Nanoparticle formulations in pulmonary drug delivery

Tailoring lipid nanoparticles for T-cell targeting in allergic asthma: Insights into efficacy and specificity

Asthma impacts over 300 million patients globally, with significant health implications, especially in cases of its allergic subtype. The disease is characterized by a complex interplay of airway inflammation and immune responses, often mediated by Th2 cell-related cytokines. In this study, we engineered lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to specifically deliver therapeutic siRNA via the transferrin receptor to T cells. Strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) was employed for the conjugation of transferrin ligands to PEGylated lipids in the LNPs, with the goal of enhancing cellular uptake and gene knockdown. The obtained LNPs exhibited characteristics that make them suitable for pulmonary delivery. Using methods such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we determined the average number of transferrin molecules bound to individual LNPs. Additionally, we found that cellular uptake was ligand-dependent, achieving a GATA3 knockdown of more than 50% in relevant in vitro and ex vivo models. Notably, our findings highlight the limitations inherent to modifying the surface of LNPs, particularly with regard to their targeting capabilities. This work paves the way for future research aimed at optimizing targeted LNPs for the treatment of immunologic diseases such as allergic asthma.

Polymersomes for Therapeutic Protein and Peptide Delivery: Towards Better Loading Properties

Therapeutics based on proteins and peptides have profoundly transformed the landscape of treatment for diseases, from diabetes mellitus to cancers, yet the short half-life and low bioavailability of therapeutic proteins and peptides hinder their wide applications. To break through this bottleneck, biomolecules-loaded polymersomes with strong adjustability and versatility have attracted more and more attentions recently. Loading proteins or peptides into polymersomes is the first but extremely important step towards developing high-quality formulation products. However, increasing protein and peptide loading content is quite challenging due to the inherent nature of self-assembled vesicle formation mechanism and physiochemical characteristics of biomacromolecules. This review highlights the potential of polymersomes as the next-generation therapeutic proteins and peptides carrier and emphatically introduces novel approaches and recent progress to achieve satisfactory encapsulation capability of polymersomes for proteins and peptides. On the one hand, with the help of intermolecular interactions, such as electrostatic, lipid-protein, and hydrophobic interactions, the drug loading could be significantly improved. On the other hand, loading improvement could be attained through innovation of preparation methods, ranging from modified traditional film hydration techniques to the novel phase-guided assembly method.

Nano-Formulations for Pulmonary Delivery: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives

With the development of nanotechnology and confronting the problems of traditional pharmaceutical formulations in treating lung diseases, inhalable nano-formulations have attracted interest. Inhalable nano-formulations for treating lung diseases allow for precise pulmonary drug delivery, overcoming physiological barriers, improving aerosol lung deposition rates, and increasing drug bioavailability. They are expected to solve the difficulties faced in treating lung diseases. However, limited success has been recorded in the industrialization translation of inhalable nano-formulations. Only one relevant product has been approved by the FDA to date, suggesting that there are still many issues to be resolved in the clinical application of inhalable nano-formulations. These systems are characterized by a dependence on inhalation devices, while the adaptability of device formulation is still inconclusive, which is the most important issue impeding translational research. In this review, we categorized various inhalable nano-formulations, summarized the advantages of inhalable nano-formulations over conventional inhalation formulations, and listed the inhalable nano-formulations undergoing clinical studies. We focused on the influence of inhalation devices on nano-formulations and analyzed their adaptability. After extensive analysis of the drug delivery mechanisms, technical processes, and limitations of different inhalation devices, we concluded that vibrating mesh nebulizers might be most suitable for delivering inhalable nano-formulations, and related examples were introduced to validate our view. Finally, we presented the challenges and outlook for future development. We anticipate providing an informative reference for the field.

Pulmonary delivery of nano-particles for lung cancer diagnosis and therapy: Recent advances and future prospects

Although our understanding of lung cancer has significantly improved in the past decade, it is still a disease with a high incidence and mortality rate. The key reason is that the efficacy of the therapeutic drugs is limited, mainly due to insufficient doses of drugs delivered to the lungs. To achieve precise lung cancer diagnosis and treatment, nano-particles (NPs) pulmonary delivery techniques have attracted much attention and facilitate the exploration of the potential of those in inhalable NPs targeting tumor lesions. Since the therapeutic research focusing on pulmonary delivery NPs has rapidly developed and evolved substantially, this review will mainly discuss the current developments of pulmonary delivery NPs for precision lung cancer diagnosis and therapy. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Respiratory Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Targeted Delivery of the Pan-Inflammasome Inhibitor MM01 as an Alternative Approach to Acute Lung Injury Therapy

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe pulmonary disorder responsible for high percentage of mortality and morbidity in intensive care unit patients. Current treatments are ineffective, so the development of efficient and specific therapies is an unmet medical need. The activation of NLPR3 inflammasome during ALI produces the release of proinflammatory factors and pyroptosis, a proinflammatory form of cell death that contributes to lung damage spreading. Herein, it is demonstrated that modulating inflammasome activation through inhibition of ASC oligomerization by the recently described MM01 compound can be an alternative pharmacotherapy against ALI. Besides, the added efficacy of using a drug delivery nanosystem designed to target the inflamed lungs is determined. The MM01 drug is incorporated into mesoporous silica nanoparticles capped with a peptide (TNFR-MM01-MSNs) to target tumor necrosis factor receptor-1 (TNFR-1) to proinflammatory macrophages. The prepared nanoparticles can deliver the cargo in a controlled manner after the preferential uptake by proinflammatory macrophages and exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Finally, the therapeutic effect of MM01 free or nanoparticulated to inhibit inflammatory response and lung injury is successfully demonstrated in lipopolysaccharide-mouse model of ALI. The results suggest the potential of pan-inflammasome inhibitors as candidates for ALI therapy and the use of nanoparticles for targeted lung delivery.

Inhalable spray-dried polycaprolactone-based microparticles of Sorafenib Tosylate with promising efficacy on A549 cells

The study developed and evaluated Sorafenib Tosylate (SRT)-loaded polymeric microparticles (MPs) using biodegradable polymer polycaprolactone (PCL) as a potential inhalable carrier for NSCLC. MPs were prepared by spray-drying an oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion. The optimized MPs demonstrated excellent flowability, particle size of 2.84 ± 0.5 μm, zeta potential of -14.0 ± 1.5 mV, and 85.08 ± 5.43% entrapment efficiency. ATR-FTIR/DSC studies revealed a lack of characteristic peaks of the crystalline drug signifying good entrapment of the drug. MPs were spherical and uniform in SEM pictures. The MPs showed a biphasic release pattern up to 72h. The Anderson cascade impactor (ACI) investigation demonstrated the highest drug deposition at stage 4, which revealed that the MPs can reach the lungs' secondary and terminal bronchi. Inhalable MPs had an efficient aerodynamic property with a mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 2.63 ± 1.3 μm, a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.93 ± 0.2 μm, and a fine particle fraction (FPF) of 87 ± 2.5%. Finally, in cytotoxicity studies on A549 cancer cells, MPs had an IC50 value of 0.6011 ± 0.8 μM, which was 85.68% lower than free drug. These findings suggest SRT-loaded inhalable PCL-based MPs as a novel NSCLC treatment.

In vivo Biodistribution and Clearance of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Medical Applications

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (magnetite and maghemite) are intensively studied due to their broad potential applications in medical and biological sciences. Their unique properties, such as nanometric size, large specific surface area, and superparamagnetism, allow them to be used in targeted drug delivery and internal radiotherapy by targeting an external magnetic field. In addition, they are successfully used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hyperthermia, and radiolabelling. The appropriate design of nanoparticles allows them to be delivered to the desired tissues and organs. The desired biodistribution of nanoparticles, eg, cancerous tumors, is increased using an external magnetic field. Thus, knowledge of the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is essential for medical applications. It allows for determining whether nanoparticles are captured by the desired organs or accumulated in other tissues, which may lead to potential toxicity. This review article presents the main organs where nanoparticles accumulate. The sites of their first uptake are usually the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes, but with the appropriate design of nanoparticles, they can also be accumulated in organs such as the lungs, heart, or brain. In addition, the review describes the factors affecting the biodistribution of nanoparticles, including their size, shape, surface charge, coating molecules, and route of administration. Modern techniques for determining nanoparticle accumulation sites and concentration in isolated tissues or the body in vivo are also presented.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Pulmonary Delivery of Recombinant Human Bleomycin Hydrolase Using Mannose-Modified Hierarchically Porous UiO-66 for Preventing Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Bleomycins (BLMs) are widely used in clinics as antitumor agents. However, BLM-based chemotherapies often accompany severe pulmonary fibrosis (PF). Human bleomycin hydrolase is a cysteine protease that can convert BLMs into inactive deamido-BLMs. In this study, mannose-modified hierarchically porous UiO-66 (MHP-UiO-66) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate the recombinant human bleomycin hydrolase (rhBLMH). When rhBLMH@MHP-UiO-66 was intratracheally instilled into the lungs, the NPs were transported into the epithelial cells, and rhBLMH prevented the lungs from PF during BLM-based chemotherapies. Encapsulation of rhBLMH in the MHP-UiO-66 NPs protects the enzyme from proteolysis in physiological conditions and enhances cellular uptake. In addition, the MHP-UiO-66 NPs significantly enhance the pulmonary accumulation of intratracheally instilled rhBLMH, thus providing more efficient protection of the lungs against BLMs during the chemotherapies.

Scalable Inhibitors of the Nsp3-Nsp4 Coupling in SARS-CoV-2

The human Betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2 is a novel pathogen claiming millions of lives and causing a global pandemic that has disrupted international healthcare systems, economies, and communities. The virus is fast mutating and presenting more infectious but less lethal versions. Currently, some small-molecule therapeutics have received FDA emergency use authorization for the treatment of COVID-19, including Lagevrio (molnupiravir) and Paxlovid (nirmaltrevir/ritonavir), which target the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and the 3CLpro main protease, respectively. Proteins downstream in the viral replication process, specifically the nonstructural proteins (Nsps1-16), are potential drug targets due to their crucial functions. Of these Nsps, Nsp4 is a particularly promising drug target due to its involvement in the SARS-CoV viral replication and double-membrane vesicle formation (mediated via interaction with Nsp3). Given the degree of sequence conservation of these two Nsps across the Betacoronavirus clade, their protein-protein interactions and functions are likely to be conserved as well in SARS-CoV-2. Through AlphaFold2 and its recent advancements, protein structures were generated of Nsp3 and 4 lumenal loops of interest. Then, using a combination of molecular docking suites and an existing library of lead-like compounds, we virtually screened 7 million ligands to identify five putative ligand inhibitors of Nsp4, which could present an alternative pharmaceutical approach against SARS-CoV-2. These ligands exhibit promising lead-like properties (ideal molecular weight and log P profiles), maintain fixed-Nsp4-ligand complexes in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and tightly associate with Nsp4 via hydrophobic interactions. Additionally, alternative peptide inhibitors based on Nsp3 were designed and shown in MD simulations to provide a highly stable binding to the Nsp4 protein. Finally, these therapeutics were attached to dendrimer structures to promote their multivalent binding with Nsp4, especially its large flexible luminal loop (Nsp4LLL). The therapeutics tested in this study represent many different approaches for targeting large flexible protein structures, especially those localized to the ER. This study is the first work targeting the membrane rearrangement system of viruses and will serve as a potential avenue for treating viruses with similar replicative function.

A review on the chemical constituents and pharmacological efficacies of Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm

Lindera aggregata (Sims) Kosterm. (L. aggregata), which belongs to the genus Lindera in the family Lauraceae, is widely distributed in Asia and the temperate, tropical regions of North America. Its roots and leaves have been used for thousands of years as traditional Chinese medicine and/or functional food. To further explore its underlying nutritional value, this review provided a comprehensive insight into chemical constituents and pharmacological effects on L. aggregata. The phytochemical investigation of different parts of L. aggregata led to the identification of up to 349 components belonging to sesquiterpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, essential oils, and other compounds. Among them, sesquiterpenoids, flavonoids, and alkaloids are assessed as representative active ingredients of L. aggregata. A wide variety of pharmacological effects of L. aggregata, such as anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-oxidant, have been proved in vitro and in vivo. In summary, this review aims to provide a scientific basis and reference for further research and utilization of L. aggregata and lay the foundation for developing functional foods with potential active ingredients for the prevention and management of related diseases.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Peculiar Strategy to Deliver Bio-Proactive Molecules

BACKGROUND

Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) provide numerous benefits compared to conventional dosage forms. Poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability, frequent dosing, and particular hydrophilic lipophilic character of the drug are the biological factors associated with the traditional systems leading to the development of SLNs.

OBJECTIVE

For improving the solubility profile, enhancing the bioavailability, and attaining the best possible therapeutic effect of lipid inclined or aqueous inclined drug, formulating solid lipid nanoparticles is the best choice.

METHODS

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have been projected as a colloidal carrier system with a size of 50-1,000 nm, collectively combining the benefits of other colloidal systems like liposomes, emulsions, etc., for delivering the drug at the target site. High absorption, high stability, and efficient drug packing enhance the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the packed drug.

RESULT

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles can be developed in different dosage forms and administered via routes such as nasal, rectal, oral, topical, vaginal, ocular, and parenteral. They have higher physicochemical stability and the batch size can be easily scaled up at a low cost. Lipophilic as well as hydrophilic drugs can be easily incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

In this manuscript, the authors have reviewed different aspects of solid lipid nanoparticles, major principles behind mechanism methods, recent patents, applications, and therapeutic potentials of solid lipid nanoparticles.

Advances and Prospects of Prolamine Corn Protein Zein as Promising Multifunctional Drug Delivery System for Cancer Treatment

Zein is a type of prolamine protein that is derived from corn, and it has been recognized by the US FDA as one of the safest biological materials available. Zein possesses valuable characteristics that have made it a popular choice for the preparation of drug carriers, which can be administered through various routes to improve the therapeutic effect of antitumor drugs. Additionally, zein contains free hydroxyl and amino groups that offer numerous modification sites, enabling it to be hybridized with other materials to create functionalized drug delivery systems. However, despite its potential, the clinical translation of drug-loaded zein-based carriers remains challenging due to insufficient basic research and relatively strong hydrophobicity. In this paper, we aim to systematically introduce the main interactions between loaded drugs and zein, administration routes, and the functionalization of zein-based antitumor drug delivery systems, in order to demonstrate its development potential and promote their further application. We also provide perspectives and future directions for this promising area of research.

Nanomaterials for Delivering Antibiotics in the Therapy of Pneumonia

Bacterial pneumonia is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and exerts a significant burden on health-care resources. Antibiotics have long been used as first-line drugs for the treatment of bacterial pneumonia. However, antibiotic therapy and traditional antibiotic delivery are associated with important challenges, including drug resistance, low bioavailability, and adverse side effects; the existence of physiological barriers further hampers treatment. Fortunately, these limitations may be overcome by the application of nanotechnology, which can facilitate drug delivery while improving drug stability and bioavailability. This review summarizes the challenges facing the treatment of bacterial pneumonia and also highlights the types of nanoparticles that can be used for antibiotic delivery. This review places a special focus on the state-of-the-art in nanomaterial-based approaches to the delivery of antibiotics for the treatment of pneumonia.

Could the Lung Be a Gateway for Amphotericin B to Attack the Army of Fungi?

Fungal diseases are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, primarily affecting immunocompromised patients. Aspergillus, Pneumocystis, and Cryptococcus are opportunistic fungi and may cause severe lung disease. They can develop mechanisms to evade the host immune system and colonize or cause lung disease. Current fungal infection treatments constitute a few classes of antifungal drugs with significant fungi resistance development. Amphotericin B (AmB) has a broad-spectrum antifungal effect with a low incidence of resistance. However, AmB is a highly lipophilic antifungal with low solubility and permeability and is unstable in light, heat, and oxygen. Due to the difficulty of achieving adequate concentrations of AmB in the lung by intravenous administration and seeking to minimize adverse effects, nebulized AmB has been used. The pulmonary pathway has advantages such as its rapid onset of action, low metabolic activity at the site of action, ability to avoid first-pass hepatic metabolism, lower risk of adverse effects, and thin thickness of the alveolar epithelium. This paper presented different strategies for pulmonary AmB delivery, detailing the potential of nanoformulation and hoping to foster research in the field. Our finds indicate that despite an optimistic scenario for the pulmonary formulation of AmB based on the encouraging results discussed here, there is still no product registration on the FDA nor any clinical trial undergoing ClinicalTrial.gov.

Pulmonary drug delivery applications of natural polysaccharide polymer derived nano/micro-carrier systems: A review

Respiratory distress syndrome and pneumothorax are the foremost causes of death as a result of the changing lifestyle and increasing air pollution. Numerous approaches have been studied for the pulmonary delivery of drugs, proteins as well as peptides using meso/nanoparticles, nanocrystals, and liposomes. These nano/microcarrier systems (NMCs) loaded with drug provide better systemic as well as local action. Furthermore, natural polysaccharide-based polymers such as chitosan (CS), alginate (AG), hyaluronic acid, dextran, and cellulose are highly used for the preparation of nanoparticles and delivery of the drug into the pulmonary tract due to their advantageous properties such as low toxicity, high hydrophobicity, supplementary mucociliary clearance, mucoadhesivity, and biological efficacy. These properties ease the delivery of drugs onto the targeted site. Herein, recent advances in the natural polymer-derived NMCs have been reviewed for their transport and mechanism of action into the bronchiolar region as well as the respiratory region. Various physicochemical properties such as surface charge, size of nanocarrier system, surface modifications, and toxicological effects of these nanocarriers in vitro and in vivo are elucidated as well. Furthermore, challenges faced for the preparation of a model NMCs for pulmonary drug delivery are also discoursed.

Central Composite Design (CCD) for the Optimisation of Ethosomal Gel Formulation of Punica granatum Extract: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluations

This research manuscript’s objective was to develop the Punica granatum extract ethosome gel. The use of nanotechnology can improve transdermal drug delivery permeation of its major bioactive compound β-sitosterol. The optimised and developed formulations were further studied in vitro and in vivo. The assessment of the anti-inflammatory activity of the gel was performed in Albino rats. Methanolic extract was prepared and developed into an ethosome suspension and an ethosome gel. To optimise the formulation’s response in terms of particle size (nm) and entrapment efficiency (%), the central composite design (CCD) was used in 2² levels. The effects of factors such as lecithin (%) and ethanol (mL) in nine formulations were observed. Characterisation of ethosome gel was performed and the results showed the particle size (516.4 nm) and mean zeta potential (−45.4 mV). Evaluations of the gel formulation were performed. The results were good in terms of pH (7.1), viscosity (32,158 cps), spreadability (31.55 g cm/s), and no grittiness. In an in vitro study, the percentages of β-sitosterol release of ethosome gel (91.83%), suspension (82.74%), and extracts (68.15%) at 279 nm were recorded. The effects of the formulated gel on formalin-induced oedema in Albino rats showed good results in terms of anti-inflammatory activity. The comparative anti-inflammatory activity of Punica granatum extract and gel showed that the gel action was good for their topical application.

