The effects of acrolein on the thioredoxin system: implications for redox-sensitive signaling

Dietary fiber as a wide pillar of colorectal cancer prevention and adjuvant therapy

Colorectal cancer is the third most incident and second most lethal type of cancer worldwide. Lifestyle and dietary patterns are the key factors for higher disease development risk. The dietary fiber intake from fruits and vegetables, mainly formed by food hydrocolloids, can help to lower the incidence of this type of neoplasia. Different food polysaccharides have applications in anti-tumoral therapy, such as coadjuvant to mainstream drugs, carriage-like properties, or direct influence on tumoral cells. Some classes include inulin, β-glucans, pectins, fucoidans, alginates, mucilages, and gums. Therefore, it is fundamental to discuss colorectal cancer mechanisms and the roles played by different polysaccharides in intestinal health. Genetic, environmental, and immunological modulation of mutated pathways regarding colorectal cancer has been explored before. Microbial diversity, byproduct formation (primarily short-chain fatty acids), inflammatory profile control, and tumoral mutated pathways regulation are thoroughly explored mechanisms by which dietary fiber sources influence a healthy gut ambiance.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate aggravates psoriasis-like skin lesions: In vitro and in vivo evaluation

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), which is a widely used phthalate (PAE), has recently received public attention owing to it causing health problems. The aim of this study was to elucidate the aggravating effects of DEHP on psoriasis and skin toxicity. Human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells were treated with gradient concentrations of DEHP, and mice with imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasiform dermatitis were hypodermically injected with 40 μg/kg/day of DEHP for seven consecutive days. The skin condition was assessed based on the psoriasis area and severity index score, which indicated the deterioration of IMQ-induced psoriasis-like skin lesions after DEHP exposure. To further analyze the effect of DEHP on psoriasis, the proliferation, inflammation, and tight junction (TJ) damage were examined, which correlated with the development and severity of psoriasis. The results showed that DEHP promoted proliferation both in vivo and in vitro, which manifested as epidermal thickening; an increase in cell viability; upregulation of Ki67, CDK2, cyclinD1, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen; and downregulation of p21. An excessive inflammatory response is an important factor that exacerbates psoriasis, and our results showed that DEHP can trigger the release of inflammatory cytokines as well as the infiltration of T cells. TJ disorders were found in mice and cells after DEHP treatment. Additionally, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was strongly activated during this process, which may have contributed to skin toxicity caused by DEHP. In conclusion, DEHP treatment promotes proliferation, inflammation, TJ disruption, and p38 MAPK activation in HaCaT cells and psoriasis-like skin lesions.

Diet as a Source of Acrolein: Molecular Basis of Aldehyde Biological Activity in Diabetes and Digestive System Diseases

Acrolein, a highly reactive α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, is a compound involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus, and the development of cancers of various origins. In addition to environmental pollution (e.g., from car exhaust fumes) and tobacco smoke, a serious source of acrolein is our daily diet and improper thermal processing of animal and vegetable fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Dietary intake is one of the main routes of human exposure to acrolein, which is a major public health concern. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms of acrolein activity in the context of its involvement in the pathogenesis of diseases related to the digestive system, including diabetes, alcoholic liver disease, and intestinal cancer.

The Tobacco Smoke Component, Acrolein, as a Major Culprit in Lung Diseases and Respiratory Cancers: Molecular Mechanisms of Acrolein Cytotoxic Activity

Acrolein, a highly reactive unsaturated aldehyde, is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant that seriously threatens human health and life. Due to its high reactivity, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, acrolein is involved in the development of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, diabetes mellitus and even the development of cancer. Traditional tobacco smokers and e-cigarette users are particularly exposed to the harmful effects of acrolein. High concentrations of acrolein have been found in both mainstream and side-stream tobacco smoke. Acrolein is considered one of cigarette smoke’s most toxic and harmful components. Chronic exposure to acrolein through cigarette smoke has been linked to the development of asthma, acute lung injury, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and even respiratory cancers. This review addresses the current state of knowledge on the pathological molecular mechanisms of acrolein in the induction, course and development of lung diseases and cancers in smokers.

Thioredoxin reductase as a pharmacological target

Thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs) belong to the pyridine nucleotide disulfide oxidoreductase family enzymes that reduce thioredoxin (Trx). The couple TrxR and Trx is one of the major antioxidant systems that control the redox homeostasis in cells. The thioredoxin system, comprised of TrxR, Trx and NADPH, exerts its activities via a disulfide-dithiol exchange reaction. Inhibition of TrxR is an important clinical goal in all conditions in which the redox state is perturbed. The present review focuses on the most critical aspects of the cellular functions of TrxRs and their inhibition mechanisms by metal ions or chemicals, through direct targeting of TrxRs or their substrates or protein interactors. To update the involvement of overactivation/dysfunction of TrxRs in various pathological conditions, human diseases associated with TrxRs genes were critically summarized by publicly available genome-wide association study (GWAS) catalogs and literature. The pieces of evidence presented here justify why TrxR is recognized as one of the most critical clinical targets and the growing current interest in developing molecules capable of interfering with the functions of TrxR enzymes.

Role of Oxidative Stress and Nrf2/KEAP1 Signaling in Colorectal Cancer: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives with Phytochemicals

Colorectal cancer still has a high incidence and mortality rate, according to a report from the American Cancer Society. Colorectal cancer has a high prevalence in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Oxidative stress, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation, has been known to cause inflammatory diseases and malignant disorders. In particular, the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Kelch-like ECH-related protein 1 (KEAP1) pathway is well known to protect cells from oxidative stress and inflammation. Nrf2 was first found in the homolog of the hematopoietic transcription factor p45 NF-E2, and the transcription factor Nrf2 is a member of the Cap 'N' Collar family. KEAP1 is well known as a negative regulator that rapidly degrades Nrf2 through the proteasome system. A range of evidence has shown that consumption of phytochemicals has a preventive or inhibitory effect on cancer progression or proliferation, depending on the stage of colorectal cancer. Therefore, the discovery of phytochemicals regulating the Nrf2/KEAP1 axis and verification of their efficacy have attracted scientific attention. In this review, we summarize the role of oxidative stress and the Nrf2/KEAP1 signaling pathway in colorectal cancer, and the possible utility of phytochemicals with respect to the regulation of the Nrf2/KEAP1 axis in colorectal cancer.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of myricetin-pentadienone hybrids as potential anti-inflammatory agents in vitro and in vivo

Some important pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and nitric oxide are thought to play key roles in the destruction of cartilage and bone tissue in joints affected by rheumatoid arthritis. In the present study, a series of new myricetin-pentadienone hybrids were designed and synthesized. Majority of them effectively inhibited the expressions liposaccharide-induced secretion of IL-6, TNF-α and NO in RAW264.7. The most prominent compound 5o could significantly decrease production of above inflammatory factors with IC₅₀ values of 5.22 µM, 8.22 µM and 9.31 µM, respectively. Preliminary mechanism studies indicated that it could inhibit the expression of thioredoxin reductase, resulting in inhibiting of cell signaling pathway nuclear factor (N-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Significantly, compound 5o was found to effectively inhibit Freund's complete adjuvant induced rat adjuvant arthritis in vivo.

Allyl Sulfide Counteracts 1-Bromopropane-Induced Neurotoxicity by Inhibiting Neuroinflammation and Oxidative Stress

Chronic exposure to 1-bromopropane (1-BP), an alternative to ozone-depleting solvents, produces potential neurotoxicity in occupational populations. However, no therapeutic strategy is available currently. Accumulating evidence suggests that cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1) is critical for the active metabolism of 1-BP. The purpose of this study is aimed to test whether inhibition of CYP2E1 by allyl sulfide, a specific inhibitor of CYP2E1, could be able to protect against 1-BP-induced neurotoxicity. Male Wistar rats were intoxicated with 1-BP for 9 continuous weeks with or without allyl sulfide pretreatment. Results clearly demonstrated that 1-BP exposure induced decrease in NeuN+ cells and increase in cleaved caspase-3 expression and TUNEL+ cells in motor cortex of rats, which was significantly ameliorated by allyl sulfide. Allyl sulfide treatment also recovered the motor performance of rats treated with 1-BP. Mechanistically, allyl sulfide-inhibited 1-BP-induced expression of CYP2E1 in microglia, which was associated with suppression of microglial activation and M1 polarization in motor cortex of rats. Reduced oxidative stress was also observed in rats treated with combined allyl sulfide and 1-BP compared with 1-BP alone group. Furthermore, we found that allyl sulfide abrogated 1-BP-induced activation of Nuclear factor(NF)-κB and GSH/Thioredoxin/ASK1 pathways, the key factor for the maintenance of M1 microglial inflammatory response and oxidative stress-related neuronal apoptosis, respectively. Thus, our results showed that allyl sulfide exerted neuroprotective effects in combating 1-BP-induced neurotoxicity through inhibition of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Blocking CYP2E1 activity by allyl sulfide might be a promising avenue for the treatment of neurotoxicity elicited by 1-BP and other related neurotoxicants.

Carbenoxolone inhibits TRPV4 channel-initiated oxidative urothelial injury and ameliorates cyclophosphamide-induced bladder dysfunction

Carbenoxolone (CBX) is a clinically prescribed drug for the treatment of digestive ulcer and inflammation. It is also a widely used pharmacological inhibitor of several channels in basic research. Given that the overactivity of several channels, including those inhibitable by CBX, underlies bladder dysfunction, we tested the potential therapeutic application and mechanism of CBX in the treatment of voiding dysfunction. In a mouse model of cystitis induced by cyclophosphamide (CYP), CBX administration prevented the CYP‐elicited increase in bladder weight, oedema, haemorrhage, and urothelial injury. CBX also greatly improved micturition pattern, as manifested by the apparently decreased micturition frequency and increased micturition volume. Western blot results showed that CBX suppressed CYP‐induced increase in protein carbonyls, COX‐2, and iNOS. Further analysis using cultured urothelial cells revealed that acrolein, the major metabolite of CYP, caused protein oxidation, p38 activation, and urothelial injury. These effects of acrolein were reproduced by TRPV4 agonists and significantly prevented by antioxidant NAC, p38 inhibitor SB203580, TRPV4 antagonist RN‐1734, and CBX. Further studies showed that CBX potently suppressed TRPV4 agonist‐initiated calcium influx and subsequent cell injury. CBX attenuated CYP‐induced cystitis in vivo and reduced acrolein‐induced cell injury in vitro, through mechanisms involving inhibition of TRPV4 channels and attenuation of the channel‐mediated oxidative stress. CBX might be a promising agent for the treatment of bladder dysfunction.

Glycation vs. glycosylation: a tale of two different chemistries and biology in Alzheimer's disease

In our previous studies, we reported that the activity of an anti-oxidant enzyme, Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD) became decreased as the result of glycation in vitro and in vivo. Glycated Cu,Zn-SOD produces hydroxyl radicals in the presence of transition metals due to the formation of a Schiff base adduct and a subsequent Amadori product. This results in the site-specific cleavage of the molecule, followed by random fragmentation. The glycation of other anti-oxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase results in a loss or decrease in enzyme activity under pathological conditions, resulting in oxidative stress. The inactivation of anti-oxidant enzymes induces oxidative stress in aging, diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders. It is well known that the levels of Amadori products and N(e)-(carboxylmethyl)lysine (CML) and other carbonyl compounds are increased in diabetes, a situation that will be discussed by the other authors in this special issue. We and others, reported that the glycation products accumulate in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients as well as in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), suggesting that glycation plays a pivotal role in the development of AD. We also showed that enzymatic glycosylation is implicated in the pathogenesis of AD and that oxidative stress is also important in this process. Specific types of glycosylation reactions were found to be up- or downregulated in AD patients, and key AD-related molecules including the amyloid-precursor protein (APP), tau, and APP-cleaving enzymes were shown to be functionally modified as the result of glycosylation. These results suggest that glycation as well as glycosylation are involved in oxidative stress that is associated with aging, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.

Assembly Dynamics and Stoichiometry of the Apoptosis Signal-regulating Kinase (ASK) Signalosome in Response to Electrophile Stress

Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is a key sensor kinase in the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway that transduces cellular responses to oxidants and electrophiles. ASK1 is regulated by a large, dynamic multiprotein signalosome complex, potentially including over 90 reported ASK1-interacting proteins. We employed both shotgun and targeted mass spectrometry assays to catalogue the ASK1 protein-protein interactions in HEK-293 cells treated with the prototypical lipid electrophile 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE). Using both epitope-tagged overexpression and endogenous expression cell systems, we verified most of the previously reported ASK1 protein-protein interactions and identified 14 proteins that exhibited dynamic shifts in association with ASK1 in response to HNE stress. We used precise stable isotope dilution assays to quantify protein stoichiometry in the ASK signalosome complex and identified ASK2 at a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio with ASK1 and 14-3-3 proteins (YWHAQ, YWHAB, YWHAH, and YWHAE) collectively at a 0.5:1 ratio with ASK1 as the main components. Several other proteins, including ASK3, PARK7, PRDX1, and USP9X were detected with stoichiometries of 0.1:1 or less. These data support an ASK signalosome comprising a multimeric core complex of ASK1, ASK2, and 14-3-3 proteins, which dynamically engages other binding partners needed to mediate diverse stress-response signaling events. This study further demonstrates the value of combining global and targeted MS approaches to interrogate multiprotein complex composition and dynamics.

NMR based metabolomic approach revealed cyclophosphamide-induced systematic alterations in a rat model

A ¹H NMR based metabolomics approach combined with biochemical assay had been employed to study the toxicity of CY.

Ginseng alleviates cyclophosphamide-induced hepatotoxicity via reversing disordered homeostasis of glutathione and bile acid

Cyclophosphamide (CP), a chemotherapeutic agent, is restricted due to its side effects, especially hepatotoxicity. Ginseng has often been clinically used with CP in China, but whether and how ginseng reduces the hepatotoxicity is unknown. In this study, the hepatoprotective effects and mechanisms under the combined usage were investigated. It was found that ginseng could ameliorate CP-induced elevations of ALP, ALT, ALS, MDA and hepatic deterioration, enhance antioxidant enzymes’ activities and GSH’s level. Metabolomics study revealed that 33 endogenous metabolites were changed by CP, 19 of which were reversed when ginseng was co-administrated via two main pathways, i.e., GSH metabolism and primary bile acids synthesis. Furthermore, ginseng could induce expression of GCLC, GCLM, GS and GST, which associate with the disposition of GSH, and expression of FXR, CYP7A1, NTCP and MRP 3, which play important roles in the synthesis and transport of bile acids. In addition, NRF 2, one of regulatory elements on the expression of GCLC, GCLM, GS, GST, NTCP and MRP3, was up-regulated when ginseng was co-administrated. In conclusion, ginseng could alleviate CP-induced hepatotoxicity via modulating the disordered homeostasis of GSH and bile acid, which might be mediated by inducing the expression of NRF 2 in liver.

The tobacco smoke component acrolein induces glucocorticoid resistant gene expression via inhibition of histone deacetylase

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the leading cause of cigarette smoke-related death worldwide. Acrolein, a crucial reactive electrophile found in cigarette smoke mimics many of the toxic effects of cigarette smoke-exposure in the lung. In macrophages, cigarette smoke is known to hinder histone deacetylases (HDACs), glucocorticoid-regulated enzymes that play an important role in the pathogenesis of glucocorticoid resistant inflammation, a common feature of COPD. Thus, we hypothesize that acrolein plays a role in COPD-associated glucocorticoid resistance. To examine the role of acrolein on glucocorticoid resistance, U937 monocytes, differentiated with PMA to macrophage-like cells were treated with acrolein for 0.5h followed by stimulation with hydrocortisone for 8h, or treated simultaneously with LPS and hydrocortisone for 8h without acrolein. GSH and nuclear HDAC activity were measured, or gene expression was analyzed by qPCR. Acrolein-mediated TNFα gene expression was not suppressed by hydrocortisone whereas LPS-induced TNFα expression was suppressed. Acrolein also significantly inhibited nuclear HDAC activity in macrophage-like cells. Incubation of recombinant HDAC2 with acrolein led to the formation of an HDAC2-acrolein adduct identified by mass spectrometry. Therefore, these results suggest that acrolein-induced inflammatory gene expression is resistant to suppression by the endogenous glucocorticoid, hydrocortisone.

Molecular mechanisms of acrolein toxicity: relevance to human disease

Acrolein, a highly reactive unsaturated aldehyde, is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant and its potential as a serious environmental health threat is beginning to be recognized. Humans are exposed to acrolein per oral (food and water), respiratory (cigarette smoke, automobile exhaust, and biocide use) and dermal routes, in addition to endogenous generation (metabolism and lipid peroxidation). Acrolein has been suggested to play a role in several disease states including spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and neuro-, hepato-, and nephro-toxicity. On the cellular level, acrolein exposure has diverse toxic effects, including DNA and protein adduction, oxidative stress, mitochondrial disruption, membrane damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and immune dysfunction. This review addresses our current understanding of each pathogenic mechanism of acrolein toxicity, with emphasis on the known and anticipated contribution to clinical disease, and potential therapies.

Hydrogen peroxide - production, fate and role in redox signaling of tumor cells

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is involved in various signal transduction pathways and cell fate decisions. The mechanism of the so called “redox signaling” includes the H₂O₂-mediated reversible oxidation of redox sensitive cysteine residues in enzymes and transcription factors thereby altering their activities. Depending on its intracellular concentration and localization, H₂O₂ exhibits either pro- or anti-apoptotic activities. In comparison to normal cells, cancer cells are characterized by an increased H₂O₂ production rate and an impaired redox balance thereby affecting the microenvironment as well as the anti-tumoral immune response. This article reviews the current knowledge about the intracellular production of H₂O₂ along with redox signaling pathways mediating either the growth or apoptosis of tumor cells. In addition it will be discussed how the targeting of H₂O₂-linked sources and/or signaling components involved in tumor progression and survival might lead to novel therapeutic targets.

Low-level sodium arsenite induces apoptosis through inhibiting TrxR activity in pancreatic β-cells

In our previous study, we reported that sodium arsenite induced ROS-dependent apoptosis through lysosomal-mitochondrial pathway in pancreatic β-cells. Since the thioredoxin (Trx) system is the key antioxidant factor in mammalian cells, we investigate whether the inhibition of Trx system contributes to sodium arsenite-induced apoptosis in this study. After treatment with low-level (0.25-1μM) sodium arsenite for 96h, the thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) activity was decreased significantly in pancreatic INS-1 cells. Following with the inactivation of TrxR, ASK1 was released from combining with Trx, which was evidenced by increased levels of ASK1 in sodium arsenite-treated INS-1 cells. Subsequently, activated ASK1 accelerated the expression of proapoptotic protein Bax and reduced the expression of anti-apoptic protein Bcl-2. Finally, low-level sodium arsenite induced apoptosis via caspase-3 in INS-1 cells. Knockdown of ASK1 alleviated sodium arsenite-induced apoptosis. In summary, the precise molecular mechanisms through which arsenic is related to diabetes have not been completely elucidated, inactivation of Trx system might provide insights into the underlying mechanisms at the environmental exposure levels.

Inhalation of the reactive aldehyde acrolein promotes antigen sensitization to ovalbumin and enhances neutrophilic inflammation

Acrolein (ACR), an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde and a major component of tobacco smoke, is a highly reactive electrophilic respiratory irritant implicated in asthma pathogenesis and severity. However, few studies have directly investigated the influence of ACR exposure on allergen sensitization and pulmonary inflammation. The present study was designed to examine the impact of ACR inhalation on allergic sensitization to the inhaled antigen ovalbumin (OVA), as well as pulmonary inflammation during subsequent OVA challenge. Adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to inhaled OVA (1%, 30 min/day, 4 days/week) and/or ACR (5 ppm, 4 h/day, 4 days/week) over 2 weeks and subsequently challenged with aerosolized OVA (1%, 30 min/day) over three consecutive days. Serum anti-OVA IgG1 levels were increased significantly in animals exposed to both OVA and ACR, compared to animals exposed to either OVA or ACR alone. In addition, differential cell counts and histological analysis revealed an increase in BAL neutrophils in animals exposed to both OVA and ACR. However, exposure to both OVA and ACR did not influence mRNA expression of the cytokines il5, il10, il13 or tnfa, but significantly increased mRNA expression of ccl20. Moreover, ACR exposure enhanced lung mRNA levels of il17f and tgfb1, suggesting development of enhanced inhalation tolerance to OVA. Overall, the findings indicate that ACR inhalation can promote airway-mediated sensitization to otherwise innocuous inhaled antigens, such as OVA, but also enhances immune tolerance, thereby favoring neutrophilic airway inflammation.

AGR2, ERp57/GRP58, and some other human protein disulfide isomerases

This review considers the major features of human proteins AGR2 and ERp57/GRP58 and of other members of the protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family. The ability of both AGR2 and ERp57/GRP58 to catalyze the formation of disulfide bonds in proteins is the parameter most important for assigning them to a PDI family. Moreover, these proteins and also other members of the PDI family have specific structural features (thioredoxin-like domains, special C-terminal motifs characteristic for proteins localized in the endoplasmic reticulum, etc.) that are necessary for their assignment to a PDI family. Data demonstrating the role of these two proteins in carcinogenesis are analyzed. Special attention is given to data indicating the presence of biomarker features in AGR2 and ERp57/GRP58. It is now thought that there is sufficient reason for studies of AGR2 and ERp57/GRP58 for possible use of these proteins in diagnosis of tumors. There are also prospects for studies on AGR2 and ERp57/GRP58 leading to developments in chemotherapy. Thus, we suppose that further studies on different members of the PDI family using modern postgenomic technologies will broaden current concepts about functions of these proteins, and this will be helpful for solution of urgent biomedical problems.

Protein alkylation by the α,β-unsaturated aldehyde acrolein. A reversible mechanism of electrophile signaling?

Acrolein, a reactive aldehyde found in cigarette smoke, is thought to induce its biological effects primarily by irreversible adduction to cellular nucleophiles such as cysteine thiols. Here, we demonstrate that acrolein rapidly inactivates the seleno-enzyme thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) in human bronchiolar epithelial HBE1 cells, which recovered over 4-8h by a mechanism depending on the presence of cellular GSH and thioredoxin 1 (Trx1), and corresponding with reversal of protein-acrolein adduction. Our findings indicate that acrolein-induced protein alkylation is not necessarily a feature of irreversible protein damage, but may reflect a reversible signaling mechanism that is regulated by GSH and Trx1.

Thermally induced process-related contaminants: the example of acrolein and the comparison with acrylamide: opinion of the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG)

α,β-Unsaturated aliphatic carbonyl compounds are naturally widespread in food, but are also formed during the thermal treatment of food. This applies, for example, to the genotoxic carcinogen acrylamide (AA), but also to acrolein (AC), the simplest α,β-unsaturated aldehyde. First observations indicate that human exposure to AC may be higher than the exposure to AA. The DFG Senate Commission on Food Safety therefore compared data on AC and AA available in the scientific literature, evaluating current knowledge on formation, occurrence, exposure, metabolism, biological effects, toxicity, and carcinogenicity and defined knowledge gaps as well as research needs in an opinion on November 19, 2012, in German. The English version was agreed on April 17, 2013.

Genome-wide gene expression profiles in antioxidant pathways and their potential sex differences and connections to vitamin C in mice

Vitamin C (VC) is well known as an antioxidant in humans, primates and guinea pigs. Studies have suggested gender differences in VC requirements in humans, and gender differences in oxidant injury vulnerability in early life may represent a biological mechanism contributing to gender disparity in later life. Using spontaneous bone fracture (sfx) mice, which lack the gene for L-Gulonolactone oxidase (Gulo), we studied the potential sex difference in expression profiles of oxidative genes at the whole-genome level. Then, we analyzed data of gene expressions in a mouse population of recombinant inbred (RI) strains originally derived by crossing C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) mice. Our data indicated that there were sex differences in the regulation of pre- and pro-oxidative genes in sfx mice. The associations of expression levels among Gulo, its partner genes and oxidative genes in the BXD (B6 × D2) RI strains showed a sex difference. Transcriptome mapping suggests that Gulo was regulated differently between female and male mice in BXD RI strains. Our study indicates the importance of investigating sex differences in Gulo and its oxidative function by using available mouse models.

Acrolein-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling is mediated by alkylation of thioredoxin reductase and thioredoxin 1

Cigarette smoking remains a major health concern worldwide, and many of the adverse effects of cigarette smoke (CS) can be attributed to its abundant electrophilic aldehydes, such as acrolein (2-propenal). Previous studies indicate that acrolein readily reacts with thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1), a critical enzyme involved in regulation of thioredoxin (Trx)-mediated redox signaling, by alkylation at its selenocysteine (Sec) residue. Because alkylation of Sec within TrxR1 has significant implications for its enzymatic function, we explored the potential importance of TrxR1 alkylation in acrolein-induced activation or injury of bronchial epithelial cells. Exposure of human bronchial epithelial HBE1 cells to acrolein (1–30 μM) resulted in dose-dependent loss of TrxR thioredoxin reductase activity, which coincided with its alkylation, as determined by biotin hydrazide labeling, and was independent of initial GSH status. To test the involvement of TrxR1 in acrolein responses in HBE1 cells, we suppressed TrxR1 using siRNA silencing or augmented TrxR1 by cell supplementation with sodium selenite. Acrolein exposure of HBE1 cells induced dose-dependent activation of the MAP kinases, extracellular regulated1 kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38, and activation of JNK was markedly enhanced after selenite-mediated induction of TrxR1, and was associated with increased alkylation of TrxR1. Conversely, siRNA silencing of TrxR1 significantly suppressed the ability of acrolein to activate JNK, and also appeared to attenuate acrolein-dependent activation of ERK and p38. Alteration of initial TrxR1 levels by siRNA or selenite supplementation also affected initial Trx1 redox status and acrolein-mediated alkylation of Trx1, but did not significantly affect acrolein-mediated activation of HO-1 or cytotoxicity. Collectively, our findings indicate that alkylation of TrxR1 and/or Trx1 may contribute directly to acrolein-mediated activation of MAP kinases such as JNK, and may therefore be important in acrolein-induced alterations in airway epithelial function, as a contributing mechanism in tobacco-related respiratory disease.

Thioredoxin-mimetic peptides (TXM) reverse auranofin induced apoptosis and restore insulin secretion in insulinoma cells

The thioredoxin reductase/thioredoxin system (TrxR/Trx1) plays a major role in protecting cells from oxidative stress. Disruption of the TrxR-Trx1 system keeps Trx1 in the oxidized state leading to cell death through activation of the ASK1-Trx1 apoptotic pathway. The potential mechanism and ability of tri- and tetra-oligopeptides derived from the canonical -CxxC- motif of the Trx1-active site to mimic and enhance Trx1 cellular activity was examined. The Trx mimetics peptides (TXM) protected insulinoma INS 832/13 cells from oxidative stress induced by selectively inhibiting TrxR with auranofin (AuF). TXM reversed the AuF-effects preventing apoptosis, and increasing cell-viability. The TXM peptides were effective in inhibiting AuF-induced MAPK, JNK and p38(MAPK) phosphorylation, in correlation with preventing caspase-3 cleavage and thereby PARP-1 dissociation. The ability to form a disulfide-bridge-like conformation was estimated from molecular dynamics simulations. The TXM peptides restored insulin secretion and displayed Trx1 denitrosylase activity. Their potency was 10-100-fold higher than redox reagents like NAC, AD4, or ascorbic acid. Unable to reverse ERK1/2 phosphorylation, TXM-CB3 (NAc-Cys-Pro-Cys amide) appeared to function in part, through inhibiting ASK1-Trx dissociation. These highly effective anti-apoptotic effects of Trx1 mimetic peptides exhibited in INS 832/13 cells could become valuable in treating adverse oxidative-stress related disorders such as diabetes.

p38 MAPK activation and function following osmotic shock of erythrocytes

p38 protein kinase is activated by hyperosmotic shock, participates in the regulation of cell volume sensitive transport and metabolism and is involved in the regulation of various physiological functions including cell proliferation and apoptosis. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may undergo suicidal death or eryptosis, which is paralleled by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface. Triggers of eryptosis include hyperosmotic shock, which increases cytosolic Ca(2+) activity and ceramide formation. The present study explored whether p38 kinase is expressed in human erythrocytes, is activated by hyperosmotic shock and participates in the regulation of eryptosis. Western blotting was utilized to determine phosphorylation of p38 kinase, forward scatter to estimate cell volume, annexin V binding to depict phosphatidylserine exposure and Fluo3 fluorescence to estimate cytosolic Ca(2+) activity. As a result, erythrocytes express p38 kinase, which is phosphorylated upon osmotic shock (+550 mM sucrose). Osmotic shock decreased forward scatter, increased annexin V binding and increased Fluo3 fluorescence, all effects significantly blunted by the p38 kinase inhibitors SB203580 (2 μM) and p38 Inh III (1 μM). In conclusion, p38 kinase is expressed in erythrocytes and participates in the machinery triggering eryptosis following hyperosmotic shock.