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Crizer DM, Rice JR, Smeltz MG, Lavrich KS, Ravindra K, Wambaugh JF, DeVito M, Wetmore BA. In Vitro Hepatic Clearance Evaluations of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) across Multiple Structural Categories. TOXICS 2024; 12:672. [PMID: 39330600 PMCID: PMC11435625 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12090672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2024] [Revised: 09/06/2024] [Accepted: 09/10/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
Toxicokinetic (TK) assays and in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) models are New Approach Methods (NAMs) used to translate in vitro points of departure to exposure estimates required to reach equivalent blood concentrations. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large chemical class with wide-ranging industrial applications for which only limited toxicity data are available for human health evaluation. To address the lack of TK data, a pooled primary human hepatocyte suspension model was used with targeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to investigate substrate depletion for 54 PFAS. A median value of 4.52 μL/(min x million cells) was observed across those that showed significant clearance, with 35 displaying no substrate depletion. Bayesian modeling propagated uncertainty around clearance values for use in IVIVE models. Structural evaluations showed the fluorotelomer carboxylic acids were the only PFAS carboxylates showing appreciable clearance, and per- and polyfluorosulfonamides were more readily metabolized than other PFAS sulfonates. Biotransformation product prediction, using the chemical transformation simulator, suggested hydrolysis of PFAS sulfonamides to more stable sulfonic acids, which is an important consideration for exposure modeling. This effort greatly expands the PFAS in vitro toxicokinetic dataset, enabling refined TK modeling, in silico tool development, and NAM-based human health evaluations across this important set of emerging contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Crizer
- Division of Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Julie R Rice
- Division of Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Marci G Smeltz
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Katelyn S Lavrich
- Division of Translational Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | | | - John F Wambaugh
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Michael DeVito
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Barbara A Wetmore
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
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Mehta V, Karnam G, Madgula V. Liver-on-chips for drug discovery and development. Mater Today Bio 2024; 27:101143. [PMID: 39070097 PMCID: PMC11279310 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2024.101143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent FDA modernization act 2.0 has led to increasing industrial R&D investment in advanced in vitro 3D models such as organoids, spheroids, organ-on-chips, 3D bioprinting, and in silico approaches. Liver-related advanced in vitro models remain the prime area of interest, as liver plays a central role in drug clearance of compounds. Growing evidence indicates the importance of recapitulating the overall liver microenvironment to enhance hepatocyte maturity and culture longevity using liver-on-chips (LoC) in vitro. Hence, pharmaceutical industries have started exploring LoC assays in the two of the most challenging areas: accurate in vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) of hepatic drug clearance and drug-induced liver injury. We examine the joint efforts of commercial chip manufacturers and pharmaceutical companies to present an up-to-date overview of the adoption of LoC technology in the drug discovery. Further, several roadblocks are identified to the rapid adoption of LoC assays in the current drug development framework. Finally, we discuss some of the underexplored application areas of LoC models, where conventional 2D hepatic models are deemed unsuitable. These include clearance prediction of metabolically stable compounds, immune-mediated drug-induced liver injury (DILI) predictions, bioavailability prediction with gut-liver systems, hepatic clearance prediction of drugs given during pregnancy, and dose adjustment studies in disease conditions. We conclude the review by discussing the importance of PBPK modeling with LoC, digital twins, and AI/ML integration with LoC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viraj Mehta
- Organoid Technology Lab, DMPK Department, Sai Life Sciences, Hyderabad, 500078, India
| | - Guruswamy Karnam
- Organoid Technology Lab, DMPK Department, Sai Life Sciences, Hyderabad, 500078, India
| | - Vamsi Madgula
- Organoid Technology Lab, DMPK Department, Sai Life Sciences, Hyderabad, 500078, India
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Kukla DA, Belair DG, Stresser DM. Evaluation and Optimization of a Microcavity Plate-Based Human Hepatocyte Spheroid Model for Predicting Clearance of Slowly Metabolized Drug Candidates. Drug Metab Dispos 2024; 52:797-812. [PMID: 38777596 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.124.001653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
In vitro clearance assays are routinely conducted in drug discovery to predict in vivo clearance, but low metabolic turnover compounds are often difficult to evaluate. Hepatocyte spheroids can be cultured for days, achieving higher drug turnover, but have been hindered by limitations on cell number per well. Corning Elplasia microcavity 96-well microplates enable the culture of 79 hepatocyte spheroids per well. In this study, microcavity spheroid properties (size, hepatocyte function, longevity, culturing techniques) were assessed and optimized for clearance assays, which were then compared with microsomes, hepatocyte suspensions, two-dimensional-plated hepatocytes, and macrowell spheroids cultured as one per well. Higher enzyme activity coupled with greater hepatocyte concentrations in microcavity spheroids enabled measurable turnover of all 17 test compounds, unlike the other models that exhibited less drug turnover. Microcavity spheroids also predicted intrinsic clearance (CLint) and blood clearance (CLb) within threefold for 53% [9/17; average absolute fold error (AAFE), 3.9] and 82% (14/17; AAFE, 2.6) of compounds using a linear regression correction model, respectively. An alternate method incorporating mechanistic modeling that accounts for mass transport (permeability and diffusion) within spheroids demonstrated improved predictivity for CLint (12/17; AAFE, 4.0) and CLb (14/17; AAFE, 2.1) without the need for empirical scaling factors. The estimated fraction of drug metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4 (fm,CYP3A4) using 3 μM itraconazole was within 25% of observed values for 6 of 8 compounds, with 5 of 8 compounds within 10%. In sum, spheroid cultures in microcavity plates permit the ability to test and predict clearance as well as fm,CYP3A4 of low metabolic turnover compounds and represent a valuable complement to conventional in vitro clearance assays. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Culturing multiple spheroids in ultralow attachment microcavities permits accurate quantitation of metabolically stable compounds in substrate depletion assays, overcoming limitations with singly cultured spheroids. In turn, this permits robust estimates of intrinsic clearance, which is improved with the consideration of mass transport within the spheroid. Incubations with 3 μM itraconazole enabled assessments of CYP3A4 involvement in hepatic clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Kukla
- Quantitative, Translational, and ADME Sciences, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois
| | - David G Belair
- Quantitative, Translational, and ADME Sciences, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois
| | - David M Stresser
- Quantitative, Translational, and ADME Sciences, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois
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Ip BC, Madnick SJ, Zheng S, van Tongeren TCA, Hall SJ, Li H, Martin S, Spriggs S, Carmichael P, Chen W, Ames D, Breitweiser LA, Pence HE, Bowling AJ, Johnson KJ, Cubberley R, Morgan JR, Boekelheide K. Development of a human liver microphysiological coculture system for higher throughput chemical safety assessment. Toxicol Sci 2024; 199:227-245. [PMID: 38335931 PMCID: PMC11131024 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfae018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Chemicals in the systemic circulation can undergo hepatic xenobiotic metabolism, generate metabolites, and exhibit altered toxicity compared with their parent compounds. This article describes a 2-chamber liver-organ coculture model in a higher-throughput 96-well format for the determination of toxicity on target tissues in the presence of physiologically relevant human liver metabolism. This 2-chamber system is a hydrogel formed within each well consisting of a central well (target tissue) and an outer ring-shaped trough (human liver tissue). The target tissue chamber can be configured to accommodate a three-dimensional (3D) spheroid-shaped microtissue, or a 2-dimensional (2D) cell monolayer. Culture medium and compounds freely diffuse between the 2 chambers. Human-differentiated HepaRG liver cells are used to form the 3D human liver microtissues, which displayed robust protein expression of liver biomarkers (albumin, asialoglycoprotein receptor, Phase I cytochrome P450 [CYP3A4] enzyme, multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 transporter, and glycogen), and exhibited Phase I/II enzyme activities over the course of 17 days. Histological and ultrastructural analyses confirmed that the HepaRG microtissues presented a differentiated hepatocyte phenotype, including abundant mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and bile canaliculi. Liver microtissue zonation characteristics could be easily modulated by maturation in different media supplements. Furthermore, our proof-of-concept study demonstrated the efficacy of this coculture model in evaluating testosterone-mediated androgen receptor responses in the presence of human liver metabolism. This liver-organ coculture system provides a practical, higher-throughput testing platform for metabolism-dependent bioactivity assessment of drugs/chemicals to better recapitulate the biological effects and potential toxicity of human exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanche C Ip
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
- Center for Alternatives to Animals in Testing, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Samantha J Madnick
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
- Center for Alternatives to Animals in Testing, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Sophia Zheng
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Tessa C A van Tongeren
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, 6700 EA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Susan J Hall
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Suzanne Martin
- Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Sandrine Spriggs
- Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Carmichael
- Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Wei Chen
- Corteva, Inc, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, USA
| | - David Ames
- Corteva, Inc, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Richard Cubberley
- Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, MK44 1LQ Bedfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey R Morgan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
- Center for Alternatives to Animals in Testing, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
| | - Kim Boekelheide
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
- Center for Alternatives to Animals in Testing, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02903, USA
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Preiss LC, Georgi K, Lauschke VM, Petersson C. Comparison of Human Long-Term Liver Models for Clearance Prediction of Slowly Metabolized Compounds. Drug Metab Dispos 2024; 52:539-547. [PMID: 38604730 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.123.001638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The accurate prediction of human clearance is an important task during drug development. The proportion of low clearance compounds has increased in drug development pipelines across the industry since such compounds may be dosed in lower amounts and at lower frequency. These type of compounds present new challenges to in vitro systems used for clearance extrapolation. In this study, we compared the accuracy of clearance predictions of suspension culture to four different long-term stable in vitro liver models, including HepaRG sandwich culture, the Hµrel stochastic co-culture, the Hepatopac micropatterned co-culture (MPCC), and a micro-array spheroid culture. Hepatocytes in long-term stable systems remained viable and active over several days of incubation. Although intrinsic clearance values were generally high in suspension culture, clearance of low turnover compounds could frequently not be determined using this method. Metabolic activity and intrinsic clearance values from HepaRG cultures were low and, consequently, many compounds with low turnover did not show significant decline despite long incubation times. Similarly, stochastic co-cultures occasionally failed to show significant turnover for multiple low and medium turnover compounds. Among the different methods, MPCCs and spheroids provided the most consistent measurements. Notably, all culture methods resulted in underprediction of clearance; this could, however, be compensated for by regression correction. Combined, the results indicate that spheroid culture as well as the MPCC system provide adequate in vitro tools for human extrapolation for compounds with low metabolic turnover. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In this study, we compared suspension cultures, HepaRG sandwich cultures, the Hµrel liver stochastic co-cultures, the Hepatopac micropatterned co-cultures (MPCC), and micro-array spheroid cultures for low clearance determination and prediction. Overall, HepaRG and suspension cultures showed modest value for the low determination and prediction of clearance compounds. The micro-array spheroid culture resulted in the most robust clearance measurements, whereas using the MPCC resulted in the most accurate prediction for low clearance compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena C Preiss
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (L.C.P., V.M.L.); Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany (L.C.P., K.G., C.P.); Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany (V.M.L.); and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany (V.M.L.)
| | - Katrin Georgi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (L.C.P., V.M.L.); Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany (L.C.P., K.G., C.P.); Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany (V.M.L.); and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany (V.M.L.)
| | - Volker M Lauschke
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (L.C.P., V.M.L.); Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany (L.C.P., K.G., C.P.); Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany (V.M.L.); and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany (V.M.L.)
| | - Carl Petersson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (L.C.P., V.M.L.); Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany (L.C.P., K.G., C.P.); Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany (V.M.L.); and University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany (V.M.L.)
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Miyake T, Mochizuki T, Nakagawa T, Nakamura M, Emoto C, Komiyama N, Hirabayashi M, Tsuruta S, Shimojo T, Terao K, Tachibana T. Quantitative prediction of CYP3A-mediated drug-drug interactions by correctly estimating fraction metabolized using human liver chimeric mice. Br J Pharmacol 2024; 181:1091-1106. [PMID: 37872109 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Fraction metabolized (fm ) and fraction transported (ft ) are important for understanding drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in drug discovery and development. However, current in vitro systems cannot accurately estimate in vivo fm due to inability to reflect the ft by efflux transporters (ft,efflux ). This study demonstrates how CYP3A-mediated DDI for CYP3A/P-gp substrates can be predicted using Hu-PXB mice as human liver chimeric mice. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH For estimating human in vitro fm by CYP3A enzyme (fm,CYP3A,in vitro ), six drugs, including CYP3A/P-gp substrates (alprazolam, cyclosporine, docetaxel, midazolam, prednisolone, and theophylline) and human hepatocytes were incubated with or without ketoconazole as a CYP3A inhibitor. We calculated fm,CYP3A,in vitro based on hepatic intrinsic clearance. To estimate human in vivo fm,CYP3A (fm,CYP3A,in vivo ), we collected information on clinical DDI caused by ketoconazole for these six drugs. We calculated fm,CYP3A,in vivo using the change of total clearance (CLtotal ). For evaluating the human DDI predictability, the six drugs were administered intravenously to Hu-PXB and SCID mice with or without ketoconazole. We calculated the change of CLtotal caused by ketoconazole. We compared the CLtotal change in humans with that in Hu-PXB and SCID mice. KEY RESULTS The fm,CYP3A,in vitro was overestimated compared to the fm,CYP3A,in vivo . Hu-PXB mice showed much better correlation in the change of CLtotal with humans (R2 = 0.95) compared to SCID mice (R2 = 0.0058). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS CYP3A-mediated DDI can be predicted by correctly estimating human fm,CYP3A,in vivo using Hu-PXB mice. These mice could be useful predicting hepatic fm and ft,efflux .
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiji Miyake
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tatsuki Mochizuki
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Toshito Nakagawa
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Mikiko Nakamura
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Chie Emoto
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Natsuko Komiyama
- Chugai Research Institute for Medical Science Inc., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Manabu Hirabayashi
- Chugai Research Institute for Medical Science Inc., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tsuruta
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tomofumi Shimojo
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kimio Terao
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiko Tachibana
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Translational Research Div., Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
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Lignet F, Friese-Hamim M, Jaehrling F, El Bawab S, Rohdich F. Preclinical Pharmacokinetics and Translational Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Modeling of M8891, a Potent and Reversible Inhibitor of Methionine Aminopeptidase 2. Pharm Res 2023; 40:3011-3023. [PMID: 37798538 PMCID: PMC10746753 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-023-03611-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION M8891 is a selective and reversible inhibitor of methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2). We describe translational research to define the target pharmacokinetics (PK) of M8891 and associated pharmacodynamic (PD) levels, which were used to support efficacious dose selection in humans. METHODS In vitro and in vivo PK characteristics were investigated in animal species, and data integrated using in vitro-in vivo correlation and allometric methods to predict the clearance, volume of distribution, and absorption parameters of M8891 in humans. In parallel, inhibition of MetAP2 activity by M8891 was studied in renal cancer xenografts in mice by measuring accumulation of Met-EF1α, a substrate of MetAP2. The corresponding PD effect was described by a turnover and effect compartment model. This model was used to simulate PD at the M8891 dose showing in vivo efficacy, i.e. significant tumor growth inhibition. Simulations of M8891 PK and associated PD in humans were conducted by integrating predicted human PK parameters into the preclinical PK/PD model. RESULTS The target minimum PD level associated with efficacy was determined to be 125 µg Met-EF1α per mg protein. Integrating predicted human PK parameters into the preclinical PK/PD model defined a minimal M8891 concentration at steady-state (Ctrough) of 1500 ng/mL (3.9 µM) in humans as being required to produce the corresponding minimum target Met-EF1a level (125 µg per mg protein). CONCLUSION The defined target PK and PD levels supported the design of the clinical Phase Ia dose escalation study of M8891 (NCT03138538) and selection of the recommended Phase II dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriane Lignet
- Drug Discovery Technologies, the Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, 250 Frankfurter Strasse, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Manja Friese-Hamim
- Research Unit Oncology, the Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Frank Jaehrling
- Research Unit Oncology, the Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Samer El Bawab
- Translational Medicine, the Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
- Translational Medicine, Servier, Suresnes, France
| | - Felix Rohdich
- Drug Discovery Technologies, the Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, 250 Frankfurter Strasse, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany
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Gerdemann A, Cramer B, Degen GH, Veerkamp J, Günther G, Albrecht W, Behrens M, Esselen M, Ghallab A, Hengstler JG, Humpf HU. Comparative metabolism of aflatoxin B 1 in mouse, rat and human primary hepatocytes using HPLC-MS/MS. Arch Toxicol 2023; 97:3179-3196. [PMID: 37794256 PMCID: PMC10567917 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03607-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a highly hepatotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus species. The compound is mainly metabolized in the liver and its metabolism varies between species. The present study quantified relevant AFB1- metabolites formed by mouse, rat, and human primary hepatocytes after treatment with 1 µM and 10 µM AFB1. The use of liquid chromatographic separation coupled with tandem mass spectrometric detection enabled the selective and sensitive determination of phase I and phase II metabolites of AFB1 over incubation times of up to 24 h. The binding of AFB1 to macromolecules was also considered. The fastest metabolism of AFB1 was observed in mouse hepatocytes which formed aflatoxin P1 as a major metabolite and also its glucuronidated form, while AFP1 occurred only in traces in the other species. Aflatoxin M1 was formed in all species and was, together with aflatoxin Q1 and aflatoxicol, the main metabolite in human cells. Effective epoxidation led to high amounts of DNA adducts already 30 min post-treatment, especially in rat hepatocytes. Lower levels of DNA adducts and fast DNA repair were found in mouse hepatocytes. Also, protein adducts arising from reactive intermediates were formed rapidly in all three species. Detoxification via glutathione conjugation and subsequent formation of the N-acetylcysteine derivative appeared to be similar in mice and in rats and strongly differed from human hepatocytes which did not form these metabolites at all. The use of qualitative reference material of a multitude of metabolites and the comparison of hepatocyte metabolism in three species using advanced methods enabled considerations on toxification and detoxification mechanisms of AFB1. In addition to glutathione conjugation, phase I metabolism is strongly involved in the detoxification of AFB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gerdemann
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Gisela H. Degen
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Jannik Veerkamp
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Georgia Günther
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Wiebke Albrecht
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Matthias Behrens
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Melanie Esselen
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Ahmed Ghallab
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, 83523 Egypt
| | - Jan G. Hengstler
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
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9
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Keuper-Navis M, Walles M, Poller B, Myszczyszyn A, van der Made TK, Donkers J, Eslami Amirabadi H, Wilmer MJ, Aan S, Spee B, Masereeuw R, van de Steeg E. The application of organ-on-chip models for the prediction of human pharmacokinetic profiles during drug development. Pharmacol Res 2023; 195:106853. [PMID: 37473876 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Organ-on-chip (OoC) technology has led to in vitro models with many new possibilities compared to conventional in vitro and in vivo models. In this review, the potential of OoC models to improve the prediction of human oral bioavailability and intrinsic clearance is discussed, with a focus on the functionality of the models and the application in current drug development practice. Multi-OoC models demonstrating the application for pharmacokinetic (PK) studies are summarized and existing challenges are identified. Physiological parameters for a minimal viable platform of a multi-OoC model to study PK are provided, together with PK specific read-outs and recommendations for relevant reference compounds to validate the model. Finally, the translation to in vivo PK profiles is discussed, which will be required to routinely apply OoC models during drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit Keuper-Navis
- Department of Metabolic Health Research, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Leiden, the Netherlands; Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Markus Walles
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Birk Poller
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adam Myszczyszyn
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine & Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht (RMCU), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas K van der Made
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Joanne Donkers
- Department of Metabolic Health Research, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Saskia Aan
- Stichting Proefdiervrij, Den Haag, the Netherlands
| | - Bart Spee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine & Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht (RMCU), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Rosalinde Masereeuw
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Evita van de Steeg
- Department of Metabolic Health Research, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Leiden, the Netherlands.
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10
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Barć J, Flaga J, Kozubek A, Kowalski ZM. Short Culture of Bovine Hepatocytes Biopsied from Dairy Cows as a Model for Toxicological Studies-CYP 1A1 Activity Response to Zearalenone Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12344. [PMID: 37569719 PMCID: PMC10418373 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This study presents a simple and cost-effective method for isolating hepatocytes from liver biopsies obtained from healthy and ketotic dairy cows, which can be utilized for studying cellular metabolism, drug toxicity, and hepatocyte-specific gene function and regulation. The expression of hepatocyte marker genes (G6PC, ALB, CYP1A2) was measured and found to be highest at 6 h post-isolation, with a subsequent decrease over time. Cells isolated from ketotic livers exhibited lower expression levels than those from healthy livers. Furthermore, for the functional characterization of ketotic hepatocytes, the cells were exposed to varying doses of zearalenone (ZEA). While doses of 10-50 µM did not affect cell viability, the highest dose of ZEA (100 µM) significantly decreased cell viability, as measured using XTT assay. Additionally, the potential induction of cytochrome P450 A1 (CYP1A1) by ZEA was found. Despite limitations such as a short-term culture, this model provides a useful tool for conducting toxicological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Barć
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Biotechnology, and Fisheries, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; (J.F.); (Z.M.K.)
| | - Jadwiga Flaga
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Biotechnology, and Fisheries, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; (J.F.); (Z.M.K.)
| | - Anna Kozubek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Endocrinology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Zygmunt Maciej Kowalski
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Biotechnology, and Fisheries, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Krakow, Poland; (J.F.); (Z.M.K.)
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11
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Luo D, Lin Y, Chen J, Huang X, Xie Y, Liu Y, Ni S, Su Z, Li Y, Zhang Z. Stereoisomers of octahydrocurcumin, the hydrogenated metabolites of curcumin, display stereoselective activity on the CYP2E1 enzyme in L-02 cells. Food Funct 2023; 14:2822-2835. [PMID: 36866793 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo03892g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
As the final hydrogenated metabolite of curcumin, octahydrocurcumin (OHC) exhibits increased powerful bioactivities. The chiral and symmetric chemical structure indicated that there were two OHC stereoisomers, (3R,5S)-octahydrocurcumin (Meso-OHC) and (3S,5S)-octahydrocurcumin ((3S,5S)-OHC), which may induce different effects on metabolic enzymes and bioactivities. Thus, we detected OHC stereoisomers from rat metabolites (blood, liver, urine and feces) after oral administration of curcumin. In addition, OHC stereoisomers were prepared and then their different influences on cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) and UDP-glucuronyltransferases (UGTs) in L-02 cells were tested to explore the potential interaction and different bioactivities. Our results proved that curcumin could be metabolised into OHC stereoisomers first. In addition, Meso-OHC and (3S,5S)-OHC exhibited slight induction or inhibition effects on CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP3A4 and UGTs. Furthermore, Meso-OHC exhibited more intensive inhibition toward CYP2E1 expression than (3S,5S)-OHC, ascribed to the different mode of binding to the enzyme protein (P < 0.05), which finally induced more effective liver protection effects in acetaminophen-induced L-02 cell injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Luo
- Department of clinical pharmacy, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510180, P.R. China
| | - Yinsi Lin
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Jiannan Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoqi Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Youliang Xie
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Yuhong Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Suiqin Ni
- Department of clinical pharmacy, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510180, P.R. China
| | - Ziren Su
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Yucui Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Zhenbiao Zhang
- Tea Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Tea Resources Innovation & Utilization, Guangzhou 510640, China
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12
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Tynelius N, Bundgaard C, Müller CE. Evaluation of a Five-Probe Metabolic Control Cocktail in Long-Term Cocultured Human Hepatocytes. J Pharm Sci 2023:S0022-3549(23)00099-0. [PMID: 36893963 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocyte cocultures like HepatoPac have become more frequently used for the assessment of the intrinsic clearance of slowly metabolised drugs during drug discovery due to a superiority in enzymatic activity over time compared to liver microsomal fractions and suspended primary hepatocytes. However, the relatively high cost and practical limitations prevent several quality control compounds to be included in studies and the activities of many important metabolic enzymes are consequently often not monitored. In this study, we have evaluated the possibility for a cocktail approach of quality control compounds in the human HepatoPac system to ensure adequate activity of the major metabolising enzymes. Five reference compounds were selected based on their known metabolic substrate profile in order to capture major CYP and non-CYP metabolic pathways in the incubation cocktail. The intrinsic clearance of the reference compounds when incubated as singlets or in a cocktail was compared and no considerable difference was observed. We show here that a cocktail approach of quality control compounds allows for easy and efficient evaluation of the metabolic competency of the hepatic coculture system over an extended incubation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanna Tynelius
- Translational DMPK, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, 2500 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Claudia E Müller
- Translational DMPK, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, 2500 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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13
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Weaver JR, Odanga JJ, Wolf KK, Piekos S, Biven M, Taub M, LaRocca J, Thomas C, Byer-Alcorace A, Chen J, Lee JB, LeCluyse EL. The morphology, functionality, and longevity of a novel all human hepatic cell-based tri-culture system. Toxicol In Vitro 2023; 86:105504. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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14
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Valdiviezo A, Kato Y, Baker ES, Chiu WA, Rusyn I. Evaluation of Metabolism of a Defined Pesticide Mixture through Multiple In Vitro Liver Models. TOXICS 2022; 10:566. [PMID: 36287846 PMCID: PMC9609317 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10100566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The evaluation of exposure to multiple contaminants in a mixture presents a number of challenges. For example, the characterization of chemical metabolism in a mixture setting remains a research area with critical knowledge gaps. Studies of chemical metabolism typically utilize suspension cultures of primary human hepatocytes; however, this model is not suitable for studies of more extended exposures and donor-to-donor variability in a metabolic capacity is unavoidable. To address this issue, we utilized several in vitro models based on human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hepatocytes (iHep) to characterize the metabolism of an equimolar (1 or 5 µM) mixture of 20 pesticides. We used iHep suspensions and 2D sandwich cultures, and a microphysiological system OrganoPlate® 2-lane 96 (MimetasTM) that also included endothelial cells and THP-1 cell-derived macrophages. When cell culture media were evaluated using gas and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry methods, we found that the parent molecule concentrations diminished, consistent with metabolic activity. This effect was most pronounced in iHep suspensions with a 1 µM mixture, and was lowest in OrganoPlate® 2-lane 96 for both mixtures. Additionally, we used ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (IMS-MS) to screen for metabolite formation in these cultures. These analyses revealed the presence of five primary metabolites that allowed for a more comprehensive evaluation of chemical metabolism in vitro. These findings suggest that iHep-based suspension assays maintain higher metabolic activity compared to 2D sandwich and OrganoPlate® 2-lane 96 model. Moreover, this study illustrates that IMS-MS can characterize in vitro metabolite formation following exposure to mixtures of environmental contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Valdiviezo
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Yuki Kato
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery and Development, Shionogi Pharmaceutical Research Center, Shionogi & Co., Ltd., Osaka 561-0825, Japan
| | - Erin S. Baker
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Weihsueh A. Chiu
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Ivan Rusyn
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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15
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Moreau M, Mallick P, Smeltz M, Haider S, Nicolas CI, Pendse SN, Leonard JA, Linakis MW, McMullen PD, Clewell RA, Clewell HJ, Yoon M. Considerations for Improving Metabolism Predictions for In Vitro to In Vivo Extrapolation. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:894569. [PMID: 35573278 PMCID: PMC9099212 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.894569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
High-throughput (HT) in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) is an integral component in new approach method (NAM)-based risk assessment paradigms, for rapidly translating in vitro toxicity assay results into the context of in vivo exposure. When coupled with rapid exposure predictions, HT-IVIVE supports the use of HT in vitro assays for risk-based chemical prioritization. However, the reliability of prioritization based on HT bioactivity data and HT-IVIVE can be limited as the domain of applicability of current HT-IVIVE is generally restricted to intrinsic clearance measured primarily in pharmaceutical compounds. Further, current approaches only consider parent chemical toxicity. These limitations occur because current state-of-the-art HT prediction tools for clearance and metabolite kinetics do not provide reliable data to support HT-IVIVE. This paper discusses current challenges in implementation of IVIVE for prioritization and risk assessment and recommends a path forward for addressing the most pressing needs and expanding the utility of IVIVE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjory Moreau
- ScitoVation, LLC, Durham, NC, United States
- *Correspondence: Marjory Moreau,
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jeremy A. Leonard
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, United States
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16
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Docci L, Milani N, Ramp T, Romeo AA, Godoy P, Franyuti DO, Krähenbühl S, Gertz M, Galetin A, Parrott N, Fowler S. Exploration and application of a liver-on-a-chip device in combination with modelling and simulation for quantitative drug metabolism studies. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:1187-1205. [PMID: 35107462 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc01161h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Microphysiological systems (MPS) are complex and more physiologically realistic cellular in vitro tools that aim to provide more relevant human in vitro data for quantitative prediction of clinical pharmacokinetics while also reducing the need for animal testing. The PhysioMimix liver-on-a-chip integrates medium flow with hepatocyte culture and has the potential to be adopted for in vitro studies investigating the hepatic disposition characteristics of drug candidates. The current study focusses on liver-on-a-chip system exploration for multiple drug metabolism applications. Characterization of cytochrome P450 (CYP), UDP-glucuronosyl transferase (UGT) and aldehyde oxidase (AO) activities was performed using 15 drugs and in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) was assessed for 12 of them. Next, the utility of the liver-on-a-chip for estimation of the fraction metabolized (fm) via specific biotransformation pathways of quinidine and diclofenac was established. Finally, the metabolite identification opportunities were also explored using efavirenz as an example drug with complex primary and secondary metabolism involving a combination of CYP, UGT and sulfotransferase enzymes. A key aspect of these investigations was the application of mathematical modelling for improved parameter calculation. Such approaches will be required for quantitative assessment of metabolism and/or transporter processes in systems where medium flow and system compartments result in non-homogeneous drug concentrations. In particular, modelling was used to explore the effect of evaporation from the medium and it was found that the intrinsic clearance (CLint) might be underestimated by up to 40% for low clearance compounds if evaporation is not accounted for. Modelling of liver-on-a-chip in vitro data also enhanced the approach to fm estimation allowing objective assessment of metabolism models of different complexity. The resultant diclofenac fm,UGT of 0.64 was highly comparable with values reported previously in the literature. The current study demonstrates the integration of mathematical modelling with experimental liver-on-a-chip studies and illustrates how this approach supports generation of high quality of data from complex in vitro cellular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Docci
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
- Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolò Milani
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, UK
| | - Thomas Ramp
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Andrea A Romeo
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Patricio Godoy
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Daniela Ortiz Franyuti
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Gertz
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Aleksandra Galetin
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, UK
| | - Neil Parrott
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Stephen Fowler
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Grenzacherstrasse 124, 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
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17
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Preiss LC, Lauschke VM, Georgi K, Petersson C. Multi-Well Array Culture of Primary Human Hepatocyte Spheroids for Clearance Extrapolation of Slowly Metabolized Compounds. AAPS J 2022; 24:41. [PMID: 35277751 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-022-00689-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate prediction of human pharmacokinetics using in vitro tools is an important task during drug development. Albeit, currently used in vitro systems for clearance extrapolation such as microsomes and primary human hepatocytes in suspension culture show reproducible turnover, the utility of these systems is limited by a rapid decline of activity of drug metabolizing enzymes. In this study, a multi-well array culture of primary human hepatocyte spheroids was compared to suspension and single spheroid cultures from the same donor. Multi-well spheroids remained viable and functional over the incubation time of 3 days, showing physiological excretion of albumin and α-AGP. Their metabolic activity was similar compared to suspension and single spheroid cultures. This physiological activity, the high cell concentration, and the prolonged incubation time resulted in significant turnover of all tested low clearance compounds (n = 8). In stark contrast, only one or none of the compounds showed significant turnover when single spheroid or suspension cultures were used. Using multi-well spheroids and a regression offset approach (log(CLint) = 1.1 × + 0.85), clearance was predicted within 3-fold for 93% (13/14) of the tested compounds. Thus, multi-well spheroids represent a novel and valuable addition to the ADME in vitro tool kit for the determination of low clearance and overall clearance prediction. Graphical Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena C Preiss
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Volker M Lauschke
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Dr Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany.,University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Katrin Georgi
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Carl Petersson
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK), The Healthcare Business of Merck KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, 64293, Darmstadt, Germany.
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18
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Hadjittofi C, Feretis M, Martin J, Harper S, Huguet E. Liver regeneration biology: Implications for liver tumour therapies. World J Clin Oncol 2021; 12:1101-1156. [PMID: 35070734 PMCID: PMC8716989 DOI: 10.5306/wjco.v12.i12.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The liver has remarkable regenerative potential, with the capacity to regenerate after 75% hepatectomy in humans and up to 90% hepatectomy in some rodent models, enabling it to meet the challenge of diverse injury types, including physical trauma, infection, inflammatory processes, direct toxicity, and immunological insults. Current understanding of liver regeneration is based largely on animal research, historically in large animals, and more recently in rodents and zebrafish, which provide powerful genetic manipulation experimental tools. Whilst immensely valuable, these models have limitations in extrapolation to the human situation. In vitro models have evolved from 2-dimensional culture to complex 3 dimensional organoids, but also have shortcomings in replicating the complex hepatic micro-anatomical and physiological milieu. The process of liver regeneration is only partially understood and characterized by layers of complexity. Liver regeneration is triggered and controlled by a multitude of mitogens acting in autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine ways, with much redundancy and cross-talk between biochemical pathways. The regenerative response is variable, involving both hypertrophy and true proliferative hyperplasia, which is itself variable, including both cellular phenotypic fidelity and cellular trans-differentiation, according to the type of injury. Complex interactions occur between parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells, and regeneration is affected by the status of the liver parenchyma, with differences between healthy and diseased liver. Finally, the process of termination of liver regeneration is even less well understood than its triggers. The complexity of liver regeneration biology combined with limited understanding has restricted specific clinical interventions to enhance liver regeneration. Moreover, manipulating the fundamental biochemical pathways involved would require cautious assessment, for fear of unintended consequences. Nevertheless, current knowledge provides guiding principles for strategies to optimise liver regeneration potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Hadjittofi
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Feretis
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Jack Martin
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Harper
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel Huguet
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
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19
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Hernandez‐Jerez AF, Adriaanse P, Aldrich A, Berny P, Coja T, Duquesne S, Focks A, Marinovich M, Millet M, Pelkonen O, Pieper S, Tiktak A, Topping CJ, Widenfalk A, Wilks M, Wolterink G, Gundert‐Remy U, Louisse J, Rudaz S, Testai E, Lostia A, Dorne J, Parra Morte JM. Scientific Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues (PPR Panel) on testing and interpretation of comparative in vitro metabolism studies. EFSA J 2021; 19:e06970. [PMID: 34987623 PMCID: PMC8696562 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
EFSA asked the Panel on Plant Protection Products and their residues to deliver a Scientific Opinion on testing and interpretation of comparative in vitro metabolism studies for both new active substances and existing ones. The main aim of comparative in vitro metabolism studies of pesticide active substances is to evaluate whether all significant metabolites formed in the human in vitro test system, as a surrogate of the in vivo situation, are also present at comparable level in animal species tested in toxicological studies and, therefore, if their potential toxicity has been appropriately covered by animal studies. The studies may also help to decide which animal model, with regard to a particular compound, is the most relevant for humans. In the experimental strategy, primary hepatocytes in suspension or culture are recommended since hepatocytes are considered the most representative in vitro system for prediction of in vivo metabolites. The experimental design of 3 × 3 × 3 (concentrations, time points, technical replicates, on pooled hepatocytes) will maximise the chance to identify unique (UHM) and disproportionate (DHM) human metabolites. When DHM and UHM are being assessed, test item-related radioactivity recovery and metabolite profile are the most important parameters. Subsequently, structural characterisation of the assigned metabolites is performed with appropriate analytical techniques. In toxicological assessment of metabolites, the uncertainty factor approach is the first alternative to testing option, followed by new approach methodologies (QSAR, read-across, in vitro methods), and only if these fail, in vivo animal toxicity studies may be performed. Knowledge of in vitro metabolites in human and animal hepatocytes would enable toxicological evaluation of all metabolites of concern, and, furthermore, add useful pieces of information for detection and evaluation of metabolites in different matrices (crops, livestock, environment), improve biomonitoring efforts via better toxicokinetic understanding, and ultimately, develop regulatory schemes employing physiologically based or physiology-mimicking in silico and/or in vitro test systems to anticipate the exposure of humans to potentially hazardous substances in plant protection products.
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20
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Abstract
There are many factors which are known to cause variability in human in vitro enzyme kinetic data. Factors such as the source of enzyme and how it was prepared, the genetics and background of the donor, how the in vitro studies are designed, and how the data are analyzed contribute to variability in the resulting kinetic parameters. It is important to consider not only the factors which cause variability within an experiment, such as selection of a probe substrate, but also those that cause variability when comparing kinetic data across studies and laboratories. For example, the artificial nature of the microsomal lipid membrane and microenvironment in some recombinantly expressed enzymes, relative to those found in native tissue microsomes, has been shown to influence enzyme activity and thus can be a source of variability when comparing across the two different systems. All of these factors, and several others, are discussed in detail in the chapter below. In addition, approaches which can be used to visualize the uncertainty arising from the use of enzyme kinetic data within the context of predicting human pharmacokinetics are discussed.
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21
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Monckton CP, Brown GE, Khetani SR. Latest impact of engineered human liver platforms on drug development. APL Bioeng 2021; 5:031506. [PMID: 34286173 PMCID: PMC8286174 DOI: 10.1063/5.0051765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a leading cause of drug attrition, which is partly due to differences between preclinical animals and humans in metabolic pathways. Therefore, in vitro human liver models are utilized in biopharmaceutical practice to mitigate DILI risk and assess related mechanisms of drug transport and metabolism. However, liver cells lose phenotypic functions within 1–3 days in two-dimensional monocultures on collagen-coated polystyrene/glass, which precludes their use to model the chronic effects of drugs and disease stimuli. To mitigate such a limitation, bioengineers have adapted tools from the semiconductor industry and additive manufacturing to precisely control the microenvironment of liver cells. Such tools have led to the fabrication of advanced two-dimensional and three-dimensional human liver platforms for different throughput needs and assay endpoints (e.g., micropatterned cocultures, spheroids, organoids, bioprinted tissues, and microfluidic devices); such platforms have significantly enhanced liver functions closer to physiologic levels and improved functional lifetime to >4 weeks, which has translated to higher sensitivity for predicting drug outcomes and enabling modeling of diseased phenotypes for novel drug discovery. Here, we focus on commercialized engineered liver platforms and case studies from the biopharmaceutical industry showcasing their impact on drug development. We also discuss emerging multi-organ microfluidic devices containing a liver compartment that allow modeling of inter-tissue crosstalk following drug exposure. Finally, we end with key requirements for engineered liver platforms to become routine fixtures in the biopharmaceutical industry toward reducing animal usage and providing patients with safe and efficacious drugs with unprecedented speed and reduced cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase P Monckton
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Grace E Brown
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Salman R Khetani
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
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Valdiviezo A, Luo YS, Chen Z, Chiu WA, Rusyn I. Quantitative in Vitro-to-in Vivo Extrapolation for Mixtures: A Case Study of Superfund Priority List Pesticides. Toxicol Sci 2021; 183:60-69. [PMID: 34142158 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfab076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro cell-based toxicity testing methods generate large amounts of data informative for risk-based evaluations. To allow extrapolation of the quantitative outputs from cell-based tests to the equivalent exposure levels in humans, reverse toxicokinetic (RTK) modeling is used to conduct in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) from in vitro effective concentrations to in vivo oral dose equivalents. IVIVE modeling approaches for individual chemicals are well-established; however, the potential implications of chemical-to-chemical interactions in mixture settings on IVIVE remains largely unexplored. We hypothesized that chemical co-exposures could modulate both protein binding efficiency and hepatocyte clearance of the chemicals in a mixture, which would in turn affect the quantitative IVIVE toxicokinetic parameters. To test this hypothesis, we used 20 pesticides from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) Substance Priority List, both individually and as equimolar mixtures, and investigated the concentration-dependent effects of chemical interactions on in vitro toxicokinetic parameters. Plasma protein binding efficiency was determined by using ultracentrifugation, and hepatocyte clearance was estimated in suspensions of cryopreserved primary human hepatocytes. We found that for single chemicals, the protein binding efficiencies were similar at different test concentrations. In a mixture, however, both protein binding efficiency and hepatocyte clearance were affected. When IVIVE was conducted using mixture-derived toxicokinetic data, more conservative estimates of Activity-to-Exposure Ratios (AERs) were produced as compared to using data from single chemical experiments. Because humans are exposed to mixtures of chemicals, this study is significant as it demonstrates the importance of incorporating mixture-derived parameters into IVIVE for in vitro bioactivity data in order to accurately prioritize risks and facilitate science-based decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Valdiviezo
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology and Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Yu-Syuan Luo
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology and Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Zunwei Chen
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology and Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Weihsueh A Chiu
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology and Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Ivan Rusyn
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology and Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843
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Kaur S, Tripathi DM, Ghosh S. Three-dimensional bioprinted hepatorganoids in liver failure. Gut 2021; 70:998-999. [PMID: 32694173 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-322317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Savneet Kaur
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Dinesh Mani Tripathi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Sourabh Ghosh
- Department of Textile and Fibre Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
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24
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Abstract
Accurate estimation of in vivo clearance in human is pivotal to determine the dose and dosing regimen for drug development. In vitro-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) has been performed to predict drug clearance using empirical and physiological scalars. Multiple in vitro systems and mathematical modeling techniques have been employed to estimate in vivo clearance. The models for predicting clearance have significantly improved and have evolved to become more complex by integrating multiple processes such as drug metabolism and transport as well as passive diffusion. This chapter covers the use of conventional as well as recently developed methods to predict metabolic and transporter-mediated clearance along with the advantages and disadvantages of using these methods and the associated experimental considerations. The general approaches to improve IVIVE by use of appropriate scalars, incorporation of extrahepatic metabolism and transport and application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models with proteomics data are also discussed. The chapter also provides an overview of the advantages of using such dynamic mechanistic models over static models for clearance predictions to improve IVIVE.
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Milner E, Ainsworth M, McDonough M, Stevens B, Buehrer J, Delzell R, Wilson C, Barnhill J. Emerging Three-Dimensional Hepatic Models in Relation to Traditional Two-Dimensional In Vitro Assays for Evaluating Drug Metabolism and Hepatoxicity. MEDICINE IN DRUG DISCOVERY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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26
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Docci L, Klammers F, Ekiciler A, Molitor B, Umehara K, Walter I, Krähenbühl S, Parrott N, Fowler S. In Vitro to In Vivo Extrapolation of Metabolic Clearance for UGT Substrates Using Short-Term Suspension and Long-Term Co-cultured Human Hepatocytes. AAPS JOURNAL 2020; 22:131. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00482-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Cuypers ML, Chanteux H, Gillent E, Bonnaillie P, Saunders K, Beckers C, Delatour C, Dell'Aiera S, Ungell AL, Nicolaï J. (-)- N-3-Benzylphenobarbital Is Superior to Omeprazole and (+)- N-3-Benzylnirvanol as a CYP2C19 Inhibitor in Suspended Human Hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2020; 48:1121-1128. [PMID: 32839278 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.000089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Early assessment of metabolism pathways of new chemical entities guides the understanding of drug-drug interactions. Selective enzyme inhibitors are indispensable in CYP reaction phenotyping. The most commonly applied CYP2C19 inhibitor, omeprazole, lacks selectivity. Two promising alternatives, (+)-N-3-benzylnirvanol and (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital, are already used as CYP2C19 inhibitors in some in vitro studies with suspended human hepatocytes. However, a full validation proving their suitability in terms of CYP and non-CYP selectivity has not been presented in literature. The present study provides a thorough comparison between omeprazole, (+)-N-3-benzylnirvanol, and (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital in terms of potency and selectivity and shows the superiority of (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital as a CYP2C19 inhibitor in suspended human hepatocytes. Furthermore, we evaluated the application of (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital to predict the in vivo contribution of CYP2C19 to drug metabolism [fraction metabolized (fm) of CYP2C19, fmCYP2C19]. A set of 10 clinically used CYP2C19 substrates with reported in vivo fmCYP2C19 data was evaluated. fmCYP2C19, which was predicted using data from suspended human hepatocyte incubations, underestimated the in vivo fmCYP2C19 The use of a different hepatocyte batch with a different CYP3A4/CYP2C19 activity ratio showed the impact of intrinsic CYP activities on the determination of fmCYP2C19 Overall, this study confirms the selective CYP2C19 inhibition by (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital over other CYP isoforms (CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4) and clinically relevant non-CYP enzymes [aldehyde oxidase, flavin-containing monooxygenase 3, N-acetyltransferase 2, uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1, UGT1A4, UGT2B7, UGT2B15] in suspended human hepatocytes. (-)-N-3-benzylphenobarbital is therefore the preferred CYP2C19 inhibitor to assess fmCYP2C19 in suspended human hepatocytes in comparison with omeprazole and (+)-N-3-benzylnirvanol. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: (-)-N-3-Benzylphenobarbital is a more potent and selective inhibitor of CYP2C19 in suspended human hepatocytes than omeprazole and (+)-N-3-benzylnirvanol. (-)-N-3-Benzylphenobarbital can be used to predict the fraction metabolized by CYP2C19 in suspended human hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Lynn Cuypers
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Hugues Chanteux
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Eric Gillent
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Pierre Bonnaillie
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Kenneth Saunders
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Claire Beckers
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Claude Delatour
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Sylvie Dell'Aiera
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Anna-Lena Ungell
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
| | - Johan Nicolaï
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium (M.-L.C., C.B.) and Development Science, UCB Biopharma SRL, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (H.C., E.G., P.B., K.S., C.D., S.D., A.-L.U., J.N.)