Pharmacokinetics of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for medical applications

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) have been under intense investigation for at least the last five decades as they show enormous potential for many biomedical applications, such as biomolecule separation, MRI imaging and hyperthermia. Moreover, a large area of research on these nanostructures is concerned with their use as carriers of drugs, nucleic acids, peptides and other biologically active compounds, often leading to the development of targeted therapies. The uniqueness of MNPs is due to their nanometric size and unique magnetic properties. In addition, iron ions, which, along with oxygen, are a part of the MNPs, belong to the trace elements in the body. Therefore, after digesting MNPs in lysosomes, iron ions are incorporated into the natural circulation of this element in the body, which reduces the risk of excessive storage of nanoparticles. Still, one of the key issues for the therapeutic applications of magnetic nanoparticles is their pharmacokinetics which is reflected in the circulation time of MNPs in the bloodstream. These characteristics depend on many factors, such as the size and charge of MNPs, the nature of the polymers and any molecules attached to their surface, and other. Since the pharmacokinetics depends on the resultant of the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, research should be carried out individually for all the nanostructures designed. Almost every year there are new reports on the results of studies on the pharmacokinetics of specific magnetic nanoparticles, thus it is very important to follow the achievements on this matter. This paper reviews the latest findings in this field. The mechanism of action of the mononuclear phagocytic system and the half-lives of a wide range of nanostructures are presented. Moreover, factors affecting clearance such as hydrodynamic and core size, core morphology and coatings molecules, surface charge and technical aspects have been described.

Nano-delivery to the lung - by inhalation or other routes and why nano when micro is largely sufficient?

Respiratory diseases gather a wide range of disorders which are generally difficult to treat, partly due to a poor delivery of drugs to the lung with adequate dose and minimum side effects. With the recent developments of nanotechnology, nano-delivery systems have raised interest. In this review, we detail the main types of nanocarriers that have been developed presenting their respective advantages and limitations. We also discuss the route of administration (systemic versus by inhalation), also considering technical aspects (different types of aerosol devices) with concrete examples of applications. Finally, we propose some perspectives of development in the field such as the nano-in-micro approaches, the emergence of drug vaping to generate airborne carriers in the submicron size range, the development of innovative respiratory models to assess regional aerosol deposition of nanoparticles or the application of nano-delivery to the lung in the treatment of other diseases.

Design and evaluation of folate-modified liposomes for pulmonary administration in lung cancer therapy

Pulmonary drug administration for the treatment of lung cancer is useful because the drug is directly delivered to the lung tissues with minimal invasiveness and higher efficiency compared to other conventional methods. However, it is critical to enhance drug accumulation in the lung cancer tissues to achieve sufficient therapeutic efficacy. The submicron-sized liposome (ssLip) preparation is one of the most promising approaches to enhance drug accumulation in the lungs; however, ssLips prepared for conventional inhalation do not have tumour selectivity. Therefore, in this study, we prepared folate (FA)-modified ssLip (FA-ssLip) to enhance drug accumulation in folate receptor (FR)-expressing lung cancer cells, and evaluated its physicochemical properties and potential as a drug carrier in pulmonary administration. In addition, we prepared rapamycin (RM-an autophagy-inducing anticancer drug)-loaded FA-ssLip (RM/FA-ssLip) and investigated its anti-tumour effect. FA-ssLip showed excellent nanoparticle properties with submicron size (approximately 120 nm) and high lung accumulation in lung cancer mouse model-bearing LL2 cells-a mouse Lewis lung carcinoma cell line. RM/FA-ssLip showed significant cytotoxic activity in FR-expressing cancer cells. In addition, pulmonary administration of RM/FA-ssLip extended the survival of LL2 cell tumour-bearing mice. Taken together, our results suggest the potential of FA-ssLip as a pulmonary drug carrier for the efficient treatment of lung cancer.

Biophysical analysis of gelatin and PLGA nanoparticle interactions with complex biomimetic lung surfactant models

Biocompatible materials are increasingly used for pulmonary drug delivery, and it is essential to understand their potential impact on the respiratory system, notably their effect on lung surfactant, a monolayer of lipids and proteins, responsible for preventing alveolar collapse during breathing cycles. We have developed a complex mimic of lung surfactant composed of eight lipids mixed in ratios reported for native lung surfactant. A synthetic peptide based on surfactant protein B was added to better mimic the biological system. This model was used to evaluate the impact of biocompatible gelatin and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles. Surface pressure–area isotherms were used to assess lipid packing, film compressibility and stability, whereas the lateral organization was visualized by Brewster angle microscopy. Nanoparticles increased film fluidity and altered the monolayer collapse pressure. Bright protruding clusters formed in their presence indicate a significant impact on the lateral organization of the surfactant film. Altogether, this work indicates that biocompatible materials considered to be safe for drug delivery still need to be assessed for their potential detrimental impact before use in therapeutic applications

Biodegradable nanoparticles drastically alters lateral organization of lung surfactant lipid- peptide model system.

Nebulizer systems: a new frontier for therapeutics and targeted delivery

Drug delivery via the pulmonary route is a cornerstone in the pharmaceutical sector as an alternative to oral and parenteral administration. Nebulizer inhalation treatment offers multiple drug administration, easily employed with tidal breathing, suitable for children and elderly, can be adapted for severe patients and visible spray ensures patient satisfaction. This review discusses the operational and mechanical characteristics of nebulizer delivery devices in terms of aerosol production processes, their usage, benefits and drawbacks that are currently shaping the contemporary landscape of inhaled drug delivery. With the advent of particle engineering, novel inhaled nanosystems can be successfully developed to increase lung deposition and decrease pulmonary clearance. The above-mentioned advances might pave the path for treating a life-threatening disorder like severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is also discussed in the current state of the art.

Nanoparticles as an effective drug delivery system in COVID-19

Background

The global healthcare sector has been dealing with a situation known as a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) since the end of 2019. Covid-19 is an acronym for Covid-19 (Coronavirus Disease- 2019). It causes a respiratory infection that includes cold, sneezing and coughing, and pneumonia. In the case of an animal, it causes diarrhea and upper respiratory diseases. Covid-19 transmitted human to human via airborne droplets. First Covid-19 emerged in Wuhan market China and it spread rapidly throughout the World. As we know nanoparticles are a novel drug delivery system. They have various advantageous effects like increasing the efficacy of the drug, safety, etc. In this review, we study about the nanoparticles and summarize how it is effective during drug delivery system in Covid-19. Chitosan is a much focused biopolymeric nanoparticle. It delivers drugs to the specific target site. In a recent health crisis, chitosan nanoparticles are one of the ways to release drugs of Covid-19, and specifically in the lungs of the affected patients. We studied and extracted our data from various research papers, review papers, and some other articles.

Objective

The main goal is to study the nanoparticles and their future aspects which is an effective drug delivery system in Covid-19.

Methods

The bibliographic search was done through a systematic search. The terms “Nanoparticles”, “Covid-19 ”, “Drug delivery” etc. were used to search the databases/search engines like “Google Scholar”, “NCBI”, “PubMed”, “Science Direct” etc. These databases and search engines used here perform the limited criteria of search to conduct a systematic literature survey for the study and report writing. All the text from the articles and research papers were studied and analyzed. The various articles and research papers were used in writing this report and all of which are mentioned in the reference section of this report.

Conclusion

Our current studies reveal that nanoparticles may prove very helpful in the delivery of drugs for Covid-19 treatment. Many cases showed that patients, where drugs are delivered with the help of nanoparticles, produced very few side effects.

Protein and peptide delivery to lungs by using advanced targeted drug delivery

The challenges and difficulties associated with conventional drug delivery systems have led to the emergence of novel, advanced targeted drug delivery systems. Therapeutic drug delivery of proteins and peptides to the lungs is complicated owing to the large size and polar characteristics of the latter. Nevertheless, the pulmonary route has attracted great interest today among formulation scientists, as it has evolved into one of the important targeted drug delivery platforms for the delivery of peptides, and related compounds effectively to the lungs, primarily for the management and treatment of chronic lung diseases. In this review, we have discussed and summarized the current scenario and recent developments in targeted delivery of proteins and peptide-based drugs to the lungs. Moreover, we have also highlighted the advantages of pulmonary drug delivery over conventional drug delivery approaches for peptide-based drugs, in terms of efficacy, retention time and other important pharmacokinetic parameters. The review also highlights the future perspectives and the impact of targeted drug delivery on peptide-based drugs in the coming decade.

Electrosprayed Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery systems for Biomedical Applications

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology is a tool being used intensely in the area of drug delivery systems in the biomedical field. Electrospraying is one of the nanotechnological methods, which is growing due to its importance in the development of nanoparticles comprising bioactive compounds. It is helpful in improving the efficacy, reducing side effects of active drug elements, and is useful in targeted drug delivery. When compared to other conventional methods like nanoprecipitation, emulsion diffusion, and double emulsification, electrospraying offers better advantages to produce micro/nanoparticles due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and single-step process.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this paper is to highlight the use of electrosprayed nanoparticles for biomedical applications.

METHODS

We conducted a literature review on the usage of natural and synthetic materials to produce nanoparticles, which can be used as a drug delivery system for medical purposes.

RESULTS

We summarized a possible key role of electrosprayed nanoparticles in different therapeutic applications (tissue regeneration, cancer).

CONCLUSION

The modest literature production denotes that further investigation is needed to assess and validate the promising role of drug-loaded nanoparticles through the electrospraying process as noninvasive materials in the biomedical field.

Nanodelivery of a self-assembling prodrug with exceptionally high drug loading potentiates chemotherapy efficacy

Nanomedicines have achieved several successful clinical applications for cancer therapy over the past decades. To date, numerous nanomedicine formats and design rationales have been proposed to improve pharmaceutical delivery and treatment efficacy. Despite these advances, the achievement of high drug loading and loading efficiencies of drug payloads in nanocarriers remains a technical challenge. In addition, study of the correlation between therapeutic potential and drug loading has been ignored. Here, using a self-assembling dimeric cabazitaxel prodrug, we show that the prodrug can be quantitatively entrapped within clinically approved polymer matrices for intravenous injection and that the drug loading in the nanoparticles (NPs) is tunable. The engineered NPs (NPs1-4) with different drug loading values exhibit dissimilar morphologies, release kinetics, in vitro cytotoxic activity, pharmacokinetic properties, tissue distribution, and in vivo anticancer efficacy and safety profiles. Furthermore, the effect of drug loading on the treatment outcomes was explored through detailed in vitro and in vivo studies. Intriguingly, among the constructed NPs, those comprising poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) copolymers showed substantially prolonged pharmacokinetic properties in the blood circulation, which further promoted their intratumoral delivery and accumulation. Furthermore, the PEG-PLA-composed NPs with high drug loading (~50%) demonstrated favorable efficacy and safety profile in animal models. These data provide convincing evidence that the in vivo performance of a given self-assembling drug is not compromised by high drug loading in nanoplatforms, which may potentially reduce concerns over excipient-associated side effects and immunotoxicities. Overall, our study provides new insight into the rationale for designing more effective and less toxic delivery systems.

Inhaled antibiotic-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for the management of lower respiratory tract infections

Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) are one of the leading causes of deaths in the world. Currently available treatment for this disease is with high doses of antibiotics which need to be administered frequently. Instead, pulmonary delivery of drugs has been considered as one of the most efficient routes of drug delivery to the targeted areas as it provides rapid onset of action, direct deposition of drugs into the lungs, and better therapeutic effects at low doses and is self-administrable by the patients. Thus, there is a need for scientists to design more convenient pulmonary drug delivery systems towards the innovation of a novel treatment system for LRTIs. Drug-encapsulating polymer nanoparticles have been investigated for lung delivery which could significantly reduce the limitations of the currently available treatment system for LRTIs. However, the selection of an appropriate polymer carrier for the drugs is a critical issue for the successful formulations of inhalable nanoparticles. In this review, the current understanding of LRTIs, management systems for this disease and their limitations, pulmonary drug delivery systems and the challenges of drug delivery through the pulmonary route are discussed. Drug-encapsulating polymer nanoparticles for lung delivery, antibiotics used in pulmonary delivery and drug encapsulation techniques have also been reviewed. A strong emphasis is placed on the impact of drug delivery into the infected lungs.

N-Acetylcysteine as Adjuvant Therapy for COVID-19 - A Perspective on the Current State of the Evidence

The looming severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a long-lasting pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) around the globe with substantial morbidity and mortality. N-acetylcysteine, being a nutraceutical precursor of an important antioxidant glutathione, can perform several biological functions in mammals and microbes. It has consequently garnered a growing interest as a potential adjunctive therapy for coronavirus disease. Here, we review evidence concerning the effects of N-acetylcysteine in respiratory viral infections based on currently available in vitro, in vivo, and human clinical investigations. The repurposing of a known drug such as N-acetylcysteine may significantly hasten the deployment of a novel approach for COVID-19. Since the drug candidate has already been translated into the clinic for several decades, its established pharmacological properties and safety and side-effect profiles expedite preclinical and clinical assessment for the treatment of COVID-19. In vitro data have depicted that N-acetylcysteine increases antioxidant capacity, interferes with virus replication, and suppresses expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in cells infected with influenza viruses or respiratory syncytial virus. Furthermore, findings from in vivo studies have displayed that, by virtue of immune modulation and anti-inflammatory mechanism, N-acetylcysteine reduces the mortality rate in influenza-infected mice animal models. The promising in vitro and in vivo results have prompted the initiation of human subject research for the treatment of COVID-19, including severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Albeit some evidence of benefits has been observed in clinical outcomes of patients, precision nanoparticle design of N-acetylcysteine may allow for greater therapeutic efficacy.

Aerosol Inhalation Delivery of Triazavirin in Mice: Outlooks for Advanced Therapy Against Novel Viral Infections

Under pandemic-caused emergency, evaluation of the potential of existing antiviral drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 is relevant. Triazavirin, an antiviral drug developed in Russia for per-oral administration, is involved in clinical trials against SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. This virus has affinity to epithelial cells in respiratory tract, so drug delivery directly in lungs may enhance therapeutic effect and reduce side effects for stomach, liver, kidneys. We elaborated ultrasonic method of triazavirin aerosol generation and investigated the inhalation delivery of this drug in mice. Mean particle size and number concentration of aerosol used in inhalation experiments are 560 nm and 4 × 105 cm-3, respectively. Aerosol mass concentration is 1.6 × 10-4 mg/cm3. Inhalation for 20 min in a nose-only chamber resulted in 2 mg/kg body delivered dose and 2.6 μg/mL triazavirin concentration in blood plasma. Elimination rate constant determined in aerosol administration experiments was ke = 0.077 min-1, which agrees with the value measured after intravenous delivery, but per-oral administration resulted in considerably lower apparent elimination rate constant of pseudo-first order, probably due to non-linear dependence of absorption rate on triazavirin concentration in gastrointestinal tract. The bioavailability of triazavirin aerosol is found to be 85%, which is about four times higher than for per-oral administration.

Progress in the Application of Nano- and Micro-based Drug Delivery Systems in Pulmonary Drug Delivery

Nanotechnology is associated with the development of particles in the nano-size range that can be used in a wide range of applications in the medical field. It has gained more importance in the pharmaceutical research field particularly in drug delivery, as it results in enhanced therapeutic drug performance, improved drug solubility, targeted drug delivery to the specific sites, minimized side effects, and prolonged drug retention time in the targeted site. To date, the application of nanotechnology continues to offer several benefits in the treatment of various chronic diseases and results in remarkable improvements in treatment outcomes. The use of nano-based delivery systems such as liposomes, micelles, and nanoparticles in pulmonary drug delivery have shown to be a promising strategy in achieving drug deposition and maintained controlled drug release in the lungs. They have been widely used to minimize the risks of drug toxicity in vivo. In this review, recent advances in the application of nano- and micro-based delivery systems in pulmonary drug delivery for the treatment of various pulmonary diseases, such as lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, are highlighted. Limitations in the application of these drug delivery systems and some key strategies in improving their formulation properties to overcome challenges encountered in drug delivery are also discussed.

An Overview on Spray-Drying of Protein-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Dry Powder Inhalation

The delivery of therapeutic proteins remains a challenge, despite recent technological advances. While the delivery of proteins to the lungs is the gold standard for topical and systemic therapy through the lungs, the issue still exists. While pulmonary delivery is highly attractive due to its non-invasive nature, large surface area, possibility of topical and systemic administration, and rapid absorption circumventing the first-pass effect, the absorption of therapeutic proteins is still ineffective, largely due to the immunological and physicochemical barriers of the lungs. Most studies using spray-drying for the nanoencapsulation of drugs focus on the delivery of conventional drugs, which are less susceptible to bioactivity loss, compared to proteins. Herein, the development of polymeric nanoparticles by spray-drying for the delivery of therapeutic proteins is reviewed with an emphasis on its advantages and challenges, and the techniques to evaluate their in vitro and in vivo performance. The protein stability within the carrier and the features of the carrier are properly addressed.

Pharmacokinetics of inhaled nanotherapeutics for pulmonary delivery

Pulmonary delivery of lipid-based nanotherapeutics by inhalation presents an advantageous alternative to oral and intravenous routes of administration that avoids enzymatic degradation in gastrointestinal tract and hepatic first pass metabolism and also limits off-target adverse side effects upon heathy tissues. For lung-related indications, inhalation provides localized delivery in order to enhance therapeutic efficacy at the site of action. Optimization of physicochemical properties, selected drug and inhalation format can greatly influence the pharmacokinetic behavior of inhaled nanoparticle systems and their payloads. The present review analyzes a wide range of nanoparticle systems, their formulations and consequent effect on pharmacokinetic distribution of delivered active components after inhalation.

Mannose-anchored N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles for pulmonary administration of etofylline

Drug delivery to lungs via pulmonary administration offers potential for the development of new drug delivery systems. Here we fabricated the etofylline (ETO) encapsulated mannose-anchored N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles (Mn-TMC NPs). The prominent characteristics like biocompatibility, controlled release, targeted delivery, high penetrability, enhanced physical stability, and scalability mark Mn-TMC NPs as a viable alternative to various nanoplatform technologies for effective drug delivery. Mannosylation of TMC NPs leads to the evolution of new drug delivery vehicle with gratifying characteristics, and potential benefits in efficient drug therapy. It is widely accepted that following pulmonary administration, the introduction of mannose to the surface of drug nanocarriers provide selective macrophage targeting via receptor-mediated endocytosis. The fabricated Mn-TMC NPs exhibited particle size of 223.3 nm, PDI 0.490, and ζ-potential -19.1 mV, drug-loading capacity 76.26 ± 1.2%, and encapsulation efficiency of 91.75 ± 0.88%. Sustained drug release, biodegradation studies, stability, safety, and aerodynamic behavior revealed the effectiveness of prepared nanoformulation for pulmonary administration. In addition, the in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in Wistar rat model revealed a significant improvement in therapeutic efficacy of ETO, illustrating mannosylation a promising approach for efficient therapy of airway diseases following pulmonary administration.

Diclofenac-proline nano-co-crystal development, characterization, in vitro dissolution and diffusion study

Nanotechnology has been widely developed to improve the solubility of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Co-crystal discovery has also taken much attention in drug design and development. A combination of the two techniques generates “nano-co-crystallization”, a new approach to obtaining the superior character of drugs. Previously, a new diclofenac-proline co-crystal (DPC) arrangement has been reported. The present research attempted to develop a nano-diclofenac-proline-co-crystal (NDPC) and to evaluate its formation kinetics, and dissolution-diffusion improvements. Both top-down and bottom-up methods optimized nano-co-crystal production. The top-down technique was used through the wet milling procedure and neat grinding procedures, while the bottom-up technique was performed through the globule inversion phase and fast evaporation assisted microwaving. The NDPCs obtained were then characterized by dynamic light scattering, binocular microscope, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, powder x-ray diffractometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry. The kinetics of NDPC formation was determined based on the difference of microwaving versus the co-crystal yield, which was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Dissolution was tested by type 2 apparatus, and diffusion was tested using Franz diffusion cells. The bottom-up method by fast evaporation assisted microwaving provided the best nano-co-crystal with a mean diameter of 598.2 ± 63.2 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.278 ± 0.062. Nano-co-crystal formation kinetic, which was evaluated by FTIR, indicated to follow first order. Finally, NDPC showed the superior dissolution and diffusion profile than conventional-DPC. In this study, we demonstrate a promising alternative for improving the dissolution and diffusion of the drug by nano-co-crystallization.

Therapeutic Efficacy of Novel Antimicrobial Peptide AA139-Nanomedicines in a Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Pneumonia-Septicemia Model in Rats

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have seen limited clinical use as antimicrobial agents, largely due to issues relating to toxicity, short biological half-life, and lack of efficacy against Gram-negative bacteria. However, the development of novel AMP-nanomedicines, i.e., AMPs entrapped in nanoparticles, has the potential to ameliorate these clinical problems. The authors investigated two novel nanomedicines based on AA139, an AMP currently in development for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. AA139 was entrapped in polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) or lipid-core micelles (MCLs). The antimicrobial activity of AA139-PNP and AA139-MCL was determined in vitro The biodistribution and limiting doses of AA139-nanomedicines were determined in uninfected rats via endotracheal aerosolization. The early bacterial killing activity of the AA139-nanomedicines in infected lungs was assessed in a rat model of pneumonia-septicemia caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae In this model, the therapeutic efficacy was determined by once-daily (q24h) administration over 10 days. Both AA139-nanomedicines showed equivalent in vitro antimicrobial activities (similar to free AA139). In uninfected rats, they exhibited longer residence times in the lungs than free AA139 (∼20% longer for AA139-PNP and ∼80% longer for AA139-MCL), as well as reduced toxicity, enabling a higher limiting dose. In rats with pneumonia-septicemia, both AA139-nanomedicines showed significantly improved therapeutic efficacy in terms of an extended rat survival time, although survival of all rats was not achieved. These results demonstrate potential advantages that can be achieved using AMP-nanomedicines. AA139-PNP and AA139-MCL may be promising novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of patients suffering from multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pneumonia-septicemia.

Scope and limitations on aerosol drug delivery for the treatment of infectious respiratory diseases

The rise of antimicrobial resistance has created an urgent need for the development of new methods for antibiotics delivery to patients with pulmonary infections in order to mainly increase the effectiveness of the drugs administration, to minimize the risk of emergence of resistant strains, and to prevent patients reinfection. Since bacterial resistance is often related to antibiotic concentration, their pulmonary administration could eradicate strains resistant to the same drug at the concentration achieved through the systemic circulation. Pulmonary administration offers several advantages; it directly targets the site of the infection which allows the inhaled dose of the drug to be reduced compared to that administered orally or parenterally while keeping the same local effect. The review article is made with an objective to compile information about various existing modern technologies developed to provide greater patient compliance and reduce the undesirable side effect of the drugs. In conclusion, aerosol antibiotic delivery appears as one of the best technologies for the treatment of pulmonary infectious diseases and able to limit the systemic adverse effects related to the high drug dose and to make life easier for the patients.

Future Trends in Nebulized Therapies for Pulmonary Disease

Aerosol therapy is a key modality for drug delivery to the lungs of respiratory disease patients. Aerosol therapy improves therapeutic effects by directly targeting diseased lung regions for rapid onset of action, requiring smaller doses than oral or intravenous delivery and minimizing systemic side effects. In order to optimize treatment of critically ill patients, the efficacy of aerosol therapy depends on lung morphology, breathing patterns, aerosol droplet characteristics, disease, mechanical ventilation, pharmacokinetics, and the pharmacodynamics of cell-drug interactions. While aerosol characteristics are influenced by drug formulations and device mechanisms, most other factors are reliant on individual patient variables. This has led to increased efforts towards more personalized therapeutic approaches to optimize pulmonary drug delivery and improve selection of effective drug types for individual patients. Vibrating mesh nebulizers (VMN) are the dominant device in clinical trials involving mechanical ventilation and emerging drugs. In this review, we consider the use of VMN during mechanical ventilation in intensive care units. We aim to link VMN fundamentals to applications in mechanically ventilated patients and look to the future use of VMN in emerging personalized therapeutic drugs.

Development of Dried Emulsion/Mannitol Composite Microparticles through a Unique Spray Nozzle for Efficient Delivery of Hydrophilic Anti-tuberculosis Drug against Alveolar Macrophages

As alveolar macrophages are attractive targets for the treatment of tuberculosis, effective methods for delivery to alveolar macrophages are under development. We investigated a pulmonary formulation for the efficient delivery of high water-soluble drugs at high concentration targeting alveolar macrophages. In this study, a surfactant-coated high water-soluble drug complex (SDC, a hydrophobic dried emulsion), which can preferably target alveolar macrophages and be expected to deliver drug at a high concentration, was prepared in the first process. OCT313, a high water-soluble sugar derivative with anti-tuberculosis activity was used. Then, a unique two-solution, mixing-type nozzle was used to prepare the SDC nanoparticles in mannitol (MAN) microparticles (SDC/MAN microparticles) because it was difficult to disperse the SDC nanoparticles in aqueous solution. The single micron size of OCT313-SDC/MAN microparticles contained OCT313-SDC nanoparticles (mean particle size of OCT313-SDC nanoparticles, 277.9 nm; drug contents, 1.31 ± 0.041 wt%). We found that the treatment of SDC/MAN microparticles exhibited significantly higher drug accumulation in macrophage cells (Raw264.7 cells, 7.5-fold, at 4 h after treatment) in vitro and in alveolar macrophages in rats (9.1-fold, at 4 h after treatment) in vivo than that of drug alone. These results suggest that the SDC/MAN microparticle formulation prepared by spray drying through a two-solution mixing-type nozzle provides efficient delivery of a water-soluble drug targeting alveolar macrophages and may be useful for tuberculosis treatment.

Using Polar Ion-Pairs to Control Drug Delivery to the Airways of the Lungs

The rapid absorptive clearance of drugs delivered to the airways of the lungs means that many inhaled medicines have a short duration of action. The aim of this study was to investigate whether forming polar ion-pairs can modify drug absorption to slow down clearance from the airways. Salbutamol was used as a model drug and was formulated as ion-pairs in an aqueous solution with three negatively charged hydrophilic counterions: sulfate (molecular weight (MW) 142), gluconate (MW 218), and phytate (MW 736) (association constants of 1.57, 2.27, and 4.15, respectively) and one negatively charged hydrophobic counterion, octanoate (MW 166) (association constant, 2.56). All of the counterions were well tolerated by Calu-3 human bronchial epithelial cells when screened for toxicity in vitro using conditions that in silico simulations suggested maintain >80% drug-counterion association. The transport of salbutamol ion-pairs with higher polar surface area (PSA), i.e., the sulfate (PSA 52%), gluconate (PSA 50%), and phytate (PSA 79%) ion-pairs, was significantly lower compared to that of the drug alone (PSA 30%, p < 0.05). In contrast, the octanoate ion-pair (PSA 23%) did not significantly alter the salbutamol transport. The transport data for the gluconate ion-pair suggested that the pulmonary absorption half-life of the ion-paired drug would be double that of salbutamol base, and this illustrates the promise of increasing drug polarity using noncovalent complexation as an approach to control drug delivery to the airways of the lungs.

