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Sutton AT, Rustandi RR. Determining the Oxidation Mechanism through Radical Intermediates in Polysorbates 80 and 20 by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:233. [PMID: 38399448 PMCID: PMC10892813 DOI: 10.3390/ph17020233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Polysorbates 20 and 80 (PS20 and PS80) are added to many commercial biologic and vaccine pharmaceuticals. It is commonly known that these polysorbates undergo a radical oxidation mechanism; however, the identity of these radical intermediates has not been clearly determined. Furthermore, PS20 and PS80 differ by the presence of a lauric acid instead of an oleic acid, respectively. The oxidation of PS80 is thought to be centered around the double bond of the oleic acid even though PS20 also undergoes oxidation, making the mechanism of oxidation unclear for PS20. Using commercial stocks of PS20 and PS80 alkyl (R•), alkoxyl (C-O•) and peroxyl (C-OO•) radicals were detected by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy likely originating from radical-initiating species already present in the material. When dissolved in water, the peroxyl radicals (C-OO•) originally in the stocks were not detected but poly(ethylene oxide) radicals were. An oxidative pathway for polysorbates was suggested based on the radical species identified in the polysorbate stock material and solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam T. Sutton
- Analytical Research & Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ 07065, USA;
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2
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Zelesky T, Baertschi SW, Foti C, Allain LR, Hostyn S, Franca JR, Li Y, Marden S, Mohan S, Ultramari M, Huang Z, Adams N, Campbell JM, Jansen PJ, Kotoni D, Laue C. Pharmaceutical Forced Degradation (Stress Testing) Endpoints: A Scientific Rationale and Industry Perspective. J Pharm Sci 2023; 112:2948-2964. [PMID: 37690775 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Forced degradation (i.e., stress testing) of small molecule drug substances and products is a critical part of the drug development process, providing insight into the intrinsic stability of a drug that is foundational to the development and validation of stability-indicating analytical methods. There is a lack of clarity in the scientific literature and regulatory guidance as to what constitutes an "appropriate" endpoint to a set of stress experiments. That is, there is no clear agreement regarding how to determine if a sample has been sufficiently stressed. Notably, it is unclear what represents a suitable justification for declaring a drug substance (DS) or drug product (DP) "stable" to a specific forced degradation condition. To address these concerns and to ensure all pharmaceutically-relevant, potential degradation pathways have been suitably evaluated, we introduce a two-endpoint classification designation supported by experimental data. These two endpoints are 1) a % total degradation target outcome (e.g., for "reactive" drugs) or, 2) a specified amount of stress, even in the absence of any degradation (e.g., for "stable" drugs). These recommended endpoints are based on a review of the scientific literature, regulatory guidance, and a forced degradation data set from ten global pharmaceutical companies. The experimental data set, derived from the Campbell et al. (2022) benchmarking study,1 provides justification for the recommendations. Herein we provide a single source reference for small molecule DS and DP forced degradation stress conditions and endpoint best practices to support regulatory submissions (e.g., marketing applications). Application of these forced degradation conditions and endpoints, as part of a well-designed, comprehensive and a sufficiently rigorous study plan that includes both the DS and DP, provides comprehensive coverage of pharmaceutically-relevant degradation and avoids unreasonably extreme stress conditions and drastic endpoint recommendations sometimes found in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Zelesky
- Analytical Research & Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA.
| | | | - Chris Foti
- Analytical Development and Operations, Gilead Sciences Inc., Foster City, California, USA.
