Adipocyte-derived monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) promotes prostate cancer progression through the induction of MMP-2 activity

Microbiome and Prostate Cancer: A Novel Target for Prevention and Treatment

Growing evidence of the microbiome's role in human health and disease has emerged since the creation of the Human Microbiome Project. Recent studies suggest that alterations in microbiota composition (dysbiosis) may play an essential role in the occurrence, development, and prognosis of prostate cancer (PCa), which remains the second most frequent male malignancy worldwide. Current advances in biological technologies, such as high-throughput sequencing, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, have enabled research on the gut, urinary, and intra-prostate microbiome signature and the correlation with local and systemic inflammation, host immunity response, and PCa progression. Several microbial species and their metabolites facilitate PCa insurgence through genotoxin-mediated mutagenesis or by driving tumor-promoting inflammation and dysfunctional immunosurveillance. However, the impact of the microbiome on PCa development, progression, and response to treatment is complex and needs to be fully understood. This review addresses the current knowledge on the host-microbe interaction and the risk of PCa, providing novel insights into the intraprostatic, gut, and urinary microbiome mechanisms leading to PCa carcinogenesis and treatment response. In this paper, we provide a detailed overview of diet changes, gut microbiome, and emerging therapeutic approaches related to the microbiome and PCa. Further investigation on the prostate-related microbiome and large-scale clinical trials testing the efficacy of microbiota modulation approaches may improve patient outcomes while fulfilling the literature gap of microbial-immune-cancer-cell mechanistic interactions.

Obesity-Related Cross-Talk between Prostate Cancer and Peripheral Fat: Potential Role of Exosomes

The molecular mechanisms of obesity-induced cancer progression have been extensively explored because of the significant increase in obesity and obesity-related diseases worldwide. Studies have shown that obesity is associated with certain features of prostate cancer. In particular, bioactive factors released from periprostatic adipose tissues mediate the bidirectional communication between periprostatic adipose tissue and prostate cancer. Moreover, recent studies have shown that extracellular vesicles have a role in the relationship between tumor peripheral adipose tissue and cancer progression. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the feedback mechanisms between prostate cancer and periglandular adipose and the role of exosomes as mediators of signal exchange to understand obesity as a risk factor for prostate cancer. This review summarizes the two-way communication between prostate cancer and periglandular adipose and discusses the potential role of exosomes as a cross-talk and the prospect of using adipose tissue as a means to obtain exosomes in vitro. Therefore, this review may provide new directions for the treatment of obesity to suppress prostate cancer.

Role of adipocyte browning in prostate and breast tumor microenvironment

Prostate cancer (PC) and breast cancer (BC) are the most common cancers in men and women, respectively, in developed countries. The increased incidence of PC and BC largely reflects an increase in the prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. In pathological conditions involving the development and progression of PC and BC, adipose tissue plays an important role via paracrine and endocrine signaling. The increase in the amount of local adipose tissue, specifically periprostatic adipose tissue, may be a key contributor to the PC pathobiology. Similarly, breast adipose tissue secretion affects various aspects of BC by influencing tumor progression, angiogenesis, metastasis, and microenvironment. In this context, the role of white adipose tissue (WAT) has been extensively studied. However, the influence of browning of the WAT on the development and progression of PC and BC is unclear and has received less attention. In this review, we highlight that adipose tissue plays a vital role in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment in PC or BC and highlight the probable underlying mechanisms linking adipose tissue with PC or BC. We further discuss whether the browning of WAT could be a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PC and BC.

Microenvironmental Factors Modulating Tumor Lipid Metabolism: Paving the Way to Better Antitumoral Therapy

Metabolic reprogramming is one of the emerging hallmarks of cancer and is driven by both the oncogenic mutations and challenging microenvironment. To satisfy the demands of energy and biomass for rapid proliferation, the metabolism of various nutrients in tumor cells undergoes important changes, among which the aberrant lipid metabolism has gained increasing attention in facilitating tumor development and metastasis in the past few years. Obstacles emerged in the aspect of application of targeting lipid metabolism for tumor therapy, due to lacking of comprehensive understanding on its regulating mechanism. Tumor cells closely interact with stromal niche, which highly contributes to metabolic rewiring of critical nutrients in cancer cells. This fact makes the impact of microenvironment on tumor lipid metabolism a topic of renewed interest. Abundant evidence has shown that many factors existing in the tumor microenvironment can rewire multiple signaling pathways and proteins involved in lipid metabolic pathways of cancer cells. Hence in this review, we summarized the recent progress on the understanding of microenvironmental factors regulating tumor lipid metabolism, and discuss the potential of modulating lipid metabolism as an anticancer approach.

