1
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Koistinen H, Kovanen RM, Hollenberg MD, Dufour A, Radisky ES, Stenman UH, Batra J, Clements J, Hooper JD, Diamandis E, Schilling O, Rannikko A, Mirtti T. The roles of proteases in prostate cancer. IUBMB Life 2023; 75:493-513. [PMID: 36598826 PMCID: PMC10159896 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Since the proposition of the pro-invasive activity of proteolytic enzymes over 70 years ago, several roles for proteases in cancer progression have been established. About half of the 473 active human proteases are expressed in the prostate and many of the most well-characterized members of this enzyme family are regulated by androgens, hormones essential for development of prostate cancer. Most notably, several kallikrein-related peptidases, including KLK3 (prostate-specific antigen, PSA), the most well-known prostate cancer marker, and type II transmembrane serine proteases, such as TMPRSS2 and matriptase, have been extensively studied and found to promote prostate cancer progression. Recent findings also suggest a critical role for proteases in the development of advanced and aggressive castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Perhaps the most intriguing evidence for this role comes from studies showing that the protease-activated transmembrane proteins, Notch and CDCP1, are associated with the development of CRPC. Here, we review the roles of proteases in prostate cancer, with a special focus on their regulation by androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannu Koistinen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
| | - Ruusu-Maaria Kovanen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
- Research Program in Systems Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Pathology, HUS Diagnostic Centre, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Morley D Hollenberg
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology and Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Antoine Dufour
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology and Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Evette S. Radisky
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A
| | - Ulf-Håkan Stenman
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
| | - Jyotsna Batra
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Judith Clements
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - John D. Hooper
- Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Eleftherios Diamandis
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Oliver Schilling
- Institute for Surgical Pathology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Antti Rannikko
- Research Program in Systems Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Urology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tuomas Mirtti
- Research Program in Systems Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Pathology, HUS Diagnostic Centre, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Zhang L, Lovell S, De Vita E, Jagtap PKA, Lucy D, Goya Grocin A, Kjær S, Borg A, Hennig J, Miller AK, Tate EW. A KLK6 Activity-Based Probe Reveals a Role for KLK6 Activity in Pancreatic Cancer Cell Invasion. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:22493-22504. [PMID: 36413626 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c07378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer has the lowest survival rate of all common cancers due to late diagnosis and limited treatment options. Serine hydrolases are known to mediate cancer progression and metastasis through initiation of signaling cascades and cleavage of extracellular matrix proteins, and the kallikrein-related peptidase (KLK) family of secreted serine proteases have emerging roles in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the lack of reliable activity-based probes (ABPs) to profile KLK activity has hindered progress in validation of these enzymes as potential targets or biomarkers. Here, we developed potent and selective ABPs for KLK6 by using a positional scanning combinatorial substrate library and characterized their binding mode and interactions by X-ray crystallography. The optimized KLK6 probe IMP-2352 (kobs/I = 11,000 M-1 s-1) enabled selective detection of KLK6 activity in a variety of PDAC cell lines, and we observed that KLK6 inhibition reduced the invasiveness of PDAC cells that secrete active KLK6. KLK6 inhibitors were combined with N-terminomics to identify potential secreted protein substrates of KLK6 in PDAC cells, providing insights into KLK6-mediated invasion pathways. These novel KLK6 ABPs offer a toolset to validate KLK6 and associated signaling partners as targets or biomarkers across a range of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leran Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Scott Lovell
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AX, U.K
| | - Elena De Vita
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Pravin Kumar Ankush Jagtap
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.,Chair of Biochemistry IV, Biophysical Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Daniel Lucy
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Andrea Goya Grocin
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Svend Kjær
- Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, U.K
| | - Annabel Borg
- Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, U.K
| | - Janosch Hennig
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.,Chair of Biochemistry IV, Biophysical Chemistry, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Aubry K Miller
- Cancer Drug Development Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
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3
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Raina P, Guinea R, Chatsirisupachai K, Lopes I, Farooq Z, Guinea C, Solyom CA, de Magalhães JP. GeneFriends: gene co-expression databases and tools for humans and model organisms. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 51:D145-D158. [PMID: 36454018 PMCID: PMC9825523 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac1031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene co-expression analysis has emerged as a powerful method to provide insights into gene function and regulation. The rapid growth of publicly available RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data has created opportunities for researchers to employ this abundant data to help decipher the complexity and biology of genomes. Co-expression networks have proven effective for inferring the relationship between the genes, for gene prioritization and for assigning function to poorly annotated genes based on their co-expressed partners. To facilitate such analyses we created previously an online co-expression tool for humans and mice entitled GeneFriends. To continue providing a valuable tool to the scientific community, we have now updated the GeneFriends database and website. Here, we present the new version of GeneFriends, which includes gene and transcript co-expression networks based on RNA-seq data from 46 475 human and 34 322 mouse samples. The new database also encompasses tissue-specific gene co-expression networks for 20 human and 21 mouse tissues, dataset-specific gene co-expression maps based on TCGA and GTEx projects and gene co-expression networks for additional seven model organisms (fruit fly, zebrafish, worm, rat, yeast, cow and chicken). GeneFriends is freely available at http://www.genefriends.org/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Raina
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Rodrigo Guinea
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Kasit Chatsirisupachai
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Inês Lopes
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Zoya Farooq
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
| | - Cristina Guinea
- UCAL - Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de América Latina, Faculty of Design, Lima 15026, Perú
| | - Csaba-Attila Solyom
- Integrative Genomics of Ageing Group, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L7 8TX, UK
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4
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Correlation of NTRK1 Downregulation with Low Levels of Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells and Poor Prognosis of Prostate Cancer Revealed by Gene Network Analysis. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13050840. [PMID: 35627227 PMCID: PMC9140438 DOI: 10.3390/genes13050840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is a life-threatening heterogeneous malignancy of the urinary tract. Due to the incidence of prostate cancer and the crucial need to elucidate its molecular mechanisms, we searched for possible prognosis impactful genes in PCa using bioinformatics analysis. A script in R language was used for the identification of Differentially Expressed Genes (DEGs) from the GSE69223 dataset. The gene ontology (GO) of the DEGs and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using the STRING online database to identify hub genes. GEPIA and UALCAN databases were utilized for survival analysis and expression validation, and 990 DEGs (316 upregulated and 674 downregulated) were identified. The GO analysis was enriched mainly in the “collagen-containing extracellular matrix”, and the KEGG pathway analysis was enriched mainly in “focal adhesion”. The downregulation of neurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase 1 (NTRK1) was associated with a poor prognosis of PCa and had a significant positive correlation with infiltrating levels of immune cells. We acquired a collection of pathways related to primary PCa, and our findings invite the further exploration of NTRK1 as a biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis, and as a future potential molecular therapeutic target for PCa.
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5
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Wettstein L, Kirchhoff F, Münch J. The Transmembrane Protease TMPRSS2 as a Therapeutic Target for COVID-19 Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1351. [PMID: 35163273 PMCID: PMC8836196 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
TMPRSS2 is a type II transmembrane protease with broad expression in epithelial cells of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, the prostate, and other organs. Although the physiological role of TMPRSS2 remains largely elusive, several endogenous substrates have been identified. TMPRSS2 serves as a major cofactor in SARS-CoV-2 entry, and primes glycoproteins of other respiratory viruses as well. Consequently, inhibiting TMPRSS2 activity is a promising strategy to block viral infection. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of TMPRSS2 in the entry processes of different respiratory viruses. We then review the different classes of TMPRSS2 inhibitors and their clinical development, with a focus on COVID-19 treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jan Münch
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (L.W.); (F.K.)
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6
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Koistinen H, Künnapuu J, Jeltsch M. KLK3 in the Regulation of Angiogenesis-Tumorigenic or Not? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413545. [PMID: 34948344 PMCID: PMC8704207 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this focused review, we address the role of the kallikrein-related peptidase 3 (KLK3), also known as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), in the regulation of angiogenesis. Early studies suggest that KLK3 is able to inhibit angiogenic processes, which is most likely dependent on its proteolytic activity. However, more recent evidence suggests that KLK3 may also have an opposite role, mediated by the ability of KLK3 to activate the (lymph)angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D, further discussed in the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannu Koistinen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (M.J.)
| | - Jaana Künnapuu
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Michael Jeltsch
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
- Individualized Drug Therapy Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Wihuri Research Institute, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (M.J.)
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7
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Lovell S, Zhang L, Kryza T, Neodo A, Bock N, De Vita E, Williams ED, Engelsberger E, Xu C, Bakker AT, Maneiro M, Tanaka RJ, Bevan CL, Clements JA, Tate EW. A Suite of Activity-Based Probes To Dissect the KLK Activome in Drug-Resistant Prostate Cancer. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:8911-8924. [PMID: 34085829 PMCID: PMC9282638 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c03950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Kallikrein-related
peptidases (KLKs) are a family of secreted serine
proteases, which form a network (the KLK activome) with an important
role in proteolysis and signaling. In prostate cancer (PCa), increased
KLK activity promotes tumor growth and metastasis through multiple
biochemical pathways, and specific quantification and tracking of
changes in the KLK activome could contribute to validation of KLKs
as potential drug targets. Herein we report a technology platform
based on novel activity-based probes (ABPs) and inhibitors enabling
simultaneous orthogonal analysis of KLK2, KLK3, and KLK14 activity
in hormone-responsive PCa cell lines and tumor homogenates. Importantly,
we identifed a significant decoupling of KLK activity and abundance
and suggest that KLK proteolysis should be considered as an additional
parameter, along with the PSA blood test, for accurate PCa diagnosis
and monitoring. Using selective inhibitors and multiplexed fluorescent
activity-based protein profiling (ABPP), we dissect the KLK activome
in PCa cells and show that increased KLK14 activity leads to a migratory
phenotype. Furthermore, using biotinylated ABPs, we show that active
KLK molecules are secreted into the bone microenvironment by PCa cells
following stimulation by osteoblasts suggesting KLK-mediated signaling
mechanisms could contribute to PCa metastasis to bone. Together our
findings show that ABPP is a powerful approach to dissect dysregulation
of the KLK activome as a promising and previously underappreciated
therapeutic target in advanced PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Lovell
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Leran Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Thomas Kryza
- Mater Research Institute-The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia.,Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-Queensland (APCRC-Q), Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation and School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Anna Neodo
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Nathalie Bock
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-Queensland (APCRC-Q), Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation and School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Elena De Vita
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Elizabeth D Williams
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-Queensland (APCRC-Q), Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation and School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Elisabeth Engelsberger
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Congyi Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Alexander T Bakker
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Maria Maneiro
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Reiko J Tanaka
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Charlotte L Bevan
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial Centre for Translational and Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, U.K
| | - Judith A Clements
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre-Queensland (APCRC-Q), Institute of Health & Biomedical Innovation and School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Edward W Tate
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, London W12 0BZ, U.K.,The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, U.K
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8
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Giles KA, Gould CM, Achinger-Kawecka J, Page SG, Kafer GR, Rogers S, Luu PL, Cesare AJ, Clark SJ, Taberlay PC. BRG1 knockdown inhibits proliferation through multiple cellular pathways in prostate cancer. Clin Epigenetics 2021; 13:37. [PMID: 33596994 PMCID: PMC7888175 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-021-01023-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background BRG1 (encoded by SMARCA4) is a catalytic component of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodelling complex, with key roles in modulating DNA accessibility. Dysregulation of BRG1 is observed, but functionally uncharacterised, in a wide range of malignancies. We have probed the functions of BRG1 on a background of prostate cancer to investigate how BRG1 controls gene expression programmes and cancer cell behaviour. Results Our investigation of SMARCA4 revealed that BRG1 is over-expressed in the majority of the 486 tumours from The Cancer Genome Atlas prostate cohort, as well as in a complementary panel of 21 prostate cell lines. Next, we utilised a temporal model of BRG1 depletion to investigate the molecular effects on global transcription programmes. Depleting BRG1 had no impact on alternative splicing and conferred only modest effect on global expression. However, of the transcriptional changes that occurred, most manifested as down-regulated expression. Deeper examination found the common thread linking down-regulated genes was involvement in proliferation, including several known to increase prostate cancer proliferation (KLK2, PCAT1 and VAV3). Interestingly, the promoters of genes driving proliferation were bound by BRG1 as well as the transcription factors, AR and FOXA1. We also noted that BRG1 depletion repressed genes involved in cell cycle progression and DNA replication, but intriguingly, these pathways operated independently of AR and FOXA1. In agreement with transcriptional changes, depleting BRG1 conferred G1 arrest. Conclusions Our data have revealed that BRG1 promotes cell cycle progression and DNA replication, consistent with the increased cell proliferation associated with oncogenesis. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13148-021-01023-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Giles
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Genomics and Epigenetics Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.,Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia.,Tasmanian School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS, Hobart, 7000, Australia
| | - Cathryn M Gould
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Genomics and Epigenetics Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - Joanna Achinger-Kawecka
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Genomics and Epigenetics Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia
| | - Scott G Page
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Georgia R Kafer
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Samuel Rogers
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Phuc-Loi Luu
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Genomics and Epigenetics Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia
| | - Anthony J Cesare
- Genome Integrity Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Susan J Clark
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Genomics and Epigenetics Theme, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, 2010, Australia.,St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2000, Australia
| | - Phillippa C Taberlay
- Tasmanian School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, TAS, Hobart, 7000, Australia.
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9
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Madan RA, Antonarakis ES, Drake CG, Fong L, Yu EY, McNeel DG, Lin DW, Chang NN, Sheikh NA, Gulley JL. Putting the Pieces Together: Completing the Mechanism of Action Jigsaw for Sipuleucel-T. J Natl Cancer Inst 2020; 112:562-573. [PMID: 32145020 PMCID: PMC7301097 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djaa021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sipuleucel-T is an autologous cellular immunotherapy that induces an immune response targeted against prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) to treat asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. In the phase III IMPACT study, sipuleucel-T was associated with a statistically significantly increased overall survival (OS) (median = 4.1 months) vs placebo. Patients with baseline prostate-specific antigen levels in the lowest quartile (≤22.1 ng/mL) exhibited a 13-month improvement in OS with sipuleucel-T. Together, this led sipuleucel-T to be approved and recommended as first-line therapy in various guidelines for treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. This review discusses the varied findings about the mechanisms of action of sipuleucel-T, bringing them together to form a more coherent picture. These pieces include inducing a statistically significant increase in antigen-presenting cell activation; inducing a peripheral immune response specific to the target (PAP) and/or immunizing (PA2024) antigens; stimulating systemic cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity; and mediating antigen spread (ie, increased antibody responses to secondary proteins in addition to PAP and PA2024). Each of these pieces individually correlates with OS. Sipuleucel-T also traffics T cells to the prostate and is associated with long-term immune memory such that a second course of treatment induces an anamnestic immune response. Prostate cancer does not have a strongly inflamed microenvironment, thus its response to immune checkpoint inhibitors is limited. Because sipuleucel-T is able to traffic T cells to the tumor, it may be an ideal combination partner with immunotherapies including immune checkpoint inhibitors or with radiation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi A Madan
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Charles G Drake
- Columbia University Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lawrence Fong
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Evan Y Yu
- University of Washington and Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Daniel W Lin
- University of Washington and Seattle Cancer Care Alliance, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - James L Gulley
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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10
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Pereira SGT, Hudoklin S, Kreft ME, Kostevsek N, Stuart MCA, Al-Jamal WT. Intracellular Activation of a Prostate Specific Antigen-Cleavable Doxorubicin Prodrug: A Key Feature Toward Prodrug-Nanomedicine Design. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:1573-1585. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b01257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara G. T. Pereira
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd, Belfast BT9 7BL, U.K
| | - Samo Hudoklin
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Cell Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mateja Erdani Kreft
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Cell Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nina Kostevsek
- Department for Nanostructured Materials, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marc C. A. Stuart
- Electron Microscopy, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wafa T. Al-Jamal
- School of Pharmacy, Queen’s University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Rd, Belfast BT9 7BL, U.K
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11
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Gulley JL, Madan RA, Pachynski R, Mulders P, Sheikh NA, Trager J, Drake CG. Role of Antigen Spread and Distinctive Characteristics of Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst 2017; 109:2982600. [PMID: 28376158 PMCID: PMC5441294 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djw261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is an important breakthrough in cancer. US Food and Drug Administration-approved immunotherapies for cancer treatment (including, but not limited to, sipuleucel-T, ipilimumab, nivolumab, pembrolizumab, and atezolizumab) substantially improve overall survival across multiple malignancies. One mechanism of action of these treatments is to induce an immune response against antigen-bearing tumor cells; the resultant cell death releases secondary (nontargeted) tumor antigens. Secondary antigens prime subsequent immune responses (antigen spread). Immunotherapy-induced antigen spread has been shown in clinical studies. For example, in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer patients, sipuleucel-T induced early immune responses to the immunizing antigen (PA2024) and/or the target antigen (prostatic acid phosphatase). Thereafter, most patients developed increased antibody responses to numerous secondary proteins, several of which are expressed in prostate cancer with functional relevance in cancer. The ipilimumab-induced antibody profile in melanoma patients shows that antigen spread also occurs with immune checkpoint blockade. In contrast to chemotherapy, immunotherapy often does not result in short-term changes in conventional disease progression end points (eg, progression-free survival, tumor size), which may be explained, in part, by the time taken for antigen spread to occur. Thus, immune-related response criteria need to be identified to better monitor the effectiveness of immunotherapy. As immunotherapy antitumor effects take time to evolve, immunotherapy in patients with less advanced cancer may have greater clinical benefit vs those with more advanced disease. This concept is supported by prostate cancer clinical studies with sipuleucel-T, PSA-TRICOM, and ipilimumab. We discuss antigen spread with cancer immunotherapy and its implications for clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Gulley
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ravi A Madan
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Peter Mulders
- Department of Urology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Charles G Drake
- Johns Hopkins Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center and The Brady Urological Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Yang J, Tang A, Zhang S, Sun X, Ming L. The age-specific reference intervals for tPSA, fPSA, and %fPSA in healthy Han ethnic male. J Clin Lab Anal 2016; 31. [PMID: 27645821 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.22062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most common malignancies in male, and has become the fastest growing malignancy in recent years. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is widely used as a tumor marker to screen for PC. Many studies have been performed to define the reference intervals (RIs) for total circulating PSA (tPSA). The results were different among different nations and races, even in the same race. Few researches have been performed on the RIs of free PSA (fPSA) and the ratio of free to total PSA (%fPSA). In this study, we aimed to simultaneously determine the age-specific RIs for tPSA, fPSA, and %fPSA in the healthy Han ethnic male. METHODS A total of 1862 apparently healthy male aged from 21 to 94 years were included in our study. Nonparametric 95th percentile intervals were used to define the RIs. RESULTS The reference limits in different age groups (21-50, 51-60, 61-70, 71-80, and ≥81 years) were 2.07, 3.59, 4.93, 6.83, and 7.73 ng/mL for tPSA, and 0.60, 0.76, 0.83, 1.30, and 2.41 ng/mL for fPSA. The RIs of %fPSA were ≥0.16 for 21-50 years and ≥0.13 for male over 50 years old. CONCLUSIONS We established age-specific RIs for tPSA, fPSA and %fPSA. The newly established RIs should be more suitable for Chinese Han ethnic male. It will be valuable for physicians to make exact medical decision and appropriate medical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Yang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Key Clinical Laboratory Medicine of Henan provinces, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Aiguo Tang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shijie Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Key Clinical Laboratory Medicine of Henan provinces, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Xiaoxu Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Key Clinical Laboratory Medicine of Henan provinces, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Liang Ming
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Key Clinical Laboratory Medicine of Henan provinces, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
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Sangster-Guity N, Tu-Sekine B, Raben DM, Denmeade SR, Williams SA. Mutational Analysis of Prostate-Specific Antigen Defines the Intrinsic Proteolytic Activity of the proPSA Zymogen. Prostate 2016; 76:1203-17. [PMID: 27273171 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an important prostate cancer biomarker. It is also a protease expressed at high concentrations by the normal and malignant prostate. PSA is secreted as a zymogen (proPSA) with an inhibitory prodomain that must be removed for full activity. ProPSA variants, assumed to be inactive, are found in the blood of prostate cancer patients, and are indicative of poor clinical outcome. Despite the abundance of clinical reports, our understanding of PSA's enzymology is limited, in part due to a lack of appropriate experimental systems. We sought to develop a series of PSA-derived mutants that would help to enhance our understanding of the gene. METHODS Sixteen rPSA variants were generated and characterized by a variety of biochemical methods. RESULTS The wildtype cDNA (WT) provided the template for generating a panel of recombinants. These included variants that abolished removal of the prodomain (R24A), disabled its enzymatic activity (S213A), and/or facilitated a cell-based conversion to the active conformation (FR). The purified variants' proteolytic activity was examined using a fluorogenic substrate, known PSA-cleavable proteins, and physiologically relevant inhibitors. Upon demonstrating our successful generation and purification of the PSA variants, we characterized proPSA activity, describing cleavage of synthetic and biologic substrates, but not serum protease inhibitors. This finding was exploited in the development of a self-activating mutant (PSA_QY) that exhibited the greatest enzymatic activity of all the variants. CONCLUSIONS The system described herein will prove useful for varied applications. ProPSA is partially functional with relatively high activity compared to the mature enzyme. In demonstrating the zymogen's intrinsic activity, we suggest that the proPSA in prostate cancer patient serum is not inert. This may have implications for our understanding of the disease. Prostate 76:1203-1217, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niquiche Sangster-Guity
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Becky Tu-Sekine
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Daniel M Raben
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Samuel R Denmeade
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Simon A Williams
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Guo S, Skala W, Magdolen V, Briza P, Biniossek ML, Schilling O, Kellermann J, Brandstetter H, Goettig P. A Single Glycan at the 99-Loop of Human Kallikrein-related Peptidase 2 Regulates Activation and Enzymatic Activity. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:593-604. [PMID: 26582203 PMCID: PMC4705380 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.691097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Human kallikrein-related peptidase 2 (KLK2) is a key serine protease in semen liquefaction and prostate cancer together with KLK3/prostate-specific antigen. In order to decipher the function of its potential N-glycosylation site, we produced pro-KLK2 in Leishmania tarentolae cells and compared it with its non-glycosylated counterpart from Escherichia coli expression. Mass spectrometry revealed that Asn-95 carries a core glycan, consisting of two GlcNAc and three hexoses. Autocatalytic activation was retarded in glyco-pro-KLK2, whereas the activated glyco-form exhibited an increased proteolytic resistance. The specificity patterns obtained by the PICS (proteomic identification of protease cleavage sites) method are similar for both KLK2 variants, with a major preference for P1-Arg. However, glycosylation changes the enzymatic activity of KLK2 in a drastically substrate-dependent manner. Although glyco-KLK2 has a considerably lower catalytic efficiency than glycan-free KLK2 toward peptidic substrates with P2-Phe, the situation was reverted toward protein substrates, such as glyco-pro-KLK2 itself. These findings can be rationalized by the glycan-carrying 99-loop that prefers to cover the active site like a lid. By contrast, the non-glycosylated 99-loop seems to favor a wide open conformation, which mostly increases the apparent affinity for the substrates (i.e. by a reduction of Km). Also, the cleavage pattern and kinetics in autolytic inactivation of both KLK2 variants can be explained by a shift of the target sites due to the presence of the glycan. These striking effects of glycosylation pave the way to a deeper understanding of kallikrein-related peptidase biology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihui Guo
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Skala
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Viktor Magdolen
- the Klinische Forschergruppe der Frauenklinik, Klinikum Rechts der Isar der TU München, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Briza
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Oliver Schilling
- the Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany, the German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, and
| | - Josef Kellermann
- the Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Hans Brandstetter
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Peter Goettig
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria,
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15
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The kallikrein-related peptidase family: Dysregulation and functions during cancer progression. Biochimie 2015; 122:283-99. [PMID: 26343558 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of death with 14 million new cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths worldwide in 2012. Despite the progress made in cancer therapies, neoplastic diseases are still a major therapeutic challenge notably because of intra- and inter-malignant tumour heterogeneity and adaptation/escape of malignant cells to/from treatment. New targeted therapies need to be developed to improve our medical arsenal and counter-act cancer progression. Human kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs) are secreted serine peptidases which are aberrantly expressed in many cancers and have great potential in developing targeted therapies. The potential of KLKs as cancer biomarkers is well established since the demonstration of the association between KLK3/PSA (prostate specific antigen) levels and prostate cancer progression. In addition, a constantly increasing number of in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate the functional involvement of KLKs in cancer-related processes. These peptidases are now considered key players in the regulation of cancer cell growth, migration, invasion, chemo-resistance, and importantly, in mediating interactions between cancer cells and other cell populations found in the tumour microenvironment to facilitate cancer progression. These functional roles of KLKs in a cancer context further highlight their potential in designing new anti-cancer approaches. In this review, we comprehensively review the biochemical features of KLKs, their functional roles in carcinogenesis, followed by the latest developments and the successful utility of KLK-based therapeutics in counteracting cancer progression.
