Remaining connected in the face of cyberbullying: Why social connectedness is important for mental health

The relations between COVID-19 stress, social connectedness, and mental health: a longitudinal investigation comparing Chinese and American college students

College students in the U.S. and China have faced significant challenges during COVID-19. Data were collected from 120 Amerian students (Mage = 19.48, SDage = 1.30) and 119 Chinese students (Mage = 18.61, SDage = 0.91) in November, 2019 and March, 2020 to examine risk and protective factors for mental health (depression, anxiety, life satisfaction) during the pandemic, and potential cultural and gender differences. Results indicated that the frequency and impact of COVID-19-related stressful life events predicted deterioration of mental health over time, while social connectedness before the pandemic buffered the negative impact of COVID-19 stressful life events on life satisfaction. Chinese students reported higher levels of social connectedness and larger impact of COVID-19-related stressful life events, but lower frequency of stressful life events than American students. Stressful life events and social connectedness predicted mental health outcomes similarly for Chinese and American students. Gender differences were identified. Females reported more stressful life events, higher levels of depression, anxiety and less life satisfaction during COVID-19 than males. In addition, the frequency of stressful life events had a stronger impact on depression and anxiety for females compared with males. It is important to implement prevention and intervention programs to promote social connections and wellbeing among college students, especially among female students.

The beauty and the beast of social media: an interpretative phenomenological analysis of the impact of adolescents' social media experiences on their mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic

Despite extensive research, the mental health implication of social media in adolescents is not yet understood due to mixed and inconsistent findings and more in-depth qualitative studies are needed to expand our understanding of the impact of social media on adolescent mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to explore why and how adolescents use social media, adolescents' lived experiences on social media, how they make sense of these experiences having impact on their mental health, and the influence of the Covid-19 pandemic on their use of social media and mental health. In-depth interviews were conducted with eleven adolescents aged 14-16 (five female, six male) across England. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Two key themes were identified: the beauty of social media that captured positive experiences and emotions of adolescents and the beast of social media that captured negative experiences and emotions. From the adolescents' accounts, social media has both positive and negative impacts on their mental health, but mostly positive impacts during the Covid-19 pandemic. The results were discussed in relation to the study aims and previous study findings. Strengths and methodological limitations of the study, implications for future research that emerged from the study were discussed.

Cybervictimisation and Well-Being during the Outbreak of COVID-19: The Mediating Role of Depression

Social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic contributed to modifying relational habits and increasing Internet use to engage in antisocial behaviours such as cybervictimisation. Additionally, social distancing can reinforce the relationship with internalising behaviours such as depression. Through an adolescent sample, this study examines the relationship between cybervictimisation and well-being and the mediating role of depression. The hypothesis was tested via Structural Equation Model (SEM) analysis to verify the role of depression as a mediator between cybervictimisation and well-being. The main results reveal that the effect of cybervictimisation on well-being was fully mediated by depression. The findings should stimulate debate on possible interventions to promote adolescent well-being and to avoid emotional and mental health problems related to social isolation.

Social Connectedness, Cyberbullying, and Well-Being: Preliminary Findings from the Longitudinal Adolescent Brain Study

Social connectedness is well established as an important aspect of adolescence, with higher levels typically resulting in positive mental health and well-being. Cyberbullying is a prevalent concern during adolescence and is a significant contributor to poor mental health outcomes during this important phase of life. Research shows that social connectedness may act as a protective factor for mental health and well-being when young people experience cyberbullying. However, further research is required to elucidate associations between social connectedness, well-being, and cyberbullying over time. This article outlines preliminary findings from the Longitudinal Adolescent Brain Study (LABS). Data are reported from N = 64 LABS participants recruited at age 12 and assessed at four timepoints over a 12-month period, with a total of 204 completed assessments. Structural equation modeling revealed a mediating effect of social connectedness on the relationship between cyberbullying and well-being. In other words, the negative influences of cyberbullying and cybervictimization on well-being scores over time are influenced by levels of social connectedness. The present findings highlight that increased social connectedness in young people is vital to promoting positive well-being over time and can protect well-being in those experiencing cyberbullying and/or cybervictimization. Findings can inform cyberbullying education programs, health care practitioners, parents, and educators on the importance of young people remaining socially connected when experiencing cyberbullying and/or cybervictimization.

Cybervictimization and Depression among Adolescents: Coping Strategies as Mediators

Studies have shown the relationships among cybervictimization, coping strategies, and depression, but no study has examined the mechanism that links the three variables. Accordingly, this study used the transactional model of stress and coping theory as a conceptual framework and proposed that coping strategies are mediators for the effects of cybervictimization on depression. A total of 387 adolescents were recruited by using the purposive sampling method. The results showed that cybervictimization is not directly associated with depression. All the coping strategies are found to be associated with cybervictimization, but only the avoidant coping strategy is the statistical mediator for the effects of cybervictimization on depression. This study’s findings suggest that the transactional model of stress and coping theory may provide a framework in the area of cyberbullying and recommend more actions to be taken in order to reduce the use of avoidance coping strategies among victims of cyberbullying.

Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Among Adolescents: A Structural Model with Socioecological Connectedness, Bullying Victimization, and Depression

The objective was to examine the associations of socioecological connectedness with bullying victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescence and with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in mid-adolescence, and how these might differ between genders. Diverse adolescents (N = 4115; 49.1% girls) in the 7th grade reported on connections with parents/family, peers, school, and neighborhood, as well as bullying victimization and depressive symptoms, and NSSI in 10th grade (M^e = 16.1 years). Structural equation modeling with WSLMV indicated that the lower likelihood of NSSI in 10th grade was associated with higher perceptions of connections between adolescents and their families, both directly as well as indirectly through reduced bully victimization and depressive symptoms three years earlier. Higher school connectedness was indirectly associated with the lower likelihood of NSSI through bullying victimization and depressive symptoms. Paths to NSSI varied for girls and boys. Results advance the understanding of developmental pathways leading to NSSI in adolescent girls and boys.

Social media use and social connectedness among adolescents in the United Kingdom: a qualitative exploration of displacement and stimulation

Background

Connectedness to family and peers is a key determinant of adolescent mental health. Existing research examining associations between social media use and social connectedness has been largely quantitative and has focused primarily on loneliness, or on specific aspects of peer relationships. In this qualitative study we use the displacement hypothesis and the stimulation hypothesis as competing theoretical lenses through which we examine the complex relationship between social media use and feelings of connectedness to family and peers.

Methods

In-depth paired and individual interviews were conducted with twenty-four 13–14-year-olds in two inner-city English secondary schools. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, coded and thematically analysed.

Results

Analysis identified four themes: (i) ‘Displacement of face-to-face socialising’ (ii) ‘Social obligations’ (iii) ‘(Mis)Trust’ and (iv) ‘Personal and group identity’. Results indicated stronger support for the stimulation hypothesis than the displacement hypothesis. We found evidence of a complex set of reciprocal and circular relationships between social media use and connectedness consistent with a ‘rich-get-richer’ and a ‘poor-get-poorer’ effect for family and peer connectedness – and a ‘poor-get-richer’ effect in peer connectedness for those who find face-to-face interactions difficult.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that parents should take a measured approach to social media use, providing clear guidance, promoting trust and responsible time management, and acknowledging the role of social media in making connections. Understanding and sharing in online experiences is likely to promote social connectedness. Supporting young people to negotiate breathing space in online interactions and prioritising trust over availability in peer relationships may optimise the role of social media in promoting peer connectedness.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-11802-9.

The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on children and adolescents and possible solutions: a perspective

The ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) keeps infecting and causing more deaths daily [1, 2]. As of March 29th, 2021, the world had registered 127,674,594 confirmed cases with 2,793,319 deaths, amongst which 562,292 occurred in the United States alone [3]. Since the virus is contagious and spreads easily, many countries started issuing lockdown orders at the start of the pandemic [4]. People of all age groups experienced drastic changes in their daily lives. The economic well-being of several countries, especially those relying on travels and tourism, global social and political relationships, pedagogical, and educational systems have all been heavily influenced [1, 4, 5].

A novel, complex systems approach to modelling risk of psychological distress in young adolescents

Adolescence is a period of significant anatomical and functional brain changes, and complex interactions occur between mental health risk factors. The Longitudinal Adolescent Brain Study commenced in 2018, to monitor environmental and psychosocial factors influencing mental health in 500 adolescents, for 5 years. Participants are recruited at age 12 from the community in Australia's Sunshine Coast region. In this baseline, cross-sectional study of N = 64 participants, we draw on the network perspective, conceptualising mental disorders as causal systems of interacting entities, to propose a Bayesian network (BN) model of lifestyle and psychosocial variables influencing chances of individuals being psychologically well or experiencing psychological distress. Sensitivity analysis of network priors revealed that psychological distress (Kessler-10) was most affected by eating behaviour. Unhealthy eating increased the chance of moderate psychological distress by 600%. Low social connectedness increased the chance of severe psychological disorder by 200%. Certainty for psychological wellness required 33% decrease in unhealthy eating behaviours, 11% decrease in low social connectedness, and 9% reduction in less physical activity. BN can augment clinician judgement in mental disorders as probabilistic decision support systems. The full potential of BN methodology in a complex systems approach to psychopathology has yet to be realised.

Cyberbullying and Adolescent Neurobiology

Whilst it is well documented that cyberbullying is linked to poor mental health outcomes, limited research has examined how cyberbullying may influence brain development adolescents, and the influence of each of these factors. The article’s primary objective was to develop an understanding of research to date that addresses any relationship between adolescent brain development and cyberbullying. The current article reviews any existing literature regarding the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent brain development, paying particular attention to research using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques. Whilst brain studies have examined neural mechanisms associated with conduct disorders, antisocial behavior, and aggression in young people; there is a paucity of research examining these factors specifically in relation to cyberbullying. In particular, little research has examined how MRI research could help understand how the brain is affected by cyberbullying, not only in bullies and victims but also bystanders. This article highlights the gaps in the cyberbullying field in relation to neuroscience research, and the need for further, longitudinal research examining cyberbullying and how it may affect brain development in young people. This article concludes by suggesting a framework for future research, and highlights the importance of future findings for developing interventions and understanding short and long term effects.

Connectivity as a Mediating Mechanism in the Cybervictimization Process

This paper explores the relationship between social connectivity and cybervictimization as it is mediated by psychosocial variables such as social identity and self-esteem. Likewise, it analyses the moderating role in that relationship played by adolescents’ perception of cyberbullying. The sample consisted of 2072 adolescents (48.7% girls) aged between 14 and 18 (Mean = 15.78, Standard Deviation = 1.02) years. Through the use of five questionnaires, an explanatory model is constructed that shows the direct and indirect relationships between the factors analysed, the predictive values that social connectivity can reach when applied to the virtual environment, and the perception of cyberbullying in the victimization processes. The results indicate that self-esteem and social identity are protective factors in the establishment of healthy virtual relationships and avoidance of cybervictimization situations. Moreover, the equation of cyberbullying with aggressive or maladaptive styles of humour has an indirect influence on the link between connectivity and cybervictimization.

The Cyberbullying Picture Series (CyPicS): Developed for Use in Cyberbullying and Cyberbystander Research

While research has examined bystander responses in a traditional sense, there is a dearth of research regarding responses of cyberbystanders in a real-time situation, such as observing a cyberbullying scenario. This article describes a novel protocol designed to develop a series of images to be used to undertake research that aims to examine cyberbystander responses. A total of 24 scenarios (12 negative (cyberbullying) and 12 neutral) were created by the researchers and designed to mimic the way such scenarios would appear on a social networking site. The negative (cyberbullying) stimuli were rated in terms of level of severity, and the scenarios were compared to a selection of images from the International Affective Picture System using the Self-Assessment Manikin. These stimuli were compiled to form the Cyberbullying Picture Series (CyPicS). Through the development of the CyPicS, this protocol will aid future researchers in examining responses to real-life scenarios, as it is the first of its kind to develop these scenarios and test and evaluate them. CyPicS will provide researchers with the means to systematically evaluate responses to validated, real-life cyberbullying scenarios. More specifically, future researchers can utilize CyPicS to investigate how cyberbystanders respond when observing cyberbullying stimuli compared to neutral stimuli, as well as to measure and understand reactions or perceptions of cyberbullying. CyPicS can be used in any form of cyberbullying research (including electroencephalography and eye-tracking studies, psychological research, and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies) that may utilize bystander reactions and behaviors. Findings from research that utilizes CyPicS will greatly increase our understanding of bystander responses, and with variations in study design, researchers can further examine past or future associations with cyber-victim/bully status and mental health outcomes.

Cyberbullying and cybervictimization: Does gender matter?

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate gender effects on college students' judgements about a hypothetical episode of cyberbullying on Facebook that resulted in the suicide of a cybervictim. A total of 176 undergraduate students at a midsize public university in the Northeast served as participants. Four one-page versions of a hypothetical trial transcript detailing a cyberbullying case were utilized. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: male cyberbully/male cybervictim, male cyberbully/female cybervictim, female cyberbully/male cybervictim, and female cyberbully/female cybervictim. After reading one of the trial transcripts, participants rated eight variables, including criminal guilt and intent of the cyberbully, responsibility of entities involved, and appropriate punishment for the cyberbully. Results revealed significant differences in judgments based on the gender of the cyberbully, cybervictim, and participant.

Neurobiological underpinnings of cyberbullying: A pilot functional magnetic resonance imaging study

There is a dearth of research that has investigated the neural correlates of cyberbullying, using task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, specifically, in a real-time context such as observing cyberbullying scenarios. This article presents pilot data from a novel protocol designed to undertake such research with the overall aim being to elucidate the neurobiological underpinnings of cyberbullying via task-based fMRI (tb-fMRI)) in passive cyberbystanders. Young adults (N = 32, 18 to 25 years old) viewed six negative (cyberbullying) and six neutral stimuli from the Cyberbullying Picture Series (CyPicS) while undergoing tb-fMRI. Our results revealed 12 clusters of significantly greater blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) responses (family wise error corrected p _FWE  < .05) in participants when viewing cyberbullying stimuli compared to neutral stimuli, across a distributed network of regions including left and right middle temporal gyrus, default mode network hubs, left and right posterior cerebellum/vermis, and putamen. Further analysis also revealed greater BOLD response in females compared to males, as well as in those with no prior experience of cyberbullying compared to those with prior experience (despite gender), when viewing the cyberbullying stimuli compared to the neutral stimuli. These results bring us closer to understanding the neurobiological underpinnings that may be associated with cybervictim/bully status and outcomes.

Using measures of intrinsic homeostasis and extrinsic modulation to evaluate mental health in adolescents: Preliminary results from the longitudinal adolescent brain study (LABS)

Adolescence is a period when complex interactions occur between mental health risk factors. The Longitudinal Adolescent Brain Study (LABS) commenced in 2018, to monitor environmental and psychosocial factors thought to influence mental health in 500 young people. Participants commence at 12 years of age, via a community-based recruitment model, and data is collected at 15 time-points over five years. This study examines demographic and psychosocial self-report data from time-point 1, for the first 50 participants. Here we investigate associations between environmental and psychosocial factors, considered as measures of intrinsic homeostasis and extrinsic modulation. Numerous strong correlations were found. Findings indicate that sleep dysfunction and social connectedness were strongly associated external modulators of intrinsic homeostasis in this sample of 12-year old participants. To successfully address the increase in mental health problems in young people, comprehensive evaluation of lifestyle and environmental risk factors is recommended in addition to medicalised approaches. Interventions to promote mental health wellbeing in young adolescents should include a focus on sleep quality and patterns and the positive and negative aspects of social connectedness.

Friendship Quality and Gender Differences in Association With Cyberbullying Involvement and Psychological Well-Being

Current literature has documented the detrimental effects of cyberbullying which include a range of internalizing and externalizing problems for those involved. Although critical, this research can sometimes ignore social-ecological aspects of a child's life that can potentially 'buffer' the negative psychological effects of such involvement. With this in mind, this cross-sectional investigation of 12-16 year olds [M(SD): 13.5(1) years] in Ireland focused on the role of friendship quality and gender in association with cyberbullying involvement and psychological well-being (N = 2410). The Cyberbullying and Online Aggression Scale was used to measure cyber perpetration and victimization. A modified version of the Cambridge Friendship Questionnaire was included to investigate peer friendship quality. Finally, the Moods and Feeling Questionnaire and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire were chosen to provide a measurement of psychological well-being. Prevalence rates for various types of cyberbullying roles (cyber bullies, victims and bully/victims) are presented, as well as differences for psychological well-being, friendship quality and cyberbullying involvement. In addition, regression models were used to determine the associations between gender, age, friendship quality and involvement in cyberbullying with psychological well-being. The results are considered in terms of the current literature and directions for future research are suggested.