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Weeks J, Li AP, Doshi U, Johanning K, Guiney PD. In vitro evaluation of the metabolic stability of nine fragrance chemicals in trout and human hepatocytes. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 40:1421-1434. [PMID: 32488907 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In vitro metabolic stability of nine fragrance chemicals: p-tolyl acetate, cashmeran, ethylene brassylate, celestolide, galaxolide, traseolide, ambretone, tonalide and pentadecanolide, was evaluated in trout and human hepatocytes. The compounds were incubated with trout hepatocytes at 12°C and human hepatocytes at 37°C. Quantification of compound disappearance with time was performed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. in vivo hepatic intrinsic clearance values were calculated from the in vitro data. Significant metabolism was observed with trout hepatocytes for five of the nine fragrance chemicals, while all nine were metabolized significantly with human hepatocytes. Previously published models were used to examine expected bioaccumulation and persistence in whole organisms. Calculated half-lives due to metabolism of the nine chemicals are significantly shorter for humans than trout: <1 hour and <1 day, respectively. For all chemicals with demonstrated hepatic metabolism, the models indicate a lack of accumulation. For those where metabolism was demonstrated in trout, calculated bioconcentration factors would not be classified as bioaccumulative under prevailing regulatory systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Weeks
- S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., Racine, Wisconsin, US
| | - Albert P Li
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories LLC, Columbia, Maryland, US
| | - Utkarsh Doshi
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories LLC, Columbia, Maryland, US.,Altria Client Services LLC, Richmond, Virginia, US
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29
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Establishment of a primary human hepatocyte spheroid system for evaluating metabolic toxicity using dacarbazine under conditions of CYP1A2 induction. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2020; 35:201-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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30
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Louisse J, Alewijn M, Peijnenburg AA, Cnubben NH, Heringa MB, Coecke S, Punt A. Towards harmonization of test methods for in vitro hepatic clearance studies. Toxicol In Vitro 2020; 63:104722. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.104722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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31
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Fowler S, Chen WLK, Duignan DB, Gupta A, Hariparsad N, Kenny JR, Lai WG, Liras J, Phillips JA, Gan J. Microphysiological systems for ADME-related applications: current status and recommendations for system development and characterization. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:446-467. [PMID: 31932816 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00857h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, progress has been made on the development of microphysiological systems (MPS) for absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) applications. Central to this progress has been proof of concept data generated by academic and industrial institutions followed by broader characterization studies, which provide evidence for scalability and applicability to drug discovery and development. In this review, we describe some of the advances made for specific tissue MPS and outline the desired functionality for such systems, which are likely to make them applicable for practical use in the pharmaceutical industry. Single organ MPS platforms will be valuable for modelling tissue-specific functions. However, dynamic organ crosstalk, especially in the context of disease or toxicity, can only be obtained with the use of inter-linked MPS models which will enable scientists to address questions at the intersection of pharmacokinetics (PK) and efficacy, or PK and toxicity. In the future, successful application of MPS platforms that closely mimic human physiology may ultimately reduce the need for animal models to predict ADME outcomes and decrease the overall risk and cost associated with drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Fowler
- Pharma Research and Early Development, F.Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Grenzacherstrasse 124, CH4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - David B Duignan
- Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics & Bioanalysis, AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA
| | - Anshul Gupta
- Amgen Research, 360 Binney St, Cambridge, MA 02141, USA
| | - Niresh Hariparsad
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Vertex Pharmaceuticals, 50 Northern Ave, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jane R Kenny
- DMPK, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco 94080, USA
| | | | - Jennifer Liras
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Inc, 1 Portland Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Jinping Gan
- Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization, Bristol-Myers Squibb R&D, PO Box 4000, Princeton, NJ 08543-4000, USA.
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Holmgren G, Ulfenborg B, Asplund A, Toet K, Andersson CX, Hammarstedt A, Hanemaaijer R, Küppers-Munther B, Synnergren J. Characterization of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hepatocytes with Mature Features and Potential for Modeling Metabolic Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020469. [PMID: 31940797 PMCID: PMC7014160 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a strong anticipated future for human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes (hiPS-HEP), but so far, their use has been limited due to insufficient functionality. We investigated the potential of hiPS-HEP as an in vitro model for metabolic diseases by combining transcriptomics with multiple functional assays. The transcriptomics analysis revealed that 86% of the genes were expressed at similar levels in hiPS-HEP as in human primary hepatocytes (hphep). Adult characteristics of the hiPS-HEP were confirmed by the presence of important hepatocyte features, e.g., Albumin secretion and expression of major drug metabolizing genes. Normal energy metabolism is crucial for modeling metabolic diseases, and both transcriptomics data and functional assays showed that hiPS-HEP were similar to hphep regarding uptake of glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and fatty acids. Importantly, the inflammatory state of the hiPS-HEP was low under standard conditions, but in response to lipid accumulation and ER stress the inflammation marker tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) was upregulated. Furthermore, hiPS-HEP could be co-cultured with primary hepatic stellate cells both in 2D and in 3D spheroids, paving the way for using these co-cultures for modeling non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Taken together, hiPS-HEP have the potential to serve as an in vitro model for metabolic diseases. Furthermore, differently expressed genes identified in this study can serve as targets for future improvements of the hiPS-HEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Holmgren
- Systems biology research center, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde, 54128 Skövde, Sweden; (G.H.); (J.S.)
| | - Benjamin Ulfenborg
- Systems biology research center, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde, 54128 Skövde, Sweden; (G.H.); (J.S.)
- Correspondence: (B.U.); (B.K.-M.)
| | - Annika Asplund
- R&D, Hepatocyte Product Development, Takara Bio Europe AB, 41346 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.A.)
| | - Karin Toet
- Department of Metabolic Health Research, TNO, 2333 Leiden, The Netherlands; (K.T.); (R.H.)
| | - Christian X Andersson
- R&D, Hepatocyte Product Development, Takara Bio Europe AB, 41346 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.A.)
| | - Ann Hammarstedt
- The Lundberg Laboratory for Diabetes Research, Departments of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 41345 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Roeland Hanemaaijer
- Department of Metabolic Health Research, TNO, 2333 Leiden, The Netherlands; (K.T.); (R.H.)
| | - Barbara Küppers-Munther
- R&D, Hepatocyte Product Development, Takara Bio Europe AB, 41346 Gothenburg, Sweden; (A.A.)
- Correspondence: (B.U.); (B.K.-M.)
| | - Jane Synnergren
- Systems biology research center, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde, 54128 Skövde, Sweden; (G.H.); (J.S.)
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Maeng HJ, Yoon JH, Chun KH, Kim ST, Jang DJ, Park JE, Kim YH, Kim SB, Kim YC. Metabolic Stability of D-Allulose in Biorelevant Media and Hepatocytes: Comparison with Fructose and Erythritol. Foods 2019; 8:foods8100448. [PMID: 31581594 PMCID: PMC6835332 DOI: 10.3390/foods8100448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
D-allulose, a C-3 epimer of D-fructose, is a rare monosaccharide used as a food ingredient or a sweetener. In the present study, the in vitro metabolic stability of D-allulose was examined in biorelevant media, that is, simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and fasted state simulated intestinal fluid (FaSSIF) containing digestive enzymes, and in cryopreserved human and rat hepatocytes. The hepatocyte metabolic stabilities of D-allulose were also investigated and compared with those of fructose and erythritol (a sugar-alcohol with no calorific value). D-allulose was highly stable in SGF (97.8% remained after 60 min) and in FaSSIF (101.3% remained after 240 min), indicating it is neither pH-labile nor degraded in the gastrointestinal tract. D-allulose also exhibited high levels of stability in human and rat hepatocytes (94.5–96.8% remained after 240 min), whereas fructose was rapidly metabolized (43.1–52.6% remained), which suggested these two epimers are metabolized in completely different ways in the liver. The effects of D-allulose on glucose and fructose levels were negligible in hepatocytes. Erythritol was stable in human and rat hepatocytes (102.1–102.9% remained after 240 min). Intravenous pharmacokinetic studies in rats showed D-allulose was eliminated with a mean half-life of 72.2 min and a systemic clearance of 15.8 mL/min/kg. Taken together, our results indicate that D-allulose is not metabolized in the liver, and thus, unlikely to contribute to hepatic energy production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Joo Maeng
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Jin-Ha Yoon
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Kwang-Hoon Chun
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea.
| | - Sung Tae Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Dong-Jin Jang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
| | - Ji-Eun Park
- Food Research Institute, CJ CheilJedang Corp., Suwon 16495, Korea.
| | - Yang Hee Kim
- Food Research Institute, CJ CheilJedang Corp., Suwon 16495, Korea.
| | - Seong-Bo Kim
- Food Research Institute, CJ CheilJedang Corp., Suwon 16495, Korea.
| | - Yu Chul Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae 50834, Korea.
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Metabolic stability and its role in the discovery of new chemical entities. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2019; 69:345-361. [PMID: 31259741 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2019-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Determination of metabolic profiles of new chemical entities is a key step in the process of drug discovery, since it influences pharmacokinetic characteristics of therapeutic compounds. One of the main challenges of medicinal chemistry is not only to design compounds demonstrating beneficial activity, but also molecules exhibiting favourable pharmacokinetic parameters. Chemical compounds can be divided into those which are metabolized relatively fast and those which undergo slow biotransformation. Rapid biotransformation reduces exposure to the maternal compound and may lead to the generation of active, non-active or toxic metabolites. In contrast, high metabolic stability may promote interactions between drugs and lead to parent compound toxicity. In the present paper, issues of compound metabolic stability will be discussed, with special emphasis on its significance, in vitro metabolic stability testing, dilemmas regarding in vitro-in vivo extrapolation of the results and some aspects relating to different preclinical species used in in vitro metabolic stability assessment of compounds.