| | | | - Steven Hostyn
- Predictive Analytics & Stability Sciences CoE, Janssen Pharmaceutica, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | | | - Yi Li
- Analytical Development and Operations, Gilead Sciences Inc., Foster City, California, USA
| | - Stacey Marden
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shikhar Mohan
- Analytical Development and Operations, Gilead Sciences Inc., Foster City, California, USA
| | - Mariah Ultramari
- Spektra Soluções Científico-Regulatórias Ltda, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zongyun Huang
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 1 Squibb Drive, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Neal Adams
- Pfizer, Scientific and Laboratory Services - Analytical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., 7000 Portage Road, Kalamazoo, MI 49001, USA
| | - John M Campbell
- Analytical Development, GSK, Upper Providence, PA 19426, USA
| | - Patrick J Jansen
- Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN 46285, USA
| | - Dorina Kotoni
- Chemical & Analytical Development, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Laue
- Chemical & Pharmaceutical Development, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
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3
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Iyer J, Karn A, Brunsteiner M, Ray A, Davis A, Saraf I, Paudel A. Screening Autoxidation Propensities of Drugs in the Solid-State Using PVP and in the Solution State Using N-Methyl Pyrrolidone. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030848. [PMID: 36986709 PMCID: PMC10058359 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative degradation of drugs is one of the major routes of drug substance and drug product instability. Among the diverse routes of oxidation, autoxidation is considered to be challenging to predict and control, potentially due to the multi-step mechanism involving free radicals. C–H bond dissociation energy (C–H BDE) is evidenced to be a calculated descriptor shown to predict drug autoxidation. While computational predictions for the autoxidation propensity of drugs are both swift and possible, no literature to date has highlighted the relationship between the computed C–H BDE and the experimentally-derived autoxidation propensities of solid drugs. The objective of this study is to investigate this missing relationship. The present work is an extension to the previously reported novel autoxidation approach that involves subjecting a physical mixture of pre-milled polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) K-60 and a crystalline drug under high temperature and pressurized oxygen setup. The drug degradation was measured using chromatographic methods. An improved trend between the extent of solid autoxidation and C–H BDE could be observed after normalizing the effective surface area of drugs in the crystalline state, pointing to a positive relationship. Additional studies were conducted by dissolving the drug in N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) and exposing the solution under a pressurized oxygen setup at diverse elevated temperatures. Chromatographic results of these samples indicated a similarity in the formed degradation products to the solid-state experiments pointing to the utility of NMP, a PVP monomer surrogate, as a stressing agent for faster and relevant autoxidation screening of drugs in formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayant Iyer
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Anjali Karn
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), 8010 Graz, Austria
| | | | - Andrew Ray
- New Modalities and Parenteral Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield SK10 2NA, UK
| | - Adrian Davis
- Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9NJ, UK
| | - Isha Saraf
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Amrit Paudel
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), 8010 Graz, Austria
- Institute of Process and Particle Engineering, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-316-873-30912
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Zheng X, Sutton AT, Yang RS, Miller DV, Pagels B, Rustandi RR, Welch J, Payne A, Haverick M. Extensive Characterization of Polysorbate 80 Oxidative Degradation Under Stainless Steel Conditions. J Pharm Sci 2023; 112:779-789. [PMID: 36252652 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Polysorbate-80 (PS-80) is a common surfactant used in biologics formulations. However, the tendency of oxidation to PS-80 when exposed to stainless steel surfaces brings various challenges during manufacturing processes, such as inconsistent shelf-life of PS-80 solutions, which can further impact the biologics and vaccines production. In this work, the root causes of PS-80 oxidation when in contact with stainless steel conditions were thoroughly investigated through the use of various complementary analytical techniques including U/HPLC-CAD, LC-MS, ICP-MS, peroxide assay, and EPR spectroscopy. The analytical tool kit used in this work successfully revealed a PS-80 degradation mechanism from the perspective of PS-80 content, PS-80 profile, iron content, peroxide production, and radical species. The combined datasets reveal that PS-80 oxidative degradation occurs in the presence of histidine and iron in addition to being combined with the hydroperoxides in PS-80 material. The oxidative pathway and potential degradants were identified by LC-MS. The PS-80 profile based on the U/HPLC-CAD assay provided an effective way to identify early-signs of PS-80 degradation. The results from a peroxide assay observed increased hydroperoxide along with PS-80 degradation. EPR spectra confirmed the presence of histidine-related radicals during PS-80 oxidation identifying how histidine is involved in the oxidation. All assays and findings introduced in this work will provide insight into how PS-80 oxidative degradation can be avoided, controlled, or detected. It will also provide valuable evaluations on techniques that can be used to identify PS-80 degradation related events that occur during the manufacturing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiwei Zheng
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA.
| | - Adam T Sutton
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA
| | - Rong-Sheng Yang
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA
| | | | - Becca Pagels
- Manufacturing Division, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA
| | | | - Jonathan Welch
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA
| | - Anne Payne
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA
| | - Mark Haverick
- Analytical Research Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA.
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Harmon P. Ranitidine: A Proposed Mechanistic Rationale for NDMA Formation and a Potential Control Strategy. J Pharm Sci 2022; 112:1220-1224. [PMID: 36384193 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in ranitidine hydrochloride drug substance (DS) and drug products has attracted considerable attention over the last few years. The drug structure is unusual in that it contains a vinyl nitro moiety. Although a variety of studies have been carried out to understand how NDMA is formed in the DS solids, a mechanistic description of NDMA formation has remained elusive. A new mechanistic view of NDMA formation is detailed here. Autoxidation of ranitidine can rationalize nitrite ion and dimethylamine liberation from ranitidine. The subsequent nitrosation is argued to be due to conversion of nitrite ion to the gas phase nitrosating agent nitrosyl chloride, NOCl. Oxygen scavenging packaging systems should be able to stop the autoxidation, and thus shut down the nitrite release from ranitidine. Without nitrite release NDMA cannot form. This may provide a practical means to stabilize ranitidine DS and solid dosage formulations against NDMA formation.
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6
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Biomimetic Radical Chemistry and Applications. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27072042. [PMID: 35408441 PMCID: PMC9000372 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27072042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Some of the most interesting aspects of free radical chemistry that emerged in the last two decades are radical enzyme mechanisms, cell signaling cascades, antioxidant activities, and free radical-induced damage of biomolecules. In addition, identification of modified biomolecules opened the way for the evaluation of in vivo damage through biomarkers. When studying free radical-based chemical mechanisms, it is very important to establish biomimetic models, which allow the experiments to be performed in a simplified environment, but suitably designed to be in strict connection with cellular conditions. The 28 papers (11 reviews and 17 articles) published in the two Special Issues of Molecules on "Biomimetic Radical Chemistry and Applications (2019 and 2021)" show a remarkable range of research in this area. The biomimetic approach is presented with new insights and reviews of the current knowledge in the field of radical-based processes relevant to health, such as biomolecular damages and repair, signaling and biomarkers, biotechnological applications, and novel synthetic approaches.
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7
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Gabrič A, Hodnik Ž, Pajk S. Oxidation of Drugs during Drug Product Development: Problems and Solutions. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020325. [PMID: 35214057 PMCID: PMC8876153 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidation is the second most common degradation pathway for pharmaceuticals, after hydrolysis. However, in contrast to hydrolysis, oxidation is mechanistically more complex and produces a wider range of degradation products; oxidation is thus harder to control. The propensity of a drug towards oxidation is established during forced degradation studies. However, a more realistic insight into degradation in the solid state can be achieved with accelerated studies of mixtures of drugs and excipients, as the excipients are the most common sources of impurities that have the potential to initiate oxidation of a solid drug product. Based on the results of these studies, critical parameters can be identified and appropriate measures can be taken to avoid the problems that oxidation poses to the quality of a drug product. This article reviews the most common types of oxidation mechanisms, possible sources of reactive oxygen species, and how to minimize the oxidation of a solid drug product based on a well-planned accelerated study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alen Gabrič
- Krka d.d., R&D, Šmarješka Cesta 6, 8001 Novo Mesto, Slovenia;
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Žiga Hodnik
- Krka d.d., R&D, Šmarješka Cesta 6, 8001 Novo Mesto, Slovenia;
- Correspondence: (Ž.H.); (S.P.)
| | - Stane Pajk
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva Cesta 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence: (Ž.H.); (S.P.)
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Yang Z, Mao X, Cui J, Wang Y, Zhang Y. Enhancement and analysis of Anthracene degradation by Tween 80 in LMS-HOBt. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13121. [PMID: 34162899 PMCID: PMC8222252 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90609-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examines the specific effect of Tween 80 on the conversion of anthracene (ANT) in laccase medium system regarding surfactant chemical changes and mechanism. The conversion rate and degradation products of ANT were investigated in different concentrations of Tween 80 solution. Between Tween 80 concentration 0-40 critical micelle concentrations (CMC), the kinetic parameter-k (h-1) and corresponding half-life T1/2 decreased with increasing concentration. When Tween 80 was above 20 CMC the laccase-medium system converted > 95% of ANT to anthraquinone within 12 h. During the entire enzymatic reaction, the laccase activity in the system increased with increasing Tween 80 concentration. Combined with GC/MS analysis of the product, it was speculated that hydrogens belonging to the ether-oxygen bond and carbon-carbon double bond α-CH of Tween 80, were removed by the laccase-media system, promoting its degradation. Additionally, enhanced activity caused by oxygen free radicals (ROS) such as RO• and ROO•, continuously oxidized Tween 80, which in turn produced free radicals while converting ANT. This study provides new theoretical support toward the application of surfactants in the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuoyi Yang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Xingchen Mao
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Jiahao Cui
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yujie Wang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yaping Zhang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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9
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Campbell JM, Foti C, Wang C, Adams N, Allain LR, Araujo G, Azevedo R, Franca JR, Hicks SR, Hostyn S, Jansen PJ, Kotoni D, Kuemmell A, Marden S, Rullo G, Santos ACO, Sluggett GW, Zelesky T, Baertschi SW. Assessing the Relevance of Solution Phase Stress Testing of Solid Dosage Form Drug Products: A Cross-Industry Benchmarking Study. J Pharm Sci 2021; 111:298-305. [PMID: 34111446 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Stress testing (also known as forced degradation) of pharmaceutical products has long been recognized as a critical part of the drug development process, providing foundational information related to intrinsic stability characteristics and to the development of stability-indicating analytical methods. A benchmarking study was undertaken by nine pharmaceutical companies and the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, or ANVISA) with a goal of understanding the utility of various stress testing conditions for producing pharmaceutically-relevant chemical degradation of drugs. Special consideration was given to determining whether solution phase stress testing of solid drug products produced degradation products that were both unique when compared to other stress conditions and relevant to the formal drug product stability data. The results from studies of 62 solid dosage form drug products were compiled. A total of 387 degradation products were reported as being observed in stress testing studies, along with 173 degradation products observed in accelerated and/or long-term stability studies for the 62 drug products. Among these, 25 of the stress testing degradation products were unique to the solution phase stress testing of the drug products; however, none of these unique degradation products were relevant to the formal stability data. The relevant degradation products were sufficiently accounted for by stress testing studies that included only drug substance stressing (in solution and in the solid state) and drug product stressing (in the solid state). Based on these results, it is the opinion of the authors that for solid dosage form drug products, well-designed stress testing studies need not include solution phase stress testing of the drug product in order to be comprehensive.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Campbell
- CMC Analytical, GlaxoSmithKline, Upper Providence, PA 19426, USA.
| | - Chris Foti
- Analytical Core Teams, Gilead Sciences Inc., Foster City, CA, USA.
| | - Chloe Wang
- Analytical Core Teams, Gilead Sciences Inc., Foster City, CA, USA
| | - Neal Adams
- Pfizer, Scientific and Laboratory Services - Analytical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Kalamazoo, MI 49001, USA
| | | | - Gabriela Araujo
- Global Technology & Engineering, Pfizer Inc., Itapevi, SP, Brazil
| | - Renan Azevedo
- Global Technology & Engineering, Pfizer Inc., Itapevi, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Simon R Hicks
- CMC Analytical, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Steven Hostyn
- Predictive Analytics & Stability Sciences CoE, Janssen Pharmaceutica, Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Patrick J Jansen
- Eli Lilly and Company, Synthetic Molecule Design and Development
| | - Dorina Kotoni
- Chemical & Analytical Development, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Kuemmell
- Analytical Research & Development, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stacey Marden
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gregory Rullo
- Global Regulatory Affairs, AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 20878
| | - Ana Cláudia O Santos
- Global Analytical Technology, Merck S.A., Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, an affiliate of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Gregory W Sluggett
- Analytical Research & Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
| | - Todd Zelesky
- Analytical Research & Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
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10
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Developability profile framework for lead candidate selection in topical dermatology. Int J Pharm 2021; 604:120750. [PMID: 34051321 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of molecules for topical dermatology has primarily relied on drug repurposing or on combination therapies, leading to an average of only one New Chemical Entity (NCE) approved per year by the FDA. Topical products offer benefits to patients by enabling localized treatment, while minimizing systemic exposure and the likelihood of adverse events. New therapies are further justified by the burden skin diseases cause on patients' quality of life. Notwithstanding the opportunities, the selection of a topical NCE presents challenges, primarily derived from a target product profile uncommon to oral drugs. Beyond a more stringent range of physicochemical properties, the molecule must display adequate solubility and chemical stability in topical-relevant excipients; must effectively cross the stratum corneum, considerably less permeable than the intestinal epithelium, and elicit a local therapeutic response; and must enable a formulation with robust physical stability. A novel framework intended to de-risk NCE selection is presented and based on four calculated physicochemical properties: molecular weight, clogP, topological polar surface area, and aromatic ring count. The use of topical-relevant solvents to assess the molecule's solubility profile, and a 2-day accelerated chemical stability methodology, are also described as critical steps in early dermal development.
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11
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4-Hydroxynonenal is An Oxidative Degradation Product of Polysorbate 80. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110:2524-2530. [PMID: 33545186 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Polysorbates (PS) are used in biopharmaceuticals to stabilize therapeutic proteins. Oxidative degradation of (poly)unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) contained in PS was shown to lead to α,β-unsaturated carbonyls. AIM The n-6-PUFA linoleic acid accounts for up to 18% of all FAs contained in multi-compendial grade PS80. 4-Hydroxynonenal (HNE) is highly reactive towards nucleophilic amino acids, potentially leading to covalent protein modifications. This study tests whether HNE may be a pharmaceutically relevant PS80 peroxidation product. METHODS Since HNE was not directly detectable in the PS80 matrix by UV and MS, a new quantification method was established. After derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine (DNPH) and extraction of the formed hydrazone with a salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction, the HNE-DNPH adduct was analyzed by multiple reaction monitoring. Kinetic oxidation studies were conducted incubating PS80 in presence and absence of the antioxidant butylhydroxytoluene (BHT). RESULTS HNE was confirmed as PS80 degradant in oxidatively stressed samples. BHT was shown to prevent its formation. CONCLUSION HNE is a detectable PS80 degradation product raising questions about the potential impact on critical quality attributes of biopharmaceuticals formulated with PS80. Addition of BHT prevented HNE formation under oxidative stress. Consequently, BHT might be a valuable additive in PS used in biopharmaceuticals.
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12
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Klair N, Kim MT, Lee A, Xiao NJ, Patel AR. Stress Temperature Studies in Small Scale Hastelloy® Drug Substance Containers Lead to Increased Extent of and Increased Variability in Antibody-Drug Conjugate and Monoclonal Antibody Aggregation: Evidence for Novel Oxidation-Induced Crosslinking in Monoclonal Antibodies. J Pharm Sci 2020; 110:1615-1624. [PMID: 33035540 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.09.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Health authorities require that suitable stability of the drug substance be shown in relevant materials of construction. ICH Q1A(R2) explicitly states that "stability studies should be conducted on drug substance packaged in a container closure system that is the same as or simulates the packaging proposed for storage and distribution". Stainless steel containers are commonly used for the long-term storage of frozen bulk drug substances (DSs). Hastelloy®-based metal containers are sometimes used due to their higher corrosion resistance and significantly lower iron content to mitigate the potential corrosion-related risks associated with high salt formulations. Despite their benefits, we have found that elevated temperature stability studies in small scale Hastelloy® containers can lead to degradation that is not representative of degradation under typical storage conditions relevant to the manufacturing process. We provide evidence for an oxidation-induced aggregation mechanism that is based on Fenton chemistry with peroxide being supplied by the autoxidation of polysorbate at stress temperatures. Further, variation in the rates of iron leaching between individual small scale containers is shown to be the cause of the variable rates of degradation through strong correlations between leached iron levels and the extents of oxidation and aggregation. The addition of a metal chelator or the removal of polysorbate from the formulation mitigates the oxidation and the non-representative behavior. Extended characterization by LC-MS and 18O labeled peptide mapping shows that a significant portion of the aggregate formed under these conditions is covalently crosslinked and that the predominant covalent species is either a dityrosine or tyrosine-tryptophan crosslink between an Fc peptide and a Fab peptide. This report is the first time either of these two crosslinks have been reported for antibodies with detailed analytical characterization. Because the behavior observed in these studies is not representative of degradation under typical storage conditions relevant to the manufacturing process, this study demonstrates that small scale stress studies in metal containers should be performed with caution and that extended incubation times can lead to non-representative degradation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Klair
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Michael T Kim
- Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Aron Lee
- Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Nina J Xiao
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Ankit R Patel
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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13
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Schöneich C. Photo-Degradation of Therapeutic Proteins: Mechanistic Aspects. Pharm Res 2020; 37:45. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-2763-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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14
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Robnik B, Naumoska K, Časar Z. A Novel Testing Approach for Oxidative Degradation Dependent Incompatibility of Amine Moiety Containing Drugs with PEGs in Solid-State. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12010037. [PMID: 31906507 PMCID: PMC7022946 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive impurities originating from excipients can cause drug stability issues, even at trace amounts. When produced during final dosage form storage, they are especially hard to control, and often, factors inducing their formation remain unidentified. Oxidative degradation dependent formation of formaldehyde and formic acid is responsible for N-methylation and N-formylation of amine-moiety-containing drug substances. A very popular combination of polyethylene glycols and iron oxides, used in more than two-thirds of FDA-approved tablet formulation drugs in 2018, was found to be responsible for increased concentrations of N-methyl impurity in the case of paroxetine hydrochloride. We propose a novel testing approach for early identification of potentially problematic combinations of excipients and drug substances. The polyethylene glycol 6000 degradation mechanism and kinetics in the presence of iron oxides is studied. The generality of the proposed stress test setup in view of the susceptibility of amine-moiety-containing drug substances to N-methylation and N-formylation is evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blaž Robnik
- Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Sandoz Development Center Slovenia, Verovškova ulica 57, SI-1526 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 7, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chair of Medicinal Chemistry, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Katerina Naumoska
- Department of Food Chemistry, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Zdenko Časar
- Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Sandoz Development Center Slovenia, Verovškova ulica 57, SI-1526 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 7, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chair of Medicinal Chemistry, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +386-1-5802079; Fax: +386-1-5683517
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15
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Schöneich C. Thiyl Radical Reactions in the Chemical Degradation of Pharmaceutical Proteins. Molecules 2019; 24:E4357. [PMID: 31795282 PMCID: PMC6930596 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24234357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Free radical pathways play a major role in the degradation of protein pharmaceuticals. Inspired by biochemical reactions carried out by thiyl radicals in various enzymatic processes, this review focuses on the role of thiyl radicals in pharmaceutical protein degradation through hydrogen atom transfer, electron transfer, and addition reactions. These processes can lead to the epimerization of amino acids, as well as the formation of various cleavage products and cross-links. Examples are presented for human insulin, human and mouse growth hormone, and monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schöneich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2093 Constant Avenue, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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16
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Dual Effect of Histidine on Polysorbate 20 Stability: Mechanistic Studies. Pharm Res 2018; 35:33. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-017-2321-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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17
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18
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Dion MZ, Wang YJ, Bregante D, Chan W, Andersen N, Hilderbrand A, Leiske D, Salisbury CM. The Use of a 2,2'-Azobis (2-Amidinopropane) Dihydrochloride Stress Model as an Indicator of Oxidation Susceptibility for Monoclonal Antibodies. J Pharm Sci 2017; 107:550-558. [PMID: 28989015 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Protein oxidation is a major pathway for degradation of biologic drug products. Past literature reports have suggested that 2,2-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), a free radical generator that produces alkoxyl and alkyl peroxyl radicals, is a useful model reagent stress for assessing the oxidative susceptibility of proteins. Here, we expand the applications of the AAPH model by pairing it with a rapid peptide map method to enable site-specific studies of oxidative susceptibility of monoclonal antibodies and their derivatives for comparison between formats, the evaluation of formulation components, and comparisons across the stress models. Comparing the free radical-induced oxidation model by AAPH with a light-induced oxidation model suggests that light-sensitive residues represent a subset of AAPH-sensitive residues and therefore AAPH can be used as a preliminary screen to highlight molecules that need further assessment by light models. In sum, these studies demonstrate that AAPH stress can be used in multiple ways to evaluate labile residues and oxidation sensitivity as it pertains to developability and manufacturability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Z Dion
- Early Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Y John Wang
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Daniel Bregante
- Analytical Operations, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Wayman Chan
- Analytical Operations, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Nisana Andersen
- Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Amy Hilderbrand
- Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Danielle Leiske
- Early Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080.
| | - Cleo M Salisbury
- Early Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080; Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080.
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19
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Iron(III)-Mediated Oxidative Degradation on the Benzylic Carbon of Drug Molecules in the Absence of Initiating Peroxides. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:1347-1354. [PMID: 28159642 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Metal ions play an important role in oxidative drug degradation. One of the most ubiquitous metal ion impurities in excipients and buffers is Fe(III). In the field of oxidative drug degradation chemistry, the role of Fe(III) has been primarily discussed in terms of its effect in reaction with trace hydroperoxide impurities. However, the role of Fe(III) acting as a direct oxidant of drug molecules, which could operate in the absence of any hydroperoxide impurities, is less common. This work focuses on Fe(III)-induced oxidation of some aromatic drug molecules/drug fragments containing benzylic C-H bonds in the absence of initiating peroxides. Alcohol and ketone degradates are formed at the benzylic carbon atom. The formation of a π-stabilized cation radical is postulated as the key intermediate for the downstream oxidation. Implications are briefly discussed.
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20
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Brückl L, Hahn R, Sergi M, Scheler S. A systematic evaluation of mechanisms, material effects, and protein-dependent differences on friction-related protein particle formation in formulation and filling steps. Int J Pharm 2016; 511:931-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Revised: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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21
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Borisov OV, Ji JA, John Wang Y. Oxidative Degradation of Polysorbate Surfactants Studied by Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:1005-1018. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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22
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Ji JA, Liu J, Wang YJ. Formulation Development for Antibody-Drug Conjugates. ANTIBODY-DRUG CONJUGATES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-13081-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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23
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24
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Labrenz SR. Ester Hydrolysis of Polysorbate 80 in mAb Drug Product: Evidence in Support of the Hypothesized Risk After the Observation of Visible Particulate in mAb Formulations. J Pharm Sci 2014; 103:2268-77. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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25
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Ueyama E, Tamura K, Mizukawa K, Kano K. Realistic prediction of solid pharmaceutical oxidation products by using a novel forced oxidation system. J Pharm Sci 2014; 103:1184-93. [PMID: 24497072 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated a novel solid-state-based forced oxidation system to enable a realistic prediction of pharmaceutical product oxidation, a key consideration in drug development and manufacture. Polysorbate 80 and ferric(III) acetylacetonate were used as an organic hydroperoxide source and a transition metal catalyst, respectively. Homogeneous solutions of target compounds and these reagents were prepared in a mixed organic solvent. The organic solvent was removed rapidly under reduced pressure, and the oxidation of the resulting dried solid was investigated. Analysis of the oxidation products generated in test compounds by this proposed forced oxidation system using HPLC showed a high similarity with those generated during more prolonged naturalistic drug oxidation. The proposed system provided a better predictive performance in prediction of realistic oxidative degradants of the drugs tested than did other established methods. Another advantage of this system was that the generation of undesired products of hydrolysis, solvolysis, and thermolysis was prevented because efficient oxidation was achieved under mild conditions. The results of this study suggest that this system is suitable for a realistic prediction of oxidative degradation of solid pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eiji Ueyama
- Analytical and Quality Evaluation Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Daiichi Sankyo, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, 254-0014, Japan
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26
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Watkins MA, Pitzenberger S, Harmon PA. Direct Evidence of 2-Cyano-2-Propoxy Radical Activity During AIBN-Based Oxidative Stress Testing in Acetonitrile–Water Solvent Systems. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:1554-68. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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27
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Ueyama E, Suzuki N, Kano K. Mechanistic Study of the Oxidative Degradation of the Triazole Antifungal Agent CS-758 in an Amorphous Form. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:104-13. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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28
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Steinmann D, Ji JA, Wang YJ, Schöneich C. Oxidation of human growth hormone by oxygen-centered radicals: formation of Leu-101 hydroperoxide and Tyr-103 oxidation products. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:803-14. [PMID: 22397317 DOI: 10.1021/mp3001028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Human growth hormone (hGH) was exposed to oxygen-centered radicals generated through the thermolysis of AAPH in the presence of dioxygen. Such conditions mimic oxidative processes which protein pharmaceuticals can encounter during formulation in the presence of polysorbates. We detected the oxidation of Met to Met sulfoxide, the formation of protein carbonyls, the oxidation of Tyr to dityrosine and several additional Tyr oxidation products, the conformation-dependent oxidation of Trp, and the site-specific formation of protein hydroperoxides. The sensitivity of Met oxidation correlates with their solvent accessible surface, i.e. the yields of MetSO decreased in the order Met-14 > Met-125 > Met-170. Trp oxidation in native hGH was negligible, but was enhanced through denaturation. Dityrosine formed predominantly intramolecularly but did not contribute significantly to protein cross-linking. Hydroperoxides formed selectively on Leu-101 and were generated specifically by alkoxyl radicals, generated through the decomposition of peroxyl radicals. Tyr-103 was converted into a series of oxidation products characterized by mass shifts of Tyr + 14 Da and Tyr + 16 Da.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Steinmann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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29
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Reynolds DW, Galvani M, Hicks SR, Joshi BJ, Kennedy-Gabb SA, Kleinman MH, Parmar PZ. The Use Of N-Methylpyrrolidone as a Cosolvent and Oxidant in Pharmaceutical Stress Testing. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:761-76. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 08/31/2011] [Accepted: 09/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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30
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Gonzalez-Rey M, Bebianno MJ. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen distresses antioxidant defense system in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis gills. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2011; 105:264-269. [PMID: 21767472 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2011.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 06/17/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are presently considered an emergent class of environmental contaminants. Ibuprofen (IBU) is one of the most applied non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the world. Several authors report the occurrence of IBU in influents and effluents of waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), surface, river and public tap water in numerous countries. However, very little is known about the risks and chronic effects of IBU exposure in non-target organisms. This approach undertakes the assessment of several oxidative stress biomarkers responses through the analysis of antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase - SOD, catalase - CAT, glutathione S-transferase - GST, glutathione reductase - GR) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels in sentinel species mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis gills exposed for 2 weeks to an environmental realistic concentration of IBU. Results clearly show the significant induction and positive correlation between SOD activity and LPO in exposed gills, concomitant to an antioxidant defense depletion of CAT, GR and GST compared to controls. The integration of all biomarkers in mussels' gills separates non- and exposed groups supporting the breakdown of the redox defense system and IBU's pro-oxidant action. Further studies are needed to test possible endocrine disruption effects in mussels' reproduction fitness as IBU is involved on prostaglandins biosynthesis inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Gonzalez-Rey
- CIMA, Marine and Environmental Research Center, FCT, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8000-135 Faro, Portugal
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31
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Werber J, Wang YJ, Milligan M, Li X, Ji JA. Analysis of 2,2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride degradation and hydrolysis in aqueous solutions. J Pharm Sci 2011; 100:3307-3315. [PMID: 21560126 DOI: 10.1002/jps.22578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
2,2'-Azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), a free radical-generating azo compound, is gaining prominence as a model oxidant in small molecule and protein therapeutics, namely for its ability to initiate oxidation reactions via both nucleophilic and free radical mechanisms. To better understand its degradation pathways, AAPH was degraded at 40°C in aqueous solutions over a wide pH range. Samples were analyzed via liquid chromatography-ultraviolet spectroscopy and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The thermal decomposition rate of AAPH to form radical species averaged 2.1 × 10(-6) s(-1) and did not vary significantly with pH. The hydrolysis rate increased exponentially with pH, showing hydroxide ion dependence. A mechanism for AAPH hydrolysis is proposed. The LC-MS/MS results provided evidence that the alkoxyl radical is a major radical species in solution. The LC-MS/MS results also showed a radical disproportionation reaction and enabled the generation of an overall reaction scheme showing the various side and termination products of AAPH degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Werber
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Y John Wang
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Michael Milligan
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Xiaohua Li
- Drug Studies Unit, University of California, San Francisco, South San Francisco, California 94080
| | - Junyan A Ji
- Late Stage Pharmaceutical Development, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080.
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32
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Kishore RSK, Kiese S, Fischer S, Pappenberger A, Grauschopf U, Mahler HC. The Degradation of Polysorbates 20 and 80 and its Potential Impact on the Stability of Biotherapeutics. Pharm Res 2011; 28:1194-210. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-011-0385-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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33
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Elder D, Snodin D, Teasdale A. Analytical approaches for the detection of epoxides and hydroperoxides in active pharmaceutical ingredients, drug products and herbals. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2010; 51:1015-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2009] [Revised: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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34
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Ji JA, Zhang B, Cheng W, Wang YJ. Methionine, tryptophan, and histidine oxidation in a model protein, PTH: Mechanisms and stabilization. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:4485-500. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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35
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A prediction system of oxidation reaction as a solid-state stress condition: Applied to a pyrrole-containing pharmaceutical compound. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2009; 50:328-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2009] [Revised: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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36
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A Quantitative Kinetic Study of Polysorbate Autoxidation: The Role of Unsaturated Fatty Acid Ester Substituents. Pharm Res 2009; 26:2303-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-009-9946-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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37
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Nauser T, Casi G, Koppenol WH, Schöneich C. Reversible intramolecular hydrogen transfer between cysteine thiyl radicals and glycine and alanine in model peptides: absolute rate constants derived from pulse radiolysis and laser flash photolysis. J Phys Chem B 2009; 112:15034-44. [PMID: 18973367 DOI: 10.1021/jp805133u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The intramolecular reaction of cysteine thiyl radicals with peptide and protein alphaC-H bonds represents a potential mechanism for irreversible protein oxidation. Here, we have measured absolute rate constants for these reversible hydrogen transfer reactions by means of pulse radiolysis and laser flash photolysis of model peptides. For N-Ac-CysGly6 and N-Ac-CysGly2AspGly3, Cys thiyl radicals abstract hydrogen atoms from Gly with k(f) = (1.0-1.1 x 10(5) s(-1), generating carbon-centered radicals, while the reverse reaction proceeds with k(r) = (8.0-8.9) x 10(5) s(-1). The forward reaction shows a normal kinetic isotope effect of k(H)/k(D) = 6.9, while the reverse reaction shows a significantly higher normal kinetic isotope effect of 17.6, suggesting a contribution of tunneling. For N-Ac-CysAla2AspAla3, cysteine thiyl radicals abstract hydrogen atoms from Ala with k(f) = (0.9-1.0) x 10(4) s(-1), while the reverse reaction proceeds with k(r) = 1.0 x 10(5) s(-1). The order of reactivity, Gly > Ala, is in accord with previous studies on intermolecular reactions of thiyl radicals with these amino acids. The fact that k(f) < k(r) suggests some secondary structure of the model peptides, which prevents the adoption of extended conformations, for which calculations of homolytic bond dissociation energies would have predicted k(f) > k(r). Despite k(f) < k(r), model calculations show that intramolecular hydrogen abstraction by Cys thiyl radicals can lead to significant oxidation of other amino acids in the presence of physiologic oxygen concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Nauser
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Institute of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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38
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Nelson ED, Thompson GM, Yao Y, Flanagan HM, Harmon PA. Solvent Effects on the AIBN Forced Degradation of Cumene: Implications for Forced Degradation Practices. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:959-69. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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39
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Kerwin BA. Polysorbates 20 and 80 Used in the Formulation of Protein Biotherapeutics: Structure and Degradation Pathways. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:2924-35. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 498] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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40
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Schöneich C. Mechanisms of protein damage induced by cysteine thiyl radical formation. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21:1175-9. [PMID: 18361510 DOI: 10.1021/tx800005u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schöneich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, 2095 Constant Avenue, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA.
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41
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Wasylaschuk WR, Harmon PA, Wagner G, Harman AB, Templeton AC, Xu H, Reed RA. Evaluation of Hydroperoxides in Common Pharmaceutical Excipients. J Pharm Sci 2007; 96:106-16. [PMID: 16917844 DOI: 10.1002/jps.20726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
While the physical properties of pharmaceutical excipients have been well characterized, impurities that may influence the chemical stability of formulated drug product have not been well studied. In this work, the hydroperoxide (HPO) impurity levels of common pharmaceutical excipients are measured and presented for both soluble and insoluble excipients. Povidone, polysorbate 80 (PS80), polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400, and hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) were found to contain substantial concentrations of HPOs with significant lot-to-lot and manufacturer-to-manufacturer variation. Much lower HPO levels were found in the common fillers, like microcrystalline cellulose and lactose, and in high molecular weight PEG, medium chain glyceride (MCG), and poloxamer. The findings are discussed within the context of HPO-mediated oxidation and formulating drug substance sensitive to oxidation. Of the four excipients with substantial HPO levels, povidone, PEG 400, and HPC contain a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and organic HPOs while PS80 contains predominantly organic HPOs. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the known manufacturing processes and chemistry of HPO reactivity and degradation kinetics. Defining critical HPO limits for excipients should be driven by the chemistry of a specific drug substance or product and can only be defined within this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter R Wasylaschuk
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., Inc., P.O. Box 4, WP78-210, West Point, PA 19486, USA.
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