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GuhaThakurta D, Sheikh NA, Fan LQ, Kandadi H, Meagher TC, Hall SJ, Kantoff PW, Higano CS, Small EJ, Gardner TA, Bailey K, Vu T, DeVries T, Whitmore JB, Frohlich MW, Trager JB, Drake CG. Humoral Immune Response against Nontargeted Tumor Antigens after Treatment with Sipuleucel-T and Its Association with Improved Clinical Outcome. Clin Cancer Res 2015; 21:3619-30. [PMID: 25649018 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-14-2334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Antitumor activity of cancer immunotherapies may elicit immune responses to nontargeted (secondary) tumor antigens, or antigen spread. We evaluated humoral antigen spread after treatment with sipuleucel-T, an immunotherapy for asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC), designed to target prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP; primary antigen). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Serum samples from patients with mCRPC enrolled in the placebo-controlled phase III IMPACT study (evaluable n = 142) were used to assess humoral antigen spread after treatment with sipuleucel-T. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to self-antigens (including tumor antigens) were surveyed using protein microarrays and confirmed using Luminex xMAP. IgG responses were subsequently validated in ProACT (n = 33), an independent phase II study of sipuleucel-T. Association of IgG responses with overall survival (OS) was assessed using multivariate Cox models adjusted for baseline prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and lactate dehydrogenase levels. RESULTS In patients from IMPACT and ProACT, levels of IgG against multiple secondary antigens, including PSA, KLK2/hK2, K-Ras, E-Ras, LGALS8/PCTA-1/galectin-8, and LGALS3/galectin-3, were elevated after treatment with sipuleucel-T (P < 0.01), but not control. IgG responses (≥ 2-fold elevation posttreatment) occurred in ≥ 25% of patients, appeared by 2 weeks after sipuleucel-T treatment, and persisted for up to 6 months. IgG responses to PSA and LGALS3 were associated with improved OS in sipuleucel-T-treated patients from IMPACT (P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Sipuleucel-T induced humoral antigen spread in patients with mCRPC. IgG responses were associated with improved OS in IMPACT. The methods and results reported may identify pharmacodynamic biomarkers of clinical outcome after sipuleucel-T treatment, and help in clinical assessments of other cancer immunotherapies. See related commentary by Hellstrom and Hellstrom, p. 3581.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Li-Qun Fan
- Dendreon Corporation, Seattle, Washington
| | | | | | - Simon J Hall
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Philip W Kantoff
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Celestia S Higano
- University of Washington School of Medicine and Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
| | - Eric J Small
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | | | | | - Tuyen Vu
- Dendreon Corporation, Seattle, Washington
| | | | | | | | | | - Charles G Drake
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, the Brady Urological Institute, Baltimore, Maryland.
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Hannu K, Johanna M, Ulf-Håkan S. KLK-targeted Therapies for Prostate Cancer. EJIFCC 2014; 25:207-18. [PMID: 27683469 PMCID: PMC4975297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Alternative treatments are urgently needed for prostate cancer, especially to address the aggressive metastatic castration-resistant disease. Proteolytic enzymes are involved in cancer growth and progression. The prostate produces several proteases, the most abundant ones being two members of the kallikrein-related peptidase (KLK) family, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and KLK2. Despite the wide use of PSA as a clinical marker, the function(s) of PSA and other KLKs in prostate cancer are poorly known. Hypothetic roles of KLKs in prostate cancer include activities that may both promote and inhibit cancer growth and metastasis, including the antiangiogenic activity of PSA. Thus it may be possible to control prostate cancer growth by modulating the proteolytic activities of KLKs. PSA and KLK2 are especially attractive targets for prostate cancer treatment because of their proposed roles in tumor development and inhibition of angiogenesis in combination with their prostate selective expression. So far the number of molecules affecting selectively the activity of KLKs is limited and none of these are used to treat prostate cancer. Prodrugs that, after cleavage of the peptide part by PSA or KLK2, release active drug molecules, and PSA-targeted therapeutic vaccines have already been tested clinically in humans and the first results have been encouraging. Although KLKs are attractive targets for prostate cancer treatment, much remains to be done before their potential can be fully elucidated. The objective of this review is to address the current state of the KLKs as novel therapeutic targets for prostate cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koistinen Hannu
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, P.O. Box 63, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland +358 9 471 71734 (HK) (JM) (UHS)
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Dorn J, Beaufort N, Schmitt M, Diamandis EP, Goettig P, Magdolen V. Function and clinical relevance of kallikrein-related peptidases and other serine proteases in gynecological cancers. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2014; 51:63-84. [PMID: 24490956 DOI: 10.3109/10408363.2013.865701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Gynecological cancers, including malignant tumors of the ovaries, the endometrium and the cervix, account for approximately 10% of tumor-associated deaths in women of the Western world. For screening, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy response prediction, the group of enzymes known as serine (Ser-)proteases show great promise as biomarkers. In the present review, following a summary of the clinical facts regarding malignant tumors of the ovaries, the endometrium and the cervix, and characterization of the most important Ser-proteases, we thoroughly review the current state of knowledge relating to the use of proteases as biomarkers of the most frequent gynecological cancers. Within the Ser-protease group, the kallikrein-related peptidase (KLK) family, which encompasses a subgroup of 15 members, holds particular promise, with some acting via a tumor-promoting mechanism and others behaving as protective factors. Further, the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) and its inhibitor PAI-1 (plasminogen activator inhibitor-1) seem to play an unfavorable role in gynecological tumors, while down-regulation of high-temperature requirement proteins A 1, 2 and 3 (HtrA1,2,3) is associated with malignant disease and cancer progression. Expression/activity levels of other Ser-proteases, including the type II transmembrane Ser-proteases (TTSPs) matriptase, hepsin (TMPRSS1), and the hepsin-related protease (TMPRSS3), as well as the glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored Ser-proteases prostasin and testisin, may be of clinical relevance in gynecological cancers. In conclusion, proteases are a rich source of biomarkers of gynecological cancer, though the enzymes' exact roles and functions merit further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Dorn
- Klinische Forschergruppe der Frauenklinik der Technischen Universität München, Klinikum rechts der Isar , Munich , Germany
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Genome-wide association study identifies loci at ATF7IP and KLK2 associated with percentage of circulating free PSA. Neoplasia 2013; 15:95-101. [PMID: 23359319 DOI: 10.1593/neo.121620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Percentage of free-to-total prostate-specific antigen (%fPSA) is an independent predictor of risk for prostate cancer among men with modestly elevated level of total PSA (tPSA) in blood. Physiological and pathological factors have been shown to influence the %fPSA value and diagnostic accuracy. MATERIALS/METHODS To evaluate genetic determinants of %fPSA, we conducted a genome-wide association study of serum %fPSA by genotyping 642,584 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 3192 men of European ancestry, each with a tPSA level of 2.5 to 10 ng/ml, that were recruited in the REduction by DUtasteride of Prostate Cancer Events study. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with P < 10(-5) were further evaluated among the controls of a population-based case-control study in Sweden (2899 prostate cancer cases and 1722 male controls), including 464 controls having tPSA levels of 2.5 to 10 ng/ml. RESULTS We identified two loci that were associated with %fPSA at a genome-wide significance level (P <5 x 10(-8)). The first associated SNP was rs3213764 (P = 6.45 x 10(-10)), a nonsynonymous variant (K530R) in the ATF7IP gene at 12p13. This variant was also nominally associated with tPSA (P = .015). The second locus was rs1354774 (P = 1.25 x 10(-12)), near KLK2 at 19q13, which was not associated with tPSA levels, and is separate from the rs17632542 locus at KLK3 that was previously associated with tPSA levels and prostate cancer risk. Neither rs3213764 nor rs1354774 was associated with prostate cancer risk or aggressiveness. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that genetic variants at ATF7IP and KLK2 contribute to the variance of %fPSA.
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Shang Z, Niu Y, Cai Q, Chen J, Tian J, Yeh S, Lai KP, Chang C. Human kallikrein 2 (KLK2) promotes prostate cancer cell growth via function as a modulator to promote the ARA70-enhanced androgen receptor transactivation. Tumour Biol 2013; 35:1881-90. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-013-1253-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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Leymarie N, Griffin PJ, Jonscher K, Kolarich D, Orlando R, McComb M, Zaia J, Aguilan J, Alley WR, Altmann F, Ball LE, Basumallick L, Bazemore-Walker CR, Behnken H, Blank MA, Brown KJ, Bunz SC, Cairo CW, Cipollo JF, Daneshfar R, Desaire H, Drake RR, Go EP, Goldman R, Gruber C, Halim A, Hathout Y, Hensbergen PJ, Horn DM, Hurum D, Jabs W, Larson G, Ly M, Mann BF, Marx K, Mechref Y, Meyer B, Möginger U, Neusüβ C, Nilsson J, Novotny MV, Nyalwidhe JO, Packer NH, Pompach P, Reiz B, Resemann A, Rohrer JS, Ruthenbeck A, Sanda M, Schulz JM, Schweiger-Hufnagel U, Sihlbom C, Song E, Staples GO, Suckau D, Tang H, Thaysen-Andersen M, Viner RI, An Y, Valmu L, Wada Y, Watson M, Windwarder M, Whittal R, Wuhrer M, Zhu Y, Zou C. Interlaboratory study on differential analysis of protein glycosylation by mass spectrometry: the ABRF glycoprotein research multi-institutional study 2012. Mol Cell Proteomics 2013; 12:2935-51. [PMID: 23764502 PMCID: PMC3790302 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m113.030643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the principal goals of glycoprotein research is to correlate glycan structure and function. Such correlation is necessary in order for one to understand the mechanisms whereby glycoprotein structure elaborates the functions of myriad proteins. The accurate comparison of glycoforms and quantification of glycosites are essential steps in this direction. Mass spectrometry has emerged as a powerful analytical technique in the field of glycoprotein characterization. Its sensitivity, high dynamic range, and mass accuracy provide both quantitative and sequence/structural information. As part of the 2012 ABRF Glycoprotein Research Group study, we explored the use of mass spectrometry and ancillary methodologies to characterize the glycoforms of two sources of human prostate specific antigen (PSA). PSA is used as a tumor marker for prostate cancer, with increasing blood levels used to distinguish between normal and cancer states. The glycans on PSA are believed to be biantennary N-linked, and it has been observed that prostate cancer tissues and cell lines contain more antennae than their benign counterparts. Thus, the ability to quantify differences in glycosylation associated with cancer has the potential to positively impact the use of PSA as a biomarker. We studied standard peptide-based proteomics/glycomics methodologies, including LC-MS/MS for peptide/glycopeptide sequencing and label-free approaches for differential quantification. We performed an interlaboratory study to determine the ability of different laboratories to correctly characterize the differences between glycoforms from two different sources using mass spectrometry methods. We used clustering analysis and ancillary statistical data treatment on the data sets submitted by participating laboratories to obtain a consensus of the glycoforms and abundances. The results demonstrate the relative strengths and weaknesses of top-down glycoproteomics, bottom-up glycoproteomics, and glycomics methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Leymarie
- From the ‡Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118
| | - Paula J. Griffin
- §Department of Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02118
| | - Karen Jonscher
- ¶Department of Anesthesiology University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Daniel Kolarich
- ‖Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, 14476, Germany
| | - Ron Orlando
- **Complex Carbohydrates Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602
| | - Mark McComb
- From the ‡Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118
| | - Joseph Zaia
- From the ‡Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118
| | - Jennifer Aguilan
- §§Laboratory for Macromolecular Analysis and Proteomics Facility, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - William R. Alley
- ¶¶Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Friederich Altmann
- ‖‖Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, A-1180, Austria
| | - Lauren E. Ball
- MUSC Proteomic Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425
| | - Lipika Basumallick
- Applications Development, Dionex Products, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Sunnyvale, California 94085
| | | | - Henning Behnken
- Organic Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, 20146, Germany
| | | | - Kristy J. Brown
- Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20310
| | | | - Christopher W. Cairo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - John F. Cipollo
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland 20993
| | - Rambod Daneshfar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
| | | | - Richard R. Drake
- MUSC Proteomic Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425
| | - Eden P. Go
- University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045
| | - Radoslav Goldman
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20007
| | - Clemens Gruber
- ‖‖Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, A-1180, Austria
| | - Adnan Halim
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, 41345, Sweden
| | - Yetrib Hathout
- Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20310
| | - Paul J. Hensbergen
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry Unit, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 233ZA, The Netherlands
| | - David M. Horn
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, San Jose, California 95134
| | - Deanna Hurum
- Applications Development, Dionex Products, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Sunnyvale, California 94085
| | | | - Göran Larson
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, 41345, Sweden
| | - Mellisa Ly
- Agilent Laboratories, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, California 95051
| | - Benjamin F. Mann
- ¶¶Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | | | - Yehia Mechref
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409
| | - Bernd Meyer
- Organic Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, 20146, Germany
| | - Uwe Möginger
- ‖Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14424 Potsdam, 14476, Germany
| | | | - Jonas Nilsson
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, 41345, Sweden
| | - Milos V. Novotny
- ¶¶Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Julius O. Nyalwidhe
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Leroy T. Canoles Jr Cancer Research Center, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia 23507
| | - Nicolle H. Packer
- Biomolecular Frontiers Research Centre, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Petr Pompach
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20007
| | - Bela Reiz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
| | | | - Jeffrey S. Rohrer
- Applications Development, Dionex Products, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Sunnyvale, California 94085
| | | | - Miloslav Sanda
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20007
| | - Jan Mirco Schulz
- Organic Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, 20146, Germany
| | | | - Carina Sihlbom
- Proteomics Core Facility, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, 413 90, Sweden
| | - Ehwang Song
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409
| | - Gregory O. Staples
- Agilent Laboratories, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, California 95051
| | | | - Haixu Tang
- School of informatics, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405
| | - Morten Thaysen-Andersen
- Biomolecular Frontiers Research Centre, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Rosa I. Viner
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, San Jose, California 95134
| | - Yanming An
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland 20993
| | - Leena Valmu
- Finnish Red Cross Blood Service, Helsinki, 00310, Finland
| | - Yoshinao Wada
- Research Institute, Osaka Medical Center for Maternal and Child Health, Izumi, Osaka, 594–1101, Japan
| | - Megan Watson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Leroy T. Canoles Jr Cancer Research Center, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia 23507
| | - Markus Windwarder
- ‖‖Department of Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, A-1180, Austria
| | - Randy Whittal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Manfred Wuhrer
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry Unit, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 233ZA, The Netherlands
| | - Yiying Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Chunxia Zou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2G2, Canada
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22
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Genome-wide association study identifies genetic determinants of urine PCA3 levels in men. Neoplasia 2013; 15:448-53. [PMID: 23555189 DOI: 10.1593/neo.122144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 02/06/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer gene 3 (PCA3) is a non-coding gene specifically overexpressed in prostate cancer (PCa) that has great potential as a clinical biomarker for predicting prostate biopsy outcome. However, genetic determinants of PCA3 expression level remain unknown. To investigate the association between genetic variants and PCA3 mRNA level, a genome-wide association study was conducted in 1371 men of European descent in the REduction by DUtasteride of prostate Cancer Events trial. First-voided urine specimens containing prostate cells were obtained after digital rectal examination. The PROGENSA PCA3 assay was used to determine PCA3 score in the urinary samples. A linear regression model was used to detect the associations between (single nucleotide polymorphisms) SNPs and PCA3 score under an additive genetic model, adjusting for age and population stratification. Two SNPs, rs10993994 in β-microseminoprotein at 10q11.23 and rs10424878 in kallikrein-related peptidase 2 at 19q13.33, were associated with PCA3 score at genome-wide significance level (P = 1.22 x 10(-9) and 1.06 x 10(-8), respectively). Men carrying the rs10993994 "T" allele or rs10424878 "A" allele had higher PCA3 score compared with men carrying rs10993994 "C" allele or rs10424878 "G" allele (β = 1.25 and 1.24, respectively). This is the first comprehensive search for genetic determinants of PCA3 score. The novel loci identified may provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of PCA3 expression as a potential marker of PCa.
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Wang L. Association of Polymorphism rs198977 in Human Kallikrein-2 Gene (KLK2) with Susceptibility of Prostate Cancer: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65651. [PMID: 23824286 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the association of polymorphism rs198977 in the human kallikrein-2 gene (KLK2) and risk of prostate cancer (PCa). METHODS Two investigators independently searched the PubMed, Elsevier, EMBASE, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for rs198977 and PCa were calculated in a fixed-effects model (the Mantel-Haenszel method) and a random-effects model (the DerSimonian and Laird method) when appropriate. RESULTS Six studies met the inclusion criteria in this meta-analysis, which included 5859 PCa cases and 4867 controls. Overall, rs198977 was associated with the PCa risk (TT+CT vs. CC, pooled OR = 1.163, 95% CI = 1.076-1.258, P-value <0.0001). When stratified by ethnicity, significant association was observed in Caucasian samples under both allele comparison (T vs. C, pooled OR = 1.152, 95% CI = 1.079-1.229, P-value <0.0001) and dominant model (TT+CT vs. CC, pooled OR = 1.197, 95% CI = 1.104-1.297, P-value <0.0001). In the overall analysis, a comparably significant increase in the frequency of allele T for rs198977 was detected between cases and controls in Caucasian. CONCLUSION This meta-analysis suggests that rs198977 of KLK2 was associated with susceptibility of PCa in Caucasian and the allele T might increase the risk of PCa in Caucasian.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lishan Wang
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P.R. China ; FengHe (ShangHai) Information Technology Co., Ltd, Shanghai, P.R. China
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24
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Laflamme BA, Wolfner MF. Identification and function of proteolysis regulators in seminal fluid. Mol Reprod Dev 2012; 80:80-101. [PMID: 23109270 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.22130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Proteins in the seminal fluid of animals with internal fertilization effect numerous responses in mated females that impact both male and female fertility. Among these proteins is the highly represented class of proteolysis regulators (proteases and their inhibitors). Though proteolysis regulators have now been identified in the seminal fluid of all animals in which proteomic studies of the seminal fluid have been conducted (as well as several other species in which they have not), a unified understanding of the importance of proteolysis to male fertilization success and other reproductive processes has not yet been achieved. In this review, we provide an overview of the identification of proteolysis regulators in the seminal fluid of humans and Drosophila melanogaster, the two species with the most comprehensively known seminal fluid proteomes. We also highlight reports demonstrating the functional significance of specific proteolysis regulators in reproductive and post-mating processes. Finally, we make broad suggestions for the direction of future research into the roles of both active seminal fluid proteolysis regulators and their inactive homologs, another significant class of seminal fluid proteins. We hope that this review aids researchers in pursuing a coordinated study of the functional significance of proteolysis regulators in semen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke A Laflamme
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-2703, USA
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25
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Hannan R, Zhang H, Wallecha A, Singh R, Liu L, Cohen P, Alfieri A, Rothman J, Guha C. Combined immunotherapy with Listeria monocytogenes-based PSA vaccine and radiation therapy leads to a therapeutic response in a murine model of prostate cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2012; 61:2227-38. [PMID: 22644735 PMCID: PMC11028516 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-012-1257-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Radiation therapy (RT) is an integral part of prostate cancer treatment across all stages and risk groups. Immunotherapy using a live, attenuated, Listeria monocytogenes-based vaccines have been shown previously to be highly efficient in stimulating anti-tumor responses to impact on the growth of established tumors in different tumor models. Here, we evaluated the combination of RT and immunotherapy using Listeria monocytogenes-based vaccine (ADXS31-142) in a mouse model of prostate cancer. Mice bearing PSA-expressing TPSA23 tumor were divided to 5 groups receiving no treatment, ADXS31-142, RT (10 Gy), control Listeria vector and combination of ADXS31-142 and RT. Tumor growth curve was generated by measuring the tumor volume biweekly. Tumor tissue, spleen, and sera were harvested from each group for IFN-γ ELISpot, intracellular cytokine assay, tetramer analysis, and immunofluorescence staining. There was a significant tumor growth delay in mice that received combined ADXS31-142 and RT treatment as compared with mice of other cohorts and this combined treatment causes complete regression of their established tumors in 60 % of the mice. ELISpot and immunohistochemistry of CD8+ cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) showed a significant increase in IFN-γ production in mice with combined treatment. Tetramer analysis showed a fourfold and a greater than 16-fold increase in PSA-specific CTLs in animals receiving ADXS31-142 alone and combination treatment, respectively. A similar increase in infiltration of CTLs was observed in the tumor tissues. Combination therapy with RT and Listeria PSA vaccine causes significant tumor regression by augmenting PSA-specific immune response and it could serve as a potential treatment regimen for prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquibul Hannan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5801 Forest Park Rd., Dallas, TX, 75390-9183, USA.
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26
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Sotiropoulou G, Pampalakis G. Targeting the kallikrein-related peptidases for drug development. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2012; 33:623-34. [PMID: 23089221 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2012.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Revised: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs) constitute a family of 15 serine proteases. Recent studies have shed light on key physiological functions of KLK enzymes and implicate their deregulation in major human pathologies such as neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases, skin conditions, asthma, and cancer. Consequently, KLKs have emerged as novel targets for pharmacological intervention. Given the pleiotropic roles of KLKs, both activators and inhibitors of KLK activities are of therapeutic interest. For example, inhibitors of hyperactive KLKs in the epidermis would be effective against excess skin desquamation and inflammation, whereas KLK activators could benefit hyperkeratosis caused by diminished KLK proteolysis. Expression of active KLKs by cancer cells and tissues can be exploited to target prodrugs that are proteolytically cleaved to release a cytotoxic compound or a cytolytic toxin at the site of KLK protease activity. Here, we review current approaches for the design and testing of KLK-based therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Sotiropoulou
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Greece.
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27
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Simmer JP, Richardson AS, Smith CE, Hu Y, Hu JCC. Expression of kallikrein-related peptidase 4 in dental and non-dental tissues. Eur J Oral Sci 2012; 119 Suppl 1:226-33. [PMID: 22243250 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2011.00834.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Kallikrein-related peptidase 4 (KLK4) is critical for proper dental enamel formation. Klk4 null mice, and humans with two defective KLK4 alleles have obvious enamel defects, with no other apparent phenotype. KLK4 mRNA or protein is reported to be present in tissues besides teeth, including prostate, ovary, kidney, liver, and salivary gland. In this study we used the Klk4 knockout/NLS-lacZ knockin mouse to assay Klk4 expression using β-galactosidase histochemistry. Incubations for 5 h were used to detect KLK4 expression with minimal endogenous background, while overnight incubations susceptible to false positives were used to look for trace KLK4 expression. Developing maxillary molars at postnatal days 5, 6, 7, 8, and 14, developing mandibular incisors at postnatal day 14, and selected non-dental tissues from adult wild-type and Klk4(lacZ/lacZ) mice were examined by X-gal histochemistry. After 5 h of incubation, X-gal staining was observed specifically in the nuclei of maturation-stage ameloblasts in molars and incisors from Klk4(lacZ/lacZ) mice and was detected weakly in the nuclei of salivary gland ducts and in patches of prostate epithelia. We conclude that KLK4 is predominantly a tooth-specific protease with low expression in submandibular salivary gland and prostate, and with no detectable expression in liver, kidney, testis, ovary, oviduct, epididymis, and vas deferens.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Simmer
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
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28
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Avgeris M, Stravodimos K, Scorilas A. Kallikrein-related peptidase 4 gene (KLK4) in prostate tumors: quantitative expression analysis and evaluation of its clinical significance. Prostate 2011; 71:1780-9. [PMID: 21520157 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently accumulating evidences underline the central role of the kallikrein-related peptidases family (KLKs) in prostate cancer (PCa) development and progression. The KLK4 is a prostate highly expressed gene under the transcriptional control of androgens, encoding for the KLK4 extracellular serine protease. The aim of this study is to investigate the expression status of KLK4 in PCa patients in order to reveal its utility in PCa establishment and clinical management. METHODS Prostatic tissue specimens were obtained from 60 PCa and 59 benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) randomly chosen patients. Using a developed quantitative real-time RT-PCR method, KLK4 expression levels were determined in the specimens of the two patients' cohorts. Advance biostatistical analysis was completed to explore the clinical value of KLK4 expression in PCa and BPH patients. RESULTS PCa patients presented a statistically significant (P = 0.002) elevation, more than threefold, of the KLK4 transcripts compared to BPH ones. The KLK4 expression levels were also positive correlated with PCa patients' stage (P = 0.031) and preoperative prostate-specific antigen (PSA) serum concentrations (P < 0.001). ROC curve and logistic regression analysis revealed the significant (P = 0.002) and the independent (P = 0.044) clinical value of the KLK4 expression for the discrimination of PCa from BPH patients. CONCLUSIONS The KLK4 expression analysis reveals its up-regulation in PCa cells, which is significantly associated with the advanced stages of the disease and the patients' preoperative PSA serum levels. KLK4 quantification serves as an independent biomarker for the discrimination between the malignant and the benign nature of prostate tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaritis Avgeris
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens, Greece
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Williams SA, Jelinek CA, Litvinov I, Cotter RJ, Isaacs JT, Denmeade SR. Enzymatically active prostate-specific antigen promotes growth of human prostate cancers. Prostate 2011; 71:1595-607. [PMID: 21394741 PMCID: PMC3116061 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is the best-known member of the kallikrein-related peptidase family, with an established role as a prostatic disease biomarker. Although it is produced at high levels by all stages of prostate cancer, it is uncertain if PSA plays a role in prostate cancer initiation and progression. We decided to investigate the impact of PSA and its enzymatic activity on tumor cell growth rates. METHODS A gene-specific shRNA lentiviral construct reduced endogenous PSA expression in the LNCaP human prostate cancer cell line. Resulting changes in growth rates in vitro and in vivo were determined. Using a mass spectroscopy-based approach, alterations to the LNCaP proteome due to reduced PSA were measured. Finally, to evaluate the importance of PSA's proteolytic activity, the PSA-null Du145 human prostate cancer cell line was engineered to express either enzymatically inactive pro-PSA (WT) or a furin-activated variant (FR) with high enzymatic activity. The resulting clones were evaluated for PSA-induced changes in growth rates in vivo and in vitro. RESULTS Lowered PSA levels dramatically reduced LNCaP growth rates. Expressing active PSA (FR), but not the inactive WT variant, conferred a growth advantage on Du145 cells. Proteomics analysis revealed global changes to the LNCaP proteome as a result of reduced PSA expression. CONCLUSIONS These studies demonstrate the importance of PSA to prostate cancer cell growth. We also show that the enzymatic activity of PSA confers an enhanced growth rate to human prostate cancer cells, suggesting a causal role in prostate cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon A Williams
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
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