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Successful Prediction of Human Pharmacokinetics by Improving Calculation Processes of Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Approach. J Pharm Sci 2019; 108:2718-2727. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Ohbuchi M. [Application of novel 3D-bioprinted human liver tissue models in drug discovery research]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2019; 153:284-288. [PMID: 31178534 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.153.284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Primary human hepatocytes are widely used to study drug metabolism and enzyme induction. However, primary hepatocytes rapidly lose their hepatic function in conventional 2D cultures. Recently, a microphysiological system that overcomes this drawback has been actively investigated and applied in drug discovery research. Such novel in vitro models are desirable for the evaluation of the metabolic clearance of drugs with low turnover, drug-induced liver injury, and chronic liver diseases like liver fibrosis. This article reviews the characteristics and recent advances in 3D-bioprinted human liver tissue models in drug discovery research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Ohbuchi
- Analysis & Pharmacokinetic Research Labs., Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc
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Docci L, Parrott N, Krähenbühl S, Fowler S. Application of New Cellular and Microphysiological Systems to Drug Metabolism Optimization and Their Positioning Respective to In Silico Tools. SLAS DISCOVERY 2019; 24:523-536. [PMID: 30817893 DOI: 10.1177/2472555219831407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
New cellular model systems for drug metabolism applications, such as advanced 2D liver co-cultures, spheroids, and microphysiological systems (MPSs), offer exciting opportunities to reproduce human biology more closely in vitro with the aim of improving predictions of pharmacokinetics, drug-drug interactions, and efficacy. These advanced cellular systems have quickly become established for human intrinsic clearance determination and have been validated for several other absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) applications. Adoption will be driven through the demonstration of clear added value, for instance, by more accurate and precise clearance predictions and by more reliable extrapolation of drug interaction potential leading to faster progression to pivotal proof-of-concept studies. New experimental systems are attractive when they can (1) increase experimental capacity, removing optimization bottlenecks; (2) improve measurement quality of ADME properties that impact pharmacokinetics; and (3) enable measurements to be made that were not previously possible, reducing risk in ADME prediction and candidate selection. As new systems become established, they will find their place in the repository of tools used at different stages of the research and development process, depending on the balance of value, throughput, and cost. In this article, we give a perspective on the integration of these new methodologies into ADME optimization during drug discovery, and the likely applications and impacts on drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Docci
- 1 Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,2 Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Neil Parrott
- 1 Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Stephen Fowler
- 1 Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Centre Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Ramaiahgari SC, Ferguson SS. Organotypic 3D HepaRG Liver Model for Assessment of Drug-Induced Cholestasis. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1981:313-323. [PMID: 31016663 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9420-5_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cholestasis remains a major challenge in drug-induced liver injury, and therefore warrants identification of chemical entities that may lead to cholestasis. Recent advances in cell culture methods enable 3D spheroid models to remain viable for much longer periods of time than conventional sandwich cultures of primary human hepatocytes while maintaining native tissue-like functionality, such as drug metabolism activity, receptor signaling functionality, and physiological relevance. These spheroid models enable us to study repeated exposure effects associated with chemicals and their metabolites that may ultimately progress to cholestasis and liver injury. HepaRG cells cultured as spheroids are viable for more than 4 weeks with cytochrome P450 enzymatic activities comparable to ranges observed in freshly isolated/cryopreserved suspensions of primary human hepatocytes. HepaRG spheroids form bile canalicular structures with potential application as a model to study biliary excretion processes and intrahepatic obstruction of bile flow, leading to hepatocellular damage and death. In this chapter, we describe methods to culture 3D spheroids of HepaRG cells with extensive bile canalicular structures/networks, image transport of bile acid (cholyl-lysyl-fluorescein) to the bile canaliculi, and measure cholestatic drug-induced cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreenivasa C Ramaiahgari
- Division of National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Stephen S Ferguson
- Division of National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Durham, NC, USA.
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Gouliarmou V, Lostia AM, Coecke S, Bernasconi C, Bessems J, Dorne JL, Ferguson S, Testai E, Remy UG, Brian Houston J, Monshouwer M, Nong A, Pelkonen O, Morath S, Wetmore BA, Worth A, Zanelli U, Zorzoli MC, Whelan M. Establishing a systematic framework to characterise in vitro methods for human hepatic metabolic clearance. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 53:233-244. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Burton RD, Hieronymus T, Chamem T, Heim D, Anderson S, Zhu X, Hutzler JM. Assessment of the Biotransformation of Low-Turnover Drugs in the H µREL Human Hepatocyte Coculture Model. Drug Metab Dispos 2018; 46:1617-1625. [PMID: 30135244 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.082867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic profiles of four drugs possessing diverse metabolic pathways (timolol, meloxicam, linezolid, and XK469) were compared following incubations in both suspended cryopreserved human hepatocytes and the HμREL hepatocyte coculture model. In general, minimal metabolism was observed following 4-hour incubations in both suspended hepatocytes and the HμREL model, whereas incubations conducted up to 7 days in the HμREL coculture model resulted in more robust metabolic turnover. In the case of timolol, in vivo human data suggest that 22% of the dose is transformed via multistep oxidative opening of the morpholine moiety. Only the first-step oxidation was detected in suspended hepatocytes, whereas the relevant downstream metabolites were produced in the HµREL model. For meloxicam, both the hydroxymethyl and subsequent carboxylic acid metabolites were abundant following incubation in the HμREL model, while only a trace amount of the hydroxymethyl metabolite was observed in suspension. Similar to timolol, linezolid generated substantially higher levels of morpholine ring-opened carboxylic acid metabolites in the HμREL model. Finally, while the major aldehyde oxidase-mediated mono-oxidative metabolite of XK469 was minimally produced in hepatocyte suspension, the HμREL model robustly produced this metabolite, consistent with a pathway reported to account for 54% of the total urinary excretion in human. In addition, low-level taurine and glycine conjugates were identified in the HµREL model. In summary, continuous metabolite production was observed for up to 7 days of incubation in the HµREL model, covering cytochrome P450, aldehyde oxidase, and numerous conjugative pathways, while predominant metabolites correlated with relevant metabolites reported in human in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Burton
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Todd Hieronymus
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Taysir Chamem
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - David Heim
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Shelby Anderson
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Xiaochun Zhu
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - J Matthew Hutzler
- Q Solutions, a Quintiles Quest Joint Venture, Bioanalytical and ADME Laboratories, Indianapolis, Indiana
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41
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Lancett P, Williamson B, Barton P, Riley RJ. Development and Characterization of a Human Hepatocyte Low Intrinsic Clearance Assay for Use in Drug Discovery. Drug Metab Dispos 2018; 46:1169-1178. [PMID: 29880630 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.081596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Progression of new chemical entities is a multiparametric process involving a balance of potency; absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion; and safety properties. To accurately predict human pharmacokinetics and estimate human efficacious dose, the use of in vitro measures of clearance is often essential. Low metabolic clearance is often targeted to facilitate in vivo exposure and achieve appropriate half-life. Suspension primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) have been successfully used in predictions of clearance. However, incubation times are limited, hindering the limit of quantification. The aims herein were to evaluate the ability of a novel PHH media supplement, HepExtend, in order to maintain cell function, increase culture times, and define the clearance of stable compounds. Cell activity was analyzed with a range of cytochrome P450 (P450) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) substrates, and the mRNA expression of drug disposition and toxicity marker genes was determined. HepExtend and Geltrex were essential to maintain cell activity and viability for 5 days (N = 3 donors). In comparison with CM4000 ± Geltrex, HepExtend + Geltrex displayed a higher level of gene expression on day 1, particularly for the P450s, nuclear receptors, and UGTs. The novel medium, HepExtend + Geltrex, was robust and reproducible in generating statistically significant intrinsic clearance values at 0.1 µl/min/106 cells over a 30-hour period (P < 0.05), which was lower than previously demonstrated. Following regression correction, human hepatic in vivo clearance was predicted within 3-fold for 83% of compounds tested for three human donors, with an average fold error of 2.2. The novel PHH medium, HepExtend, with matrix overlay offers significant improvement in determining compounds with low intrinsic clearance when compared with alternative approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Lancett
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Evotec, Abingdon, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Beth Williamson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Evotec, Abingdon, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Barton
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Evotec, Abingdon, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robert J Riley
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Evotec, Abingdon, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Da-Silva F, Boulenc X, Vermet H, Compigne P, Gerbal-Chaloin S, Daujat-Chavanieu M, Klieber S, Poulin P. Improving Prediction of Metabolic Clearance Using Quantitative Extrapolation of Results Obtained From Human Hepatic Micropatterned Cocultures Model and by Considering the Impact of Albumin Binding. J Pharm Sci 2018. [PMID: 29524447 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The objective was to compare, with the same data set, the predictive performance of 3 in vitro assays of hepatic clearance (CL), namely, micropatterned cocultures (also referring to HepatoPac®) and suspension as well as monolayer hepatocytes to define which assay is the most accurate. Furthermore, existing in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) methods were challenged to verify which method is the most predictive (i.e., direct scaling method without binding correction, conventional method based either on the unbound fraction in plasma (fup) according to the free-drug hypothesis, or based on an fup value adjusted for the albumin [ALB]-facilitated hepatic uptake phenomenon). Accordingly, the role of ALB binding was specifically challenged, and consequently, the ALB production was monitored in parallel to the metabolic stability. The ALB concentration data were used to compare the in vitro assays and to adjust the value of fup of each drug to mimic the ALB-facilitated hepatic uptake phenomenon. The results confirmed that the direct and conventional IVIVE methods generally overpredicted and underpredicted the CL in vivo in humans, respectively. However, the underprediction of the conventional IVIVE method based on fup was significantly reduced from data generated with the HepatoPac® system compared with the 2 other in vitro assays, which is possibly because that system is producing ALB at a rate much closer to the in vivo condition in liver. Hence, these observations suggest that the presence of more ALB molecules per hepatocyte in that HepatoPac® system may have facilitated the hepatic uptake of several bound drugs because their intrinsic CL was increased instead of being decreased by the ALB binding effect. Accordingly, the IVIVE method based on the fup value adjusted for the ALB-facilitated uptake phenomenon gave the lowest prediction bias from the statistical analyses. This study indicated that the HepatoPac® system combined with the adjusted value of fup was the most reliable IVIVE method and revealed the importance of quantifying the in vitro-to-in vivo variation of ALB concentration to improve the CL predictions, which would help any future physiologically based pharmacokinetics modeling exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Da-Silva
- Sanofi R&D, Montpellier, France; Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Biotherapy, Université et CHU de Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | | | - Sabine Gerbal-Chaloin
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Biotherapy, Université et CHU de Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Martine Daujat-Chavanieu
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Biotherapy, Université et CHU de Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Patrick Poulin
- Consultant, Patrick Poulin Inc., Québec City, Canada; Associate professor, School of Public Health, IRSPUM, Université de Montréal, Canada
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43
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Thacker SE, Nautiyal M, Otieno MA, Watkins PB, Mosedale M. Optimized Methods to Explore the Mechanistic and Biomarker Potential of Hepatocyte-Derived Exosomes in Drug-Induced Liver Injury. Toxicol Sci 2018; 163:92-100. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfy015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Thacker
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics and Institute for Drug Safety Sciences, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Manisha Nautiyal
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics and Institute for Drug Safety Sciences, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Monicah A Otieno
- Preclinical Development and Safety, Janssen Research and Development, LLC, Spring House, Pennsylvania 19477
| | - Paul B Watkins
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics and Institute for Drug Safety Sciences, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Merrie Mosedale
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics and Institute for Drug Safety Sciences, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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44
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Bell SM, Chang X, Wambaugh JF, Allen DG, Bartels M, Brouwer KLR, Casey WM, Choksi N, Ferguson SS, Fraczkiewicz G, Jarabek AM, Ke A, Lumen A, Lynn SG, Paini A, Price PS, Ring C, Simon TW, Sipes NS, Sprankle CS, Strickland J, Troutman J, Wetmore BA, Kleinstreuer NC. In vitro to in vivo extrapolation for high throughput prioritization and decision making. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 47:213-227. [PMID: 29203341 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In vitro chemical safety testing methods offer the potential for efficient and economical tools to provide relevant assessments of human health risk. To realize this potential, methods are needed to relate in vitro effects to in vivo responses, i.e., in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE). Currently available IVIVE approaches need to be refined before they can be utilized for regulatory decision-making. To explore the capabilities and limitations of IVIVE within this context, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development and the National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods co-organized a workshop and webinar series. Here, we integrate content from the webinars and workshop to discuss activities and resources that would promote inclusion of IVIVE in regulatory decision-making. We discuss properties of models that successfully generate predictions of in vivo doses from effective in vitro concentration, including the experimental systems that provide input parameters for these models, areas of success, and areas for improvement to reduce model uncertainty. Finally, we provide case studies on the uses of IVIVE in safety assessments, which highlight the respective differences, information requirements, and outcomes across various approaches when applied for decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon M Bell
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Xiaoqing Chang
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - John F Wambaugh
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - David G Allen
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | | | - Kim L R Brouwer
- UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 7569, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Warren M Casey
- National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Neepa Choksi
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Stephen S Ferguson
- National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | | | - Annie M Jarabek
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Alice Ke
- Simcyp Limited (a Certara company), John Street, Sheffield, S2 4SU, United Kingdom.
| | - Annie Lumen
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Scott G Lynn
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, William Jefferson Clinton Building, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20460, USA.
| | - Alicia Paini
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate Health, Consumers and Reference Materials, Chemical Safety and Alternative Methods Unit incorporating EURL ECVAM, Via E. Fermi 2749, Ispra, Varese 20127, Italy.
| | - Paul S Price
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Caroline Ring
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, P.O. Box 2008, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.
| | - Ted W Simon
- Ted Simon LLC, 4184 Johnston Road, Winston, GA 30187, USA.
| | - Nisha S Sipes
- National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Catherine S Sprankle
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Judy Strickland
- Integrated Laboratory Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 13501, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - John Troutman
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Cincinnati, OH 45202, USA.
| | - Barbara A Wetmore
- ScitoVation LLC, 6 Davis Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Nicole C Kleinstreuer
- National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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Novik EI, Dwyer J, Morelli JK, Parekh A, Cho C, Pludwinski E, Shrirao A, Freedman RM, MacDonald JS, Jayyosi Z. Long-enduring primary hepatocyte-based co-cultures improve prediction of hepatotoxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2017; 336:20-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2017.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Cassidy KC, Yi P. Qualitative and quantitative prediction of human in vivo metabolic pathways in a human hepatocyte-murine stromal cell co-culture model. Xenobiotica 2017; 48:1192-1205. [DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2017.1395927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ping Yi
- Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Centre , Indianapolis, IN , USA
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47
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den Braver-Sewradj SP, den Braver MW, Baze A, Decorde J, Fonsi M, Bachellier P, Vermeulen NPE, Commandeur JNM, Richert L, Vos JC. Direct comparison of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase and cytochrome P450 activities in human liver microsomes, plated and suspended primary human hepatocytes from five liver donors. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 109:96-110. [PMID: 28778465 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) and cytochrome P450s (CYPs) are the major enzymes involved in hepatic metabolism of drugs. Hepatic drug metabolism is commonly investigated using human liver microsomes (HLM) or primary human hepatocytes (PHH). We describe the development of a sensitive assay to phenotype activities of six major hepatic UGT isoforms (UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A9 and UGT2B7) in intact PHH by analysis of glucuronidation of selective probe substrates. The non-selective, general substrate 7-hydroxycoumarin was included for comparison. For each liver donor preparation (five donors) UGT activities in cryopreserved suspended and plated PHH were compared to HLM prepared from the same donors. Standard CYP reaction phenotyping of seven major isoforms was performed in parallel. For all donors, CYP- and UGT-isoforms activity profiles were comparable in PHH and HLM, indicating that reaction phenotyping with selective probe substrates in intact cells primarily reflects respective CYP or UGT activity. System-dependent effects on UGT and CYP isoform activity were still found. While UGT activity of UGT1A1 was equivalent in plated and suspended PHH, UGT1A3, UGT1A6 and UGT2B7 activity was higher in suspended PHH and UGT1A9 and UGT1A4 activity was higher in plated PHH. The well-known decrease in activity of most CYP isoforms in plated compared to suspended PHH was confirmed. Importantly, we found a significant loss in CYP2C19 and CYP2B6 in HLM, activity being lower than in intact cells. Taken together, these findings implicate that, dependent on the UGT or CYP isoforms involved in the metabolism of a given compound, the outcome of metabolic assays is strongly dependent on the choice of the in vitro system. The currently described UGT- and CYP- activity profiling method can be used as a standard assay in intact cells and can especially aid in reaction phenotyping of in vitro systems for which a limited number of cells are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalenie P den Braver-Sewradj
- AIMMS-Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, O
- 2 building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel W den Braver
- AIMMS-Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, O
- 2 building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Audrey Baze
- Kaly-Cell, 20A Rue du Général Leclerc, Plobsheim, France; UNISTRA, 4 Rue Blaise Pascal, Strasbourg, France
| | | | | | - Philippe Bachellier
- UNISTRA, 4 Rue Blaise Pascal, Strasbourg, France; Centre de Chirurgie Viscérale et de Transplantation, Hôpital de Hautepierre, 67098 Strasbourg, France
| | - Nico P E Vermeulen
- AIMMS-Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, O
- 2 building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan N M Commandeur
- AIMMS-Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, O
- 2 building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lysiane Richert
- Kaly-Cell, 20A Rue du Général Leclerc, Plobsheim, France; PEPITE EA4267, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-25000 Besançon, France.
| | - J Chris Vos
- AIMMS-Division of Molecular Toxicology, Department of Chemistry & Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, O
- 2 building, De Boelelaan 1108, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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48
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Ma B, Eisenhandler R, Kuo Y, Rearden P, Li Y, Manley PJ, Smith S, Menzel K. Prediction of Metabolic Clearance for Low-Turnover Compounds Using Plated Hepatocytes with Enzyme Activity Correction. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2017; 42:319-326. [PMID: 27101423 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-016-0336-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Prediction of metabolic clearance has been a challenge for compounds exhibiting minimal turnover in typical in vitro stability experiments. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the utilization of plated human hepatocytes to predict intrinsic clearance of low-turnover compounds. METHODS The disappearance of test compounds was determined for up to 48 h while enzyme activities in plated hepatocytes were monitored concurrently in a complimentary experiment. RESULTS Consistent with literature reports, marked time-dependent loss of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activities was observed during the 48-h incubation period. To account for the loss of enzyme activities, a term "fraction of activity remaining" was calculated based on area-under-the-curve derived from the average rate of activity loss (k avg), and then applied as a correction factor for intrinsic clearance determination. Twelve compounds were selected in this study to cover phase I and phase II biotransformation pathways, with in vivo intrinsic clearance values, representing metabolic clearance only, ranging from 0.66 to 47 ml/min/kg. Determination of in vitro intrinsic clearance using three individual preparations of hepatocytes revealed a reasonably good agreement (generally within threefold) between the predicted and the observed metabolic clearance for all 12 compounds tested. CONCLUSIONS The current results indicated that plated hepatocytes can be utilized to provide clearance predictions for compounds with low-turnover in humans when corrected for the loss in enzyme activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett Ma
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA.
| | - Roy Eisenhandler
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA
| | - Yuhsin Kuo
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA
| | - Paul Rearden
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, Kenilworth, NJ, USA
| | - Peter J Manley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, USA
| | - Sheri Smith
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA
| | - Karsten Menzel
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, 19486, USA
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Evaluation of transcriptomic signature as a valuable tool to study drug-induced cholestasis in primary human hepatocytes. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:2879-2893. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-1930-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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50
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Kratochwil NA, Meille C, Fowler S, Klammers F, Ekiciler A, Molitor B, Simon S, Walter I, McGinnis C, Walther J, Leonard B, Triyatni M, Javanbakht H, Funk C, Schuler F, Lavé T, Parrott NJ. Metabolic Profiling of Human Long-Term Liver Models and Hepatic Clearance Predictions from In Vitro Data Using Nonlinear Mixed-Effects Modeling. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:534-550. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-016-0019-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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