Targeted therapy in chronic diseases using nanomaterial-based drug delivery vehicles

The application of nanomedicines is increasing rapidly with the promise of targeted and efficient drug delivery. Nanomedicines address the shortcomings of conventional therapy, as evidenced by several preclinical and clinical investigations indicating site-specific drug delivery, reduced side effects, and better treatment outcome. The development of suitable and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles is a prerequisite that has been successfully achieved by using simple and functionalized liposomes, nanoparticles, hydrogels, micelles, dendrimers, and mesoporous particles. A variety of drug delivery vehicles have been established for the targeted and controlled delivery of therapeutic agents in a wide range of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. After successful outcomes in preclinical and clinical trials, many of these drugs have been marketed for human use, such as Abraxane®, Caelyx®, Mepact®, Myocet®, Emend®, and Rapamune®. Apart from drugs/compounds, novel therapeutic agents, such as peptides, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and genes have also shown potential to be used as nanomedicines for the treatment of several chronic ailments. However, a large number of extensive clinical trials are still needed to ensure the short-term and long-term effects of nanomedicines in humans. This review discusses the advantages of various drug delivery vehicles for better understanding of their utility in terms of current medical needs. Furthermore, the application of a wide range of nanomedicines is also described in the context of major chronic diseases.

Efficacy of liposomal dosage forms and hyperosmolar salines in experimental pharmacotherapy of acute lung injury

Introduction: Hypertonic sodium chloride solutions and liposomal drugs with pulmotropic effect are of great interest for the treatment of acute lung injury (ALI). The results of the studies on the efficacy of hypertonic solutions and liposomes in ALI treatment are currently controversial.

Materials and methods: For the experiment, liposomes with dexamethasone, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), aprotinin and dye Cyanine-7 (Cy-7) were obtained. A liposome analysis was performed by means of spectrophotometry. ALI was modeled in rats by the administration of the damaging agents into the trachea. The experimental agents were injected once intravenously after the modeling of ALI. For experimental therapy used liposomal agents, 7.5% hypertonic saline (HS) and HyperHAES solutions in the respective groups. The efficacy of the therapy was assessed by the survival of animals, functional indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and by the lung-body ratio. The biodistribution of liposomes after intravenous administration was investigated in mice through using a fluorescent dye Cy-7. The biodistribution of liposomes with Cy-7 was assessed using bioimaging according to the fluorescence intensity of internal organs (lungs, liver, and kidneys) and blood, expressed as dye concentration according to the calibration dependence of dye concentrarion on fluorescence intensity.

Results and discussion: All the studied liposomal drugs were effective for the pharmacological correction of ALI. Hypertonic solutions, unlike liposomal drugs, were less likely to prevent the development of pulmonary edema. All the studied therapeutic agents increased the survival rate of the laboratory animals with ALI. The most effective experimental agent was liposomal dexamethasone. The use of drugs in form of simple liposomes with average diameter of 350 nm provided for a higher concentration of the drug in the lungs within the first 40 minutes after intravenous administration.

Conclusion: Intravenous administration of liposomal forms is promising for the pharmacotherapy of acute lung injury.

Critical physicochemical attributes of chitosan nanoparticles admixed lactose-PEG 3000 microparticles in pulmonary inhalation

Chitosan nanoparticles are exhalation prone and agglomerative to pulmonary inhalation. Blending nanoparticles with lactose microparticles (∼5 µm) could mutually reduce their agglomeration through surface adsorption phenomenon. The chitosan nanoparticles of varying size, size distribution, zeta potential, crystallinity, shape and surface roughness were prepared by spray drying technique as a function of chitosan, surfactant and processing conditions. Lactose-polyethylene glycol 3000 (PEG3000) microparticles were similarly prepared. The chitosan nanoparticles, physically blended with fine lactose-PEG3000 microparticles, exhibited a comparable inhalation performance with the commercial dry powder inhaler products (fine particle fraction between 20% and 30%). Cascade impactor analysis indicated that the aerosolization and inhalation performance of chitosan nanoparticles was promoted by their higher zeta potential and circularity, and larger size attributes of which led to reduced inter-nanoparticulate aggregation and favored nanoparticles interacting with lactose-PEG3000 micropaticles that aided their delivery into deep and peripheral lungs.

Minocycline and Silver Dual-Loaded Polyphosphoester-Based Nanoparticles for Treatment of Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been detected in the lungs of ∼50% of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), including 20% of adult CF patients. The majority of these adult patients harbor multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains, limiting the available treatment options. Silver has long been used as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent with a low incidence of resistance. Despite low toxicity, poor availability of silver cations mandates a high dosage to effectively eradicate infections. To address this shortcoming of silver, nanoparticles have been used as delivery devices to improve treatment outcomes. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that synergistic combinations with careful dose calibrations and efficient delivery systems result in superior antimicrobial activity while avoiding potential side effects of both therapeutics. Here 4-epi-minocycline, a metabolite of minocycline, was identified as an active antimicrobial against P. aeruginosa using a high-throughput screen. The antimicrobial activities of 4-epi-minocycline, minocycline, and silver acetate against clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa obtained from CF patients were evaluated in vitro. Next, the synergistic activity of the silver/minocycline combination against P. aeruginosa isolates was investigated using checkerboard assays and identified with end-point colony forming unit determination assays. Finally, nanoparticles coloaded with minocycline and silver were evaluated in vitro for antimicrobial activity. The results demonstrated that both silver and minocycline are potent antimicrobials alone and that the combination allows a reduced dosage of both therapeutics to achieve the same antimicrobial effect. Furthermore, the proposed synergistic silver/minocycline combination can be coloaded into nanoparticles as a next-generation antibiotic to combat the threats presented by MDR pathogens.

Recent advances in aerosolised drug delivery

Pulmonary route is extensively studied for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary and extra pulmonary disease conditions such as asthma, tuberculosis, emphysema, and bronchitis. Formulation design, inhalation device and particle size play key role in determining the aerosol performance. The lack of desired clinical outcome along with the problem regarding efficacy or any adverse drug effect may arise due to improper training and education in use of the device to control the actuation and aerosol inhalation. This review summarizes the difference in the mechanistic features of current marketed aerosol delivery devices with respect to mechanism of aerosol generation with possible advancements in the aerosol design. The delivery options in the pulmonary route and its merits together with the limitations are also discussed. An update is provided regarding the current research and clinical outcome of the use of inhalational technology.