provide a safe alternative to synthetic chemicals. This study was designed to investigate the detoxification potential of water-based extracts of Acacia nilotica against aflatoxins B1 and B2. First trials were carried out to standardise temperature, pH and incubation time for biodetoxification in spiked maize. A significant percentage of detoxification was observed under all tested conditions, showing an increasing detoxifying potential with an increase in all three parameters. Leaf extract was found to be more effective than shoot extract. Leaf extract resulted in 86-90% detoxification of both aflatoxin B1 and B2 when incubated for 72 h at 60 °C and pH 10. To avoid the detrimental effects of very high temperature and pH, experiments on spiked maize were conducted at 30 °C and pH 8. A significant detoxification of 82-83% was recorded during trials with spiked maize. MS/MS analyses showed conversion of aflatoxins B1 into seven and aflatoxins B2 into two new compounds. Most of the compounds were formed due to the removal of the double bond in the terminal furan ring and modification of the lactone group, indicating less toxicity as compared to the parent compounds. Decontamination and reduction in toxicity of treated aflatoxins was corroborated by a brine shrimps bioassay.

Study of the bioremediatory capacity of wild yeasts

Microbial detoxification has been proposed as a new alternative for removing toxins and pollutants. In this study, the biodetoxification activities of yeasts against aflatoxin B₁ and zinc were evaluated by HPLC and voltammetric techniques. The strains with the best activity were also subjected to complementary assays, namely biocontrol capability and heavy-metal resistance. The results indicate that the detoxification capability is toxin- and strain-dependent and is not directly related to cell growth. Therefore, we can assume that there are some other mechanisms involved in the process, which must be studied in the future. Only 33 of the 213 strains studied were capable of removing over 50% of aflatoxin B₁, Rhodotrorula mucilaginosa being the best-performing species detected. As for zinc, there were 39 strains that eliminated over 50% of the heavy metal, with Diutina rugosa showing the best results. Complementary experiments were carried out on the strains with the best detoxification activity. Biocontrol tests against mycotoxigenic moulds showed that almost 50% of strains had an inhibitory effect on growth. Additionally, 53% of the strains grew in the presence of 100 mg/L of zinc. It has been proven that yeasts can be useful tools for biodetoxification, although further experiments must be carried out in order to ascertain the mechanisms involved.

Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts and Organic Wines Fermentation: Implications on Human Health

A relevant trend in winemaking is to reduce the use of chemical compounds in both the vineyard and winery. In organic productions, synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms must be avoided, aiming to achieve the production of a “safer wine”. Safety represents a big threat all over the world, being one of the most important goals to be achieved in both Western society and developing countries. An occurrence in wine safety results in the recovery of a broad variety of harmful compounds for human health such as amines, carbamate, and mycotoxins. The perceived increase in sensory complexity and superiority of successful uninoculated wine fermentations, as well as a thrust from consumers looking for a more “natural” or “organic” wine, produced with fewer additives, and perceived health attributes has led to more investigations into the use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in winemaking, namely in organic wines. However, the use of copper and sulfur-based molecules as an alternative to chemical pesticides, in organic vineyards, seems to affect the composition of grape microbiota; high copper residues can be present in grape must and wine. This review aims to provide an overview of organic wine safety, when using indigenous and/or non-Saccharomyces yeasts to perform fermentation, with a special focus on some metabolites of microbial origin, namely, ochratoxin A (OTA) and other mycotoxins, biogenic amines (BAs), and ethyl carbamate (EC). These health hazards present an increased awareness of the effects on health and well-being by wine consumers, who also enjoy wines where terroir is perceived and is a characteristic of a given geographical area. In this regard, vineyard yeast biota, namely non-Saccharomyces wine-yeasts, can strongly contribute to the uniqueness of the wines derived from each specific region.

Effect of Supplemental Kluyveromyces marxianus and Pichia kudriavzevii on Aflatoxin M1 Excretion in Milk of Lactating Dairy Cows

Simple Summary

A recent survey determining the occurrence of mycotoxins showed that almost all feedstuffs fed to dairy cattle contained aflatoxin, predominantly B₁ type. The present study illustrated the potential application of aflatoxin-detoxifying yeast isolated from ruminal fluid of dairy cows to enhance the aflatoxin B₁ detoxification in the rumen, to reduce the aflatoxin M₁ contamination in milk and to improve dairy cattle performances. The inclusion of 2 g/day yeast into total mixed ration (TMR) diet reduced the transfer of aflatoxin B₁ to aflatoxin M₁ in raw milk by 72.08% and negative effects of aflatoxin B₁ on dry matter intake (DMI) and milk compositions. Aflatoxin-detoxifying yeast isolates could potentially be developed for use as a feed additive to reduce aflatoxin contamination in milk and dairy products.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of supplementing Kluyveromyces marxianus CPY1, K. marxianus RSY5 and Pichia kudriavzevii YSY2 isolated from ruminal fluid of dairy cows on transfer of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) from feed into aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in milk, DMI, milk production and nutrient digestibility. Four multiparous Holsteins in mid-lactation were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design trial consisting of 14 days in each experimental period for sample collection. Between each period, 14 clearance days prior to the next treatment were allowed to minimize carryover effects. In each treatment, subsequent supplementation of isolated yeast was compared, i.e., (1) control (without yeast supplementation), (2) K. marxianus CPY1 (K1Y), (3) K. marxianus RSY5 (K2Y) and (4) P. kudriavzevii YSY2 (PY). All diets contained 22.28 µg of AFB₁/kg. Treatments were individually fed at the rate of 2 g/day (1 × 10⁹ CFU/g) of yeast biomass or corn meal in the control group. Concentrations of AFM₁ in milk was reduced with yeast and averaged 1.54, 0.36, 0.43 and 0.51 µg/L for control, K1Y, K2Y and PY, respectively (p < 0.01). The transfer of AFB₁ from feed into AFM₁ in milk was higher in control compared with K1Y, K2Y and PY (7.26% vs. 1.18%, 1.44% and 1.69% respectively, p < 0.01). Supplementation of yeast also improved DMI and milk compositions, but no differences were observed in nutrient digestibility or milk yield among treatments. Concentration and yield of milk protein, fat, lactose, solid-not-fat (SNF) and total solids were greater in cows fed yeast compared with the control (p < 0.01). These results indicate that K. marxianus CPY1, RSY5 and P. kudriavzevii YSY2 shows promise as a dietary supplementation to detoxify AFB₁ and improve DMI and yield of milk components.

Human Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Blood, Plasma and Serum in Recent Years: A Review

This manuscript reviews the state-of-the-art regarding human biological monitoring (HBM) of mycotoxins in plasma serum and blood samples. After a comprehensive and systematic literature review, with a focus on the last five years, several aspects were analyzed and summarized: a) the biomarkers analyzed and their encountered levels, b) the analytical methodologies developed and c) the relationship between biomarker levels and some illnesses. In the literature reviewed, aflatoxin B1-lysine (AFB1-lys) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in plasma and serum were the most widely studied mycotoxin biomarkers for HBM. Regarding analytical methodologies, a clear increase in the development of methods for the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins has been observed. For this purpose, the use of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, especially when coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), has grown. A high percentage of the samples analyzed for OTA or aflatoxin B1 (mostly as AFB1-lys) in the reviewed papers were positive, demonstrating human exposure to mycotoxins. This review confirms the importance of mycotoxin human biomonitoring and highlights the important challenges that should be faced, such as the inclusion of other mycotoxins in HBM programs, the need to increase knowledge of mycotoxin metabolism and toxicokinetics, and the need for reference materials and new methodologies for treating samples. In addition, guidelines are required for analytical method validation, as well as equations to establish the relationship between human fluid levels and mycotoxin intake.

Selenium Yeast Alleviates Ochratoxin A-Induced Apoptosis and Oxidative Stress via Modulation of the PI3K/AKT and Nrf2/Keap1 Signaling Pathways in the Kidneys of Chickens

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect and mechanism of yeast selenium (Se-Y) on ochratoxin- (OTA-) induced nephrotoxicity of chickens. A total of 80 one-day-old healthy chickens were randomly divided into 4 equal groups: control, OTA (50 μg/kg OTA), Se-Y (0.4 mg/kg Se-Y), and OTA+Se-Y (50 μg/kg OTA+0.4 mg/kg Se-Y). In the OTA chickens, differences in body weight, kidney coefficient, biochemical histological analysis, antioxidant capability, and the expression levels of the PI3K/AKT and Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway-related genes were observed. The levels of total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (T-GSH) significantly decreased, but the malondialdehyde (MDA) level of the kidneys significantly increased in the OTA treatment group. More importantly, treatment with Se-Y improved the antioxidant enzyme activities within the kidneys of chickens exposed to OTA. In addition, administration of OTA resulted in apoptosis and was associated with decreased expression of AKT, PI3K, and Bcl-2, which in turn enhanced expression of Caspase3, Bax, and P53. However, Se-Y improved the antioxidant defense system through activation of the Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway. Gene expression of Nrf2 and its target genes (HO-1, GSH-px, GLRX2, MnSOD, and CAT) was downregulated following OTA exposure. Conversely, Se-Y treatment resulted in a significant upregulation of the same genes. Besides, significant downregulations of protein expression of HO-1, CAT, MnSOD, Nrf2, and Bcl-2 and a significant upregulation of Caspase3 and Bax levels were observed after contaminated with OTA. Notably, OTA-induced apoptosis and oxidative damage in the kidney of chickens were reverted back to normal level in the OTA+Se-Y group. Taken together, the data suggest that Se-Y alleviates OTA-induced nephrotoxicity in chickens, possibly through the activation of the PI3K/AKT and Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathways.

The Aspergilli and Their Mycotoxins: Metabolic Interactions With Plants and the Soil Biota

Species of the highly diverse fungal genus Aspergillus are well-known agricultural pests, and, most importantly, producers of various mycotoxins threatening food safety worldwide. Mycotoxins are studied predominantly from the perspectives of human and livestock health. Meanwhile, their roles are far less known in nature. However, to understand the factors behind mycotoxin production, the roles of the toxins of Aspergilli must be understood from a complex ecological perspective, taking mold-plant, mold-microbe, and mold-animal interactions into account. The Aspergilli may switch between saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles, and the production of secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins, may vary according to these fungal ways of life. Recent studies highlighted the complex ecological network of soil microbiotas determining the niches that Aspergilli can fill in. Interactions with the soil microbiota and soil macro-organisms determine the role of secondary metabolite production to a great extent. While, upon infection of plants, metabolic communication including fungal secondary metabolites like aflatoxins, gliotoxin, patulin, cyclopiazonic acid, and ochratoxin, influences the fate of both the invader and the host. In this review, the role of mycotoxin producing Aspergillus species and their interactions in the ecosystem are discussed. We intend to highlight the complexity of the roles of the main toxic secondary metabolites as well as their fate in natural environments and agriculture, a field that still has important knowledge gaps.

Toxicological and Medical Aspects of Aspergillus-Derived Mycotoxins Entering the Feed and Food Chain

Due to Earth's changing climate, the ongoing and foreseeable spreading of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species has increased the possibility of mycotoxin contamination in the feed and food production chain. These harmful mycotoxins have aroused serious health and economic problems since their first appearance. The most potent Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, gliotoxin, fumonisins, sterigmatocystin, and patulin. Some of them can be found in dairy products, mainly in milk and cheese, as well as in fresh and especially in dried fruits and vegetables, in nut products, typically in groundnuts, in oil seeds, in coffee beans, in different grain products, like rice, wheat, barley, rye, and frequently in maize and, furthermore, even in the liver of livestock fed by mycotoxin-contaminated forage. Though the mycotoxins present in the feed and food chain are well documented, the human physiological effects of mycotoxin exposure are not yet fully understood. It is known that mycotoxins have nephrotoxic, genotoxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, and cytotoxic properties and, as a consequence, these toxins may cause liver carcinomas, renal dysfunctions, and also immunosuppressed states. The deleterious physiological effects of mycotoxins on humans are still a first-priority question. In food production and also in the case of acute and chronic poisoning, there are possibilities to set suitable food safety measures into operation to minimize the effects of mycotoxin contaminations. On the other hand, preventive actions are always better, due to the multivariate nature of mycotoxin exposures. In this review, the occurrence and toxicological features of major Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins are summarized and, furthermore, the possibilities of treatments in the medical practice to heal the deleterious consequences of acute and/or chronic exposures are presented.

Adverse Effects, Transformation and Channeling of Aflatoxins Into Food Raw Materials in Livestock

Aflatoxins are wide-spread harmful carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species, which cause serious feed and food contaminations and affect farm animals deleteriously with acute or chronic manifestations of mycotoxicoses. On farm, both pre-harvest and post-harvest strategies are applied to minimize the risk of aflatoxin contaminations in feeds. The great economic losses attributable to mycotoxin contaminations have initiated a plethora of research projects to develop new, effective technologies to prevent the highly toxic effects of these secondary metabolites on domestic animals and also to block the carry-over of these mycotoxins to humans through the food chain. Among other areas, this review summarizes the latest findings on the effects of silage production technologies and silage microbiota on aflatoxins, and it also discusses the current applications of probiotic organisms and microbial products in feeding technologies. After ingesting contaminated foodstuffs, aflatoxins are metabolized and biotransformed differently in various animals depending on their inherent and acquired physiological properties. These mycotoxins may cause primary aflatoxicoses with versatile, species-specific adverse effects, which are also dependent on the susceptibility of individual animals within a species, and will be a function of the dose and duration of aflatoxin exposures. The transfer of these undesired compounds from contaminated feed into food of animal origin and the aflatoxin residues present in foods become an additional risk to human health, leading to secondary aflatoxicoses. Considering the biological transformation of aflatoxins in livestock, this review summarizes (i) the metabolism of aflatoxins in different animal species, (ii) the deleterious effects of the mycotoxins and their derivatives on the animals, and (iii) the major risks to animal health in terms of the symptoms and consequences of acute or chronic aflatoxicoses, animal welfare and productivity. Furthermore, we traced the transformation and channeling of Aspergillus-derived mycotoxins into food raw materials, particularly in the case of aflatoxin contaminated milk, which represents the major route of human exposure among animal-derived foods. The early and reliable detection of aflatoxins in feed, forage and primary commodities is an increasingly important issue and, therefore, the newly developed, easy-to-use qualitative and quantitative aflatoxin analytical methods are also summarized in the review.

Investigation and Application of Bacillus licheniformis Volatile Compounds for the Biological Control of Toxigenic Aspergillus and Penicillium spp

The present study was designed to investigate the antagonistic activity of Bacillus licheniformis BL350-2 against mycotoxigenic strains of Aspergillus and Penicillium. In vitro coincubation for 5 days indicated Aspergillus westerdijkiae BA1 as the most sensitive strain, with a growth inhibition of 62%, followed by A. carbonarius MG7 (60%), Penicillium verrucosum MC12 (53%), A. niger MC05 (50%), A. flavus CM5 (49%), A. parasiticus SB01 (47%), and A. ochraceus MD1 (44%). Likewise, the majority of the tested strains on exposure to bacterial volatiles showed complete inhibition of mycotoxin synthesis. In vivo assays on maize ears resulted in 88% reduction in A. flavus CM5 growth and complete inhibition of fungal sporulation and aflatoxin accumulation. The GC-MS-based volatile profile showed 3-methyl-1-butanol as the most abundant compound. The findings of the present study advocate that B. licheniformis BL350-2 is suitable as a biocontrol agent against mycotoxigenic fungi, at least during storage of cereal grains.

The Influence of Steeping Water Change during Malting on the Multi-Toxin Content in Malt

The aim of this study was to assess the impact of steeping water change and Fusarium graminearum contamination level on different multi-toxin types and concentrations in barley malt. Malt samples were subjected to two micromalting regimes-steeping water change and the other with no steeping water change. Malt was contaminated with different F. graminearum contamination levels (0%, 10%, and 20%). The results indicate that malt with higher F. graminearum contamination levels ensured higher concentrations of toxins. Higher fungal metabolite concentrations were determined in samples exposed to freshly-changed steeping water, especially zearalenone and its derivates whose values were three to four times higher than in samples with no water change. Zearalenone-4-sulfate showed four (in 10% contamination) and even thirty times (in 20% contamination) higher concentrations than in samples with no water change. Water change during malting resulted in higher levels of multi-toxins in the final product.

Fusarium culmorum mycotoxin transfer from wheat to malting and brewing products and by-products

The objectives of this study were to establish the impact of Fusarium culmorum infection and fungicide treatment on the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, nivalenol, fusarenon-X, diacetoxyscirpenol and zearalenone in wheat, wheat malt and wort (beer). The concentrations of these compounds were also measured in the germ/rootlets, spent grains and spent yeast because these are the most important by-products and are further used as food or feed additives. Two wheat genotypes were obtained from the Agricultural Institute in Osijek, Croatia. The Osk.110/09 genotype, the genotype more susceptible to Fusarium infections, and Lucija, the genotype less susceptible to Fusarium, were analysed in this research. Each genotype was treated in four different ways at the field: (A) control, (B) treated with fungicide Prosaro® 250, (C) inoculated with F. culmorum spores and treated with fungicide Prosaro® 250, and (D) inoculated with F. culmorum spores. All samples were malted and brewed according to standard procedures, products and by-products were analysed for the mycotoxins by using LC-MS/MS. Since the majority of trichothecenes are polar molecules, the water after steeping was also analysed with LC-MS/MS. Mycotoxin concentrations were lower in malt samples treated with the fungicide. Elevated mycotoxin concentrations were observed in samples of both genotypes exposed to F. culmorum. Fungicide treatment was observed to suppress mycotoxin production and accumulation. However, samples with notably high mycotoxin concentrations, especially DON, retained elevated mycotoxin concentrations throughout the entire beer production process, even after a six-month storage period. DON proved to be the most frequently occurring mycotoxin in all of the by-products. The highest concentration of this compound was found in the steeping water from sample D (Osk.110/09), at 20,326 μg/l, leaving the spent grains of this sample with no detectable levels of DON.

Effect of Compound Probiotics and Mycotoxin Degradation Enzymes on Alleviating Cytotoxicity of Swine Jejunal Epithelial Cells Induced by Aflatoxin B₁ and Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEA) and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) are two main kinds of mycotoxins widely existing in grain and animal feed that cause a lot of economic loss and health problems for animals and humans. In order to alleviate the cytotoxic effects of AFB₁ and ZEA on swine jejunal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2), the combination of a cell-free supernatant of compound probiotics (CFSCP) with mycotoxin degradation enzymes (MDEs) from Aspergillus oryzae was tested. The results demonstrated that coexistence of AFB₁ and ZEA had synergetic toxic effects on cell viability. The cell viability was decreased with mycotoxin concentrations increasing, but increased with incubation time extension. The necrotic cell rates were increased when 40 µg/L AFB₁ and/or 500 µg/L ZEA were added, but the addition of CFSCP + MDE suppressed the necrotic effects of AFB₁ + ZEA. The viable cell rates were decreased when AFB₁ and/or ZEA were added: However, the addition of CFSCP + MDE recovered them. The relative mRNA abundances of Bcl-2, occludin, and ZO-1 genes were significantly upregulated, while Bax, caspase-3, GLUT2, ASCT2, PepT1, and IL6 genes were significantly downregulated by CFSCP + MDE addition, compared to the groups containing 40 µg/L AFB₁ and 500 µg/L ZEA. This research provided an effective strategy in alleviating mycotoxin cytotoxicity and keeping normal intestinal cell structure and animal health.

Fumonisins and their analogues in contaminated corn and its processed foods - a review

One of the food security problems faced worldwide is the occurrence of mycotoxins in grains and their foods. Fumonisins (FBs) are mycotoxins which are prevalent in corn (Zea mays L.) and its based foods. Their intake and exposure have been epidemiologically and inconclusively associated with oesophageal cancer and neural tube defects in humans, and other harmful health effects in animals. The toxic effects of FBs can be acute or chronic and these metabolites bioaccumulate mainly in liver and kidney tissues. Among FBs, fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most relevant moiety although the 'hidden' forms produced after food thermal processes are becoming relevant. Corn is the grain most susceptible to Fusarium and FBs contamination and the mould growth is affected both by abiotic and biotic factors during grain maturation and storage. Mould counts are mainly affected by the grain water activity, the environmental temperature during grain maturation and insect damage. The abiotic factors affected by climatic change patterns have increased their incidence in other regions of the world. Among FBs, the hidden forms are the most difficult to detect and quantify. Single or combined physical, chemical and biological methods are emerging to significantly reduce FBs in processed foods and therefore diminish their toxicological effects.

The Multiple and Versatile Roles of Aureobasidium pullulans in the Vitivinicultural Sector

The saprophytic yeast-like fungus Aureobasidium pullulans has been well documented for over 60 years in the microbiological literature. It is ubiquitous in distribution, being found in a variety of environments (plant surfaces, soil, water, rock surfaces and manmade surfaces), and with a worldwide distribution from cold to warm climates and wet/humid regions to arid ones. Isolates and strains of A. pullulans produce a wide range of natural products well documented in the international literature and which have been regarded as safe for biotechnological and environmental applications. Showing antagonistic activity against plant pathogens (especially post-harvest pathogens) is one of the major applications currently in agriculture of the fungus, with nutrient and space competition, production of volatile organic compounds, and production of hydrolytic enzymes and antimicrobial compounds (antibacterial and antifungal). The fungus also shows a positive role on mycotoxin biocontrol through various modes, with the most striking being that of binding and/or absorption. A. pullulans strains have been reported to produce very useful industrial enzymes, such as β-glucosidase, amylases, cellulases, lipases, proteases, xylanases and mannanases. Pullulan (poly-α-1,6-maltotriose biopolymer) is an A. pullulans trademark product with significant properties and biotechnological applications in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Poly (β-l-malic acid), or PMA, which is a natural biopolyester, and liamocins, a group of produced heavy oils and siderophores, are among other valuable compounds detected that are of possible biotechnological use. The fungus also shows a potential single-cell protein source capacity with high levels of nucleic acid components and essential amino acids, but this remains to be further explored. Last but not least, the fungus has shown very good biocontrol against aerial plant pathogens. All these properties are of major interest in the vitivinicultural sector and are thoroughly reviewed under this prism, concluding on the importance that A. pullulans may have if used at both vineyard and winery levels. This extensive array of properties provides excellent tools for the viticulturist/farmer as well as for the oenologist to combat problems in the field and create a high-quality wine.

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.