MCP-1 targeting: Shutting off an engine for tumor development

A large amount of research has proven that monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) is associated with different types of disease, including autoimmune, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, several studies have found that MCP-1 is associated with tumor development. MCP-1 expression level in the tumor microenvironment is associated with tumor development, including in tumor invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune cell infiltration. However, the precise mechanism involved is currently being investigated. MCP-1 exerts its effects mainly via the MCP-1/C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 axis and leads to the activation of classical signaling pathways, such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, ERK/GSK-3β/Snail, c-Raf/MEK/ERK and MAPK in different cells. The specific mechanism is still under debate; however, target therapy utilizing MCP-1 as a neutralizing antibody has been found to have a detrimental effect on tumor development. The aim of the present review was to examine the effect of MCP-1 on tumor development from several aspects, including its structure, its involvement in signaling pathways, the participating cells, and the therapeutic agents targeting MCP-1. The improved understanding into the structure of MCP-1 and the mechanism of action may facilitate new and practical therapeutic agents to achieve maximum performance in the treatment of patients with cancer.

MCP-1: Function, regulation, and involvement in disease

MCP-1 (Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), also known as Chemokine (CC-motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), is from family of CC chemokines. It has a vital role in the process of inflammation, where it attracts or enhances the expression of other inflammatory factors/cells. It leads to the advancement of many disorders by this main mechanism of migration and infiltration of inflammatory cells like monocytes/macrophages and other cytokines at the site of inflammation. MCP-1 has been inculpated in the pathogenesis of numerous disease conditions either directly or indirectly like novel corona virus, cancers, neuroinflammatory diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular diseases. The elevated MCP-1 level has been observed in COVID-19 patients and proven to be a biomarker associated with the extremity of disease along with IP-10. This review will focus on involvement and role of MCP-1 in various pathological conditions.

Exercise-induced myokines and their effect on prostate cancer

Exercise is recognized by clinicians in the field of clinical oncology for its potential role in reducing the risk of certain cancers and in reducing the risk of disease recurrence and progression; yet, the underlying mechanisms behind this reduction in risk are not fully understood. Studies applying post-exercise blood serum directly to various types of cancer cell lines provide insight that exercise might have a role in inhibiting cancer growth via altered soluble and cell-free blood contents. Myokines, which are cytokines produced by muscle and secreted into the bloodstream, might offer multiple benefits to cellular metabolism (such as a reduction in insulin resistance, improved glucose uptake and reduced adiposity), and blood myokine levels can be altered with exercise. Alterations in the levels of myokines such as IL-6, IL-15, IL-10, irisin, secreted protein acidic risk in cysteine (SPARC), myostatin, oncostatin M and decorin might exert a direct inhibitory effect on cancer growth via inhibiting proliferation, promoting apoptosis, inducing cell-cycle arrest and inhibiting the epithermal transition to mesenchymal cells. The association of insulin resistance, hyperinsulinaemia and hyperlipidaemia with obesity can create a tumour-favourable environment; exercise-induced myokines can manipulate this environment by regulating adipose tissue and adipocytes. Exercise-induced myokines also have a critical role in increasing cytotoxicity and the infiltration of immune cells into the tumour.

The Role of Inflammatory Cytokines in Neovascularization of Chemical Ocular Injury

Aim: Chemical injuries can potentially lead to the necrosis anterior segment of the eye, and cornea in particular. Inflammatory cytokines are the first factors produced after chemical ocular injuries. Inflammation via promoting the angiogenesis factor tries to implement the wound healing mechanism in the epithelial and stromal layer of the cornea. Methods: Narrative review.Results: In our review, we described the patterns of chemical injuries in the cornea and their molecular mechanisms associated with the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, the effects of inflammation signals on angiogenesis factors and CNV were explained. Conclusion: The contribution of inflammation and angiogenesis causes de novo formation of blood vessels that is known as the corneal neovascularization (CNV). The new vascularity interrupts cornea clarity and visual acuity. Inflammation also depleted the Limbal stem cells (LSCs) in the limbus causing the failure of normal corneal epithelial healing and conjunctivalization of the cornea.

Human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells induce trophoblast invasion via dynamic effects on mitochondrial function

The trophoblast is a critical cell for placental development and embryo implantation in the placenta. We previously reported that placenta‐derived mesenchymal stem cells (PD‐MSCs) increase trophoblast invasion through several signaling pathways. However, the paracrine effects of PD‐MSCs on mitochondrial function in trophoblasts are still unclear. Therefore, the objective of the study was to analyze the mitochondrial function of trophoblasts in response to cocultivation with PD‐MSCs. The results showed that PD‐MSCs regulate the balance between cell survival and death and protect damaged mitochondria in trophoblasts from oxidative stress. Moreover, PD‐MSCs upregulate factors involved in mitochondrial autophagy in trophoblast cells. Finally, PD‐MSCs improve trophoblast invasion. Taken together, the data indicate that PD‐MSCs can regulate trophoblast invasion through dynamic effects on mitochondrial energy metabolism. These results support the fundamental role of mitochondrial energy mechanism in trophoblast invasion and suggest a new therapeutic strategy for infertility.

Supplementation with high-dose cholecalciferol throughout pregnancy induces fetal growth restriction through inhibiting placental proliferation and trophoblast epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with adverse pregnant outcomes. Several studies investigated the effects of maternal vitamin D3 supplementation on fetal development with inconsistent results. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of maternal supplementation with different doses of vitamin D3 on fetal development. Pregnant mice were administered with different doses of cholecalciferol (0, 2,000, 10,000, 40,000 IU/kg/day) by gavage throughout pregnancy. Fetal weight and crown-rump length were measured. Placental proliferation and mesenchymal characteristics were detected. HTR-8/SVneo cells were incubated in the absence or presence of calcitriol (500 nmol/L) to evaluate the effects of active vitamin D3 on migration and invasion of human trophoblast cells. Although a low dose of cholecalciferol was safe, fetal weight and crown-rump length were decreased in dams treated with high-dose cholecalciferol throughout pregnancy. Placental weight and labyrinth thickness were reduced in mice administered with high-dose cholecalciferol. An obvious calcification was observed in placentae of mice administered with high-dose cholecalciferol. Ki67-positive cells, a marker of placental proliferation, were reduced in mice administered with high-dose cholecalciferol. N-cadherin and vimentin, two mesenchymal markers, were decreased in cholecalciferol-treated mouse placentae and calcitriol-treated human trophoblast cells. MMP-2 and MMP-9, two matrix metalloproteinases, were downregulated in cholecalciferol-treated mouse placentae and calcitriol-treated human trophoblast cells. In addition, trophoblast migration and invasion were suppressed by calcitriol. Supplementation with high-dose cholecalciferol induces fetal growth restriction partially through inhibiting placental proliferation and trophoblast epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

Research trends in pharmacological modulation of tumor-associated macrophages

As one of the most abundant immune cell populations in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play important roles in multiple solid malignancies, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, and colorectal cancer. TAMs could contribute to carcinogenesis, neoangiogenesis, immune-suppressive TME remodeling, cancer chemoresistance, recurrence, and metastasis. Therefore, reprogramming of the immune-suppressive TAMs by pharmacological approaches has attracted considerable research attention in recent years. In this review, the promising pharmaceutical targets, as well as the existing modulatory strategies of TAMs were summarized. The chemokine-chemokine receptor signaling, tyrosine kinase receptor signaling, metabolic signaling, and exosomal signaling have been highlighted in determining the biological functions of TAMs. Besides, both preclinical research and clinical trials have suggested the chemokine-chemokine receptor blockers, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, bisphosphonates, as well as the exosomal or nanoparticle-based targeting delivery systems as the promising pharmacological approaches for TAMs deletion or reprogramming. Lastly, the combined therapies of TAMs-targeting strategies with traditional treatments or immunotherapies as well as the exosome-like nanovesicles for cancer therapy are prospected.

Crosstalk between alveolar macrophages and alveolar epithelial cells/fibroblasts contributes to the pulmonary toxicity of gefitinib

Gefitinib is an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor indicated for the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic or advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) whose tumors have specific EGFR mutations. Pulmonary toxicity is one of the fatal adverse effects of gefitinib and the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here we demonstrated that alveolar macrophages contributed to gefitinib-induced pulmonary toxicity through promoting alveolar epithelial cells to undergo epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and inducing activation and antiapoptotic effect in fibroblasts. Further, we found that alveolar macrophage-secreted MCP-1 worked as a key factor in the pathologic changes of these two cell types. Gefitinib increased Mcp-1 transcription level via the nuclear import of the transcription factor STAT3. In conclusion, our data uncovered the underlying mechanisms of macrophage-promoted pulmonary toxicity in the presence of gefitinib. MCP-1 antibody or inhibition of STAT3 activation may represent novel therapeutic strategies for preventing gefitinib-induced pulmonary toxicity.

Prognostic Value of CT-Attenuation and 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Uptake of Periprostatic Adipose Tissue in Patients with Prostate Cancer

This study aimed to assess the prognostic value of computed tomography (CT)-attenuation and ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) uptake of periprostatic adipose tissue (PPAT) for predicting disease progression-free survival (DPFS) in patients with prostate cancer. Seventy-seven patients with prostate cancer who underwent staging FDG positron emission tomography (PET)/CT were retrospectively reviewed. CT-attenuation (HU) and FDG uptake (SUV) of PPAT were measured from the PET/CT images. The relationships between these PPAT parameters and clinical factors were assessed, and a Cox proportional hazard regression test was performed to evaluate the prognostic significance of PPAT HU and SUV. PPAT HU and SUV showed significant positive correlations with tumor stage and serum prostate-specific antigen level (PSA) (p < 0.05). Patients with high PPAT HU and SUV had significantly worse DPFS than those with low PPAT HU and SUV (p < 0.05). In multivariate analysis, PPAT SUV was a significant predictor of DPFS after adjusting for tumor stage, serum PSA, and tumor SUV (p = 0.003; hazard ratio, 1.50; 95% confidence interval, 1.15–1.96). CT-attenuation and FDG uptake of PPAT showed significant association with disease progression in patients with prostate cancer. These imaging findings may be evidence of the role of PPAT in prostate cancer progression.

ADAMTS8 Inhibits Progression of Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

A disintegrin and metallopeptidase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTSs), which is frequently dysregulated in cancers and is involved in carcinogenesis and cancer progression. The present study identified that ADAMTS8 expression is downregulated in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) tissues when compared with nontumor tissue. The expression of ADAMTS8 is closely associated with clinical stage and lymph node metastasis in patients with ESCC. Furthermore, functional studies have shown that ADAMTS8 overexpression could reduce abilities of proliferation, migration, and invasion and promote apoptosis of ESCC cells. Meanwhile, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and interleukin-6 are markedly deregulated by ADAMTS8 overexpression. Consistently, in vivo data showed that ADAMTS8 overexpression led to a reduction in tumor growth. These results indicate that altering ADAMTS8 expression could modify the outcomes of ESCC by inhibiting cell proliferation and invasion, while promoting the apoptosis of ECSS cells. Thus, ADAMTS8 represents a potential therapeutic target for ESCC therapy.

Application of Anti-Inflammatory Agents in Prostate Cancer

Chronic inflammation is a major cause of human cancers. The environmental factors, such as microbiome, dietary components, and obesity, provoke chronic inflammation in the prostate, which promotes cancer development and progression. Crosstalk between immune cells and cancer cells enhances the secretion of intercellular signaling molecules, such as cytokines and chemokines, thereby orchestrating the generation of inflammatory microenvironment. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) play pivotal roles in inflammation-associated cancer by inhibiting effective anti-tumor immunity. Anti-inflammatory agents, such as aspirin, metformin, and statins, have potential application in chemoprevention of prostate cancer. Furthermore, pro-inflammatory immunity-targeted therapies may provide novel strategies to treat patients with cancer. Thus, anti-inflammatory agents are expected to suppress the “vicious cycle” created by immune and cancer cells and inhibit cancer progression. This review has explored the immune cells that facilitate prostate cancer development and progression, with particular focus on the application of anti-inflammatory agents for both chemoprevention and therapeutic approach in prostate cancer.

Polarization of M2 Macrophages by Interaction between Prostate Cancer Cells Treated with Trichomonas vaginalis and Adipocytes

Trichomonas vaginalis causes inflammation of the prostate and has been detected in tissues of prostate cancers (PCa), prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Obesity is a risk factor for PCa and causes a chronic subclinical inflammation. This chronic inflammation further exacerbates adipose tissue inflammation as results of migration and activation of macrophages. Macrophages are the most abundant immune cells in the PCa microenvironment. M2 macrophages, known as Tumor-Associated Macrophages, are involved in increasing cancer malignancy. In this study, conditioned medium (TCM) of PCa cells infected with live trichomonads contained chemokines that stimulated migration of the mouse preadipocytes (3T3-L1 cells). Conditioned medium of adipocytes incubated with TCM (ATCM) contained Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-13). Macrophage migration was stimulated by ATCM. In macrophages treated with ATCM, expression of M2 markers increased, while M1 markers decreased. Therefore, it is suggested that ATCM induces polarization of M0 to M2 macrophages. In addition, conditioned medium from the macrophages incubated with ATCM stimulates the proliferation and invasiveness of PCa. Our findings suggest that interaction between inflamed PCa treated with T. vaginalis and adipocytes causes M2 macrophage polarization, so contributing to the progression of PCa.

Matrix Metalloproteinases' Role in Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer cells evolve in the tumor microenvironment (TME) by the acquisition of characteristics that allow them to initiate their passage through a series of events that constitute the metastatic cascade. For this purpose, tumor cells maintain a crosstalk with TME non-neoplastic cells transforming them into their allies. "Corrupted" cells such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) as well as neoplastic cells express and secrete matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Moreover, TME metabolic conditions such as hypoxia and acidification induce MMPs' synthesis in both cancer and stromal cells. MMPs' participation in TME consists in promoting events, for example, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), apoptosis resistance, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. MMPs also facilitate tumor cell migration through the basement membrane (BM) and extracellular matrix (ECM). The aim of the present chapter is to discuss MMPs' contribution to the evolution of cancer cells, their cellular origin, and their influence in the main processes that take place in the TME.

Influence of Diet and Nutrition on Prostate Cancer

The incidence of prostate cancer (PCa) displays widespread regional differences, probably owing to differences in dietary habits. Nutrients, including fat, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins (vitamin A, D, and E), and polyphenols, potentially affect PCa pathogenesis and progression, as previously reported using animal models; however, clinical studies have reported controversial results for almost all nutrients. The effects of these nutrients may be manifested through various mechanisms including inflammation, antioxidant effects, and the action of sex hormones. Dietary patterns including the Western and Prudent patterns also influence the risk of PCa. Recent studies reported that the gut microbiota contribute to tumorigenesis in some organs. Diet composition and lifestyle have a direct and profound effect on the gut bacteria. Human studies reported an increase in the abundance of specific gut bacteria in PCa patients. Although there are few studies concerning their relationship, diet and nutrition could influence PCa, and this could be mediated by gut microbiota. An intervention of dietary patterns could contribute to the prevention of PCa. An intervention targeting dietary patterns may thus help prevent PCa.

Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2) Drives Activation of Bone Remodelling and Skeletal Metastasis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to explore the role of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1 or CCL2) in the processes that underpin bone remodelling, particularly the action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, and its role in the development and metastasis of cancers that target the bone.

RECENT FINDINGS

MCP-1 is a key mediator of osteoclastogenesis, being the highest induced gene during intermittent treatment with parathyroid hormone (iPTH), but also regulates catabolic effects of continuous PTH on bone including monocyte and macrophage recruitment, osteoclast formation and bone resorption. In concert with PTH-related protein (PTHrP), MCP-1 mediates the interaction between tumour-derived factors and host-derived chemokines to promote skeletal metastasis. In breast and prostate cancers, an osteolytic cascade is driven by tumour cell-derived PTHrP that upregulates MCP-1 in osteoblastic cells. This relationship between PTHrP and osteoblastic expression of MCP-1 may drive the colonisation of disseminated breast cancer cells in the bone. There is mounting evidence to suggest a pivotal role of MCP-1 in many diseases and an important role in the establishment of comorbidities. Coupled with its role in bone remodelling and the regulation of bone turnover, there is the potential for pathological relationships between bone disorders and bone-related cancers driven by MCP-1. MCP-1's role in bone remodelling and bone-related cancers highlights its potential as a novel anti-resorptive and anti-metastatic target.

Friend or foe: Multiple roles of adipose tissue in cancer formation and progression

Obesity is well-known as the second factor for tumorigenesis after smoking and is bound up with the malignant progression of several kinds of cancers, including esophageal cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer, and ovarian cancer. The increased morbidity and mortality of obesity-related cancer are mostly attributed to dysfunctional adipose tissue. The possible mechanisms connecting dysfunctional adipose tissue to high cancer risk mainly focus on chronic inflammation, obesity-related microenvironment, adipokine secretion disorder, and browning of adipose tissue, and so forth. The stromal vascular cells in adipose tissue trigger chronic inflammation through secreting inflammatory factors and promote cancer cell proliferation. Hypertrophic adipose tissues lead to metabolic disorders of adipocytes, such as abnormal levels of adipokines that mediate cancer progression and metastasis. Cancer patients often show adipose tissue browning and cancerous cachexia in an advanced stage, which lead to unsatisfied chemotherapy effect and poor prognosis. However, increasing evidence has shown that adipose tissue may display quite opposite effects in cancer development. Therefore, the interaction between cancers and adipose tissue exert a vital role in mediates adipose tissue dysfunction and further leads to cancer progression. In conclusion, targeting the dysfunction of adipose tissue provides a promising strategy for cancer prevention and therapy.

Characterization of an in vitro model to study the possible role of polyomavirus BK in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common male neoplasms in the Western world. Various risk factors may lead to carcinogenesis, including infectious agents such as polyomavirus BK (BKPyV), which infects the human renourinary tract, establishes latency, and encodes oncoproteins. Previous studies suggested that BKPyV plays a role in PCa pathogenesis. However, the unspecific tropism of BKPyV and the lack of in vitro models of BKPyV-infected prostate cells cast doubt on this hypothesis. The aim of the present study was to determine whether BKPyV could (a) infect normal and/or tumoral epithelial prostate cells and (b) affect their phenotype. Normal epithelial prostate RWPE-1 cells and PCa PC-3 cells were infected with BKPyV for 21 days. Cell proliferation, cytokine production, adhesion, invasion ability, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers were analyzed. Our results show that (a) RWPE-1 and PC-3 cells are both infectable with BKPyV, but the outcome of the infection varies, (b) cell proliferation and TNF-α production were increased in BKPyV-infected RWPE-1, but not in PC-3 cells, (c) adhesion to matrigel and invasion abilities were elevated in BKPyV-infected RWPE-1 cells, and (d) loss of E-cadherin and expression of vimentin occurred in both uninfected and infected RWPE-1 cells. In conclusion, BKPyV may change some features of the normal prostate cells but is not needed for maintaining the transformed phenotype in the PCa cells The fact that RWPE-1 cells exhibit some phenotype modifications related to EMT represents a limit of this in vitro model.

Radiation biology and oncology in the genomic era

Radiobiology research is building the foundation for applying genomics in precision radiation oncology. Advances in high-throughput approaches will underpin increased understanding of radiosensitivity and the development of future predictive assays for clinical application. There is an established contribution of genetics as a risk factor for radiotherapy side effects. An individual's radiosensitivity is an inherited polygenic trait with an architecture that includes rare mutations in a few genes that confer large effects and common variants in many genes with small effects. Current thinking is that some will be tissue specific, and future tests will be tailored to the normal tissues at risk. The relationship between normal and tumor cell radiosensitivity is poorly understood. Data are emerging suggesting interplay between germline genetic variation and epigenetic modification with growing evidence that changes in DNA methylation regulate the radiosensitivity of cancer cells and histone acetyltransferase inhibitors have radiosensitizing effects. Changes in histone methylation can also impair DNA damage response signaling and alter radiosensitivity. An important effort to advance radiobiology in the genomic era was establishment of the Radiogenomics Consortium to enable the creation of the large radiotherapy cohorts required to exploit advances in genomics. To address challenges in harmonizing data from multiple cohorts, the consortium established the REQUITE project to collect standardized data and genotyping for ~5,000 patients. The collection of detailed dosimetric data is important to produce validated multivariable models. Continued efforts will identify new genes that impact on radiosensitivity to generate new knowledge on toxicity pathogenesis and tests to incorporate into the clinical decision-making process.

ZIP9 but not the androgen receptor mediates testosterone-induced migratory activity of metastatic prostate cancer cells

LNCaP cells are derived from a metastatic lesion of human prostate adenocarcinoma. They express the classical androgen receptor (AR) and ZIP9, a Zn²⁺ transporter that also binds testosterone and mediates signaling by interacting with G-proteins. Our results show that LNCaP cells respond to testosterone by mobilizing their migratory machinery. Their exposure to testosterone triggers the formation of lamellipodia, reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at Tyr925 and of paxillin at Tyr118, expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), and cell migration. Silencing ZIP9 expression by means of siRNA does not affect the responsiveness of the classical AR to testosterone; however, it prevents all of the testosterone effects described above: formation of lamellipodia cannot be induced, stimulation of FAK or paxillin phosphorylation or MMP-2 expression is prevented, and cell migration does not take place in the absence of ZIP9. The data presented show that testosterone/ZIP9 interactions might have not only physiological but also pathophysiological relevance. The fact that the migratory machinery of a metastatic prostate cancer cell line is activated exclusively through testosterone/ZIP9 and not through testosterone/AR interactions suggests that targeting specific inhibition of testosterone/ZIP9-mediated events might help in developing new therapeutic strategies against androgen-induced progression of prostate cancer.

Association of Anthropometric Measures with Prostate Cancer among African American Men in the NCI-Maryland Prostate Cancer Case-Control Study

Background: Obesity is a cancer risk factor. Although it does not increase the risk of localized prostate cancer, it raises the risk of the aggressive disease in men of European ancestry. Few studies investigated obesity as a prostate cancer risk factor in men of African ancestry. Findings from those studies were heterogeneous, but some reported an association of excess body fatness with aggressive disease.Methods: We examined the relationship of body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and waist-hip ratio with prostate cancer in African American (AA) and European American (EA) men in the NCI-Maryland Prostate Cancer Case-Control Study consisting of 798 men with incident prostate cancer (402 AA and 496 EA) and 1,008 population-based controls (474 AA and 534 EA). BMI was self-reported. Waist circumference and waist-hip ratio were calculated from measurements at enrollment.Results: A high BMI either at enrollment or years prior to it was associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer in AA men. In contrast, an elevated BMI tended to increase the disease risk in EA men. Waist circumference was inversely associated with prostate cancer in both AA and EA men, whereas a high waist-hip ratio did not associate with prostate cancer in AA men but tended to be associated with advanced/aggressive disease in EA men.Conclusions: Our findings reveal an obesity paradox among AA men in this study population, where a high BMI and waist circumference associated with a decreased disease risk.Impact: Our observations expand the knowledge of how obesity may affect prostate cancer risks in AAs. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 27(8); 936-44. ©2018 AACR.

The ectoenzyme-side of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) makes inflammation by serum amyloid A (SAA) and chemokines go round

During an inflammatory response, a large number of distinct mediators appears in the affected tissues or in the blood circulation. These include acute phase proteins such as serum amyloid A (SAA), cytokines and chemokines and proteolytic enzymes. Although these molecules are generated within a cascade sequence in specific body compartments allowing for independent action, their co-appearance in space and time during acute or chronic inflammation points toward important mutual interactions. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns lead to fast induction of the pro-inflammatory endogenous pyrogens, which are evoking the acute phase response. Interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-α and interferons simultaneously trigger different cell types, including leukocytes, endothelial cells and fibroblasts for tissue-specific or systemic production of chemokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). In addition, SAA induces chemokines and both stimulate secretion of MMPs from multiple cell types. As a consequence, these mediators may cooperate to enhance the inflammatory response. Indeed, SAA synergizes with chemokines to increase chemoattraction of monocytes and granulocytes. On the other hand, MMPs post-translationally modify chemokines and SAA to reduce their activity. Indeed, MMPs internally cleave SAA with loss of its cytokine-inducing and direct chemotactic potential whilst retaining its capacity to synergize with chemokines in leukocyte migration. Finally, MMPs truncate chemokines at their NH₂- or COOH-terminal end, resulting in reduced or enhanced chemotactic activity. Therefore, the complex interactions between chemokines, SAA and MMPs either maintain or dampen the inflammatory response.

Dihydroisotanshinone I combined with radiation inhibits the migration ability of prostate cancer cells through DNA damage and CCL2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Radiotherapy plays an important role in the treatment of prostate cancer. Despite that sophisticated techniques of radiotherapy and radiation combined with chemotherapy were applied to the patients, some tumors may recur. Therefore, the study investigated the effect of dihydroisotanshinone I (DT) and the combination treatment of 5 μM DT and 5Gy irradiation (IR) against the migration ability of prostate cancer cells.

METHODS

DT and the combination treatment were studied for its biological activity against migration ability of prostate cancer cells with transwell migration assay. Subsequently, we tried to explore the underlying mechanism with ELISA, flow cytometry and Western's blotting assay.

RESULTS

The results showed that DT and the combination treatment substantially inhibited the migration ability of prostate cancer cells. DT and the combined treatment can decrease the ability of macrophages to recruit prostate cancer cells. Mechanistically, DT and the combination treatment reduced the secretion of chemokine (C-C Motif) Ligand 2 (CCL2) from prostate cancer cells. We also found that DT treatment induced the cell cycle of prostate cancer cells entering S phase and increased the protein expression of DNA damage response proteins (rH2AX and phosphorylated ataxia telangiectasia-mutated [ATM]) in DU145 cells and PC-3 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

DT displays radiosensitization and antimigration effects in prostate cancer cells by inducing DNA damage and inhibiting CCL2 secretion. We suggest that DT can be used as a novel antimetastatic cancer drug or radiosensitizer in the armamentarium of prostate cancer management.

Contribution of Adipose Tissue to Development of Cancer

Solid tumor growth and metastasis require the interaction of tumor cells with the surrounding tissue, leading to a view of tumors as tissue-level phenomena rather than exclusively cell-intrinsic anomalies. Due to the ubiquitous nature of adipose tissue, many types of solid tumors grow in proximate or direct contact with adipocytes and adipose-associated stromal and vascular components, such as fibroblasts and other connective tissue cells, stem and progenitor cells, endothelial cells, innate and adaptive immune cells, and extracellular signaling and matrix components. Excess adiposity in obesity both increases risk of cancer development and negatively influences prognosis in several cancer types, in part due to interaction with adipose tissue cell populations. Herein, we review the cellular and noncellular constituents of the adipose "organ," and discuss the mechanisms by which these varied microenvironmental components contribute to tumor development, with special emphasis on obesity. Due to the prevalence of breast and prostate cancers in the United States, their close anatomical proximity to adipose tissue depots, and their complex epidemiologic associations with obesity, we particularly highlight research addressing the contribution of adipose tissue to the initiation and progression of these cancer types. Obesity dramatically modifies the adipose tissue microenvironment in numerous ways, including induction of fibrosis and angiogenesis, increased stem cell abundance, and expansion of proinflammatory immune cells. As many of these changes also resemble shifts observed within the tumor microenvironment, proximity to adipose tissue may present a hospitable environment to developing tumors, providing a critical link between adiposity and tumorigenesis. © 2018 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:237-282, 2018.

The potential role of leptin in tumor invasion and metastasis

The adipocyte-released hormone-like cytokine/adipokine leptin behaves differently in obesity compared to its functions in the normal healthy state. In obese individuals, elevated leptin levels act as a pro-inflammatory adipokine and are associated with certain types of cancers. Further, a growing body of evidence suggests that higher circulating leptin concentrations and/or elevated expression of leptin receptors (Ob-R) in tumors may be poor prognostic factors. Although the underlying pathological mechanisms of leptin's association with poor prognosis are not clear, leptin can impact the tumor microenvironment in several ways. For example, leptin is associated with a number of biological components that could lead to tumor cell invasion and distant metastasis. This includes interactions with carcinoma-associated fibroblasts, tumor promoting effects of infiltrating macrophages, activation of matrix metalloproteinases, transforming growth factor-β signaling, etc. Recent studies also have shown that leptin plays a role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, an important phenomenon for cancer cell migration and/or metastasis. Furthermore, leptin's potentiating effects on insulin-like growth factor-I, epidermal growth factor receptor and HER2/neu have been reported. Regarding unfavorable prognosis, leptin has been shown to influence both adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas. Features of poor prognosis such as tumor invasion, lymph node involvement and distant metastasis have been recorded in several cancer types with higher levels of leptin and/or Ob-R. This review will describe the current scenario in a precise manner. In general, obesity indicates poor prognosis in cancer patients.

Effects of Obesity on the Regulation of Macrophage Population in the Prostate Tumor Microenvironment

Obesity is associated with a greater risk of prostate cancer mortality. However, the mechanisms connecting obesity to the progression of prostate cancer remain unknown. This study determined the impact of obesity on macrophage recruitment and tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) polarization in the prostate tumor microenvironment, since a high concentration of TAMs in tumors has been linked to progression in prostate cancer. We utilized an in vitro model in which pre-adipocytes, prostate cancer cells, and macrophages were exposed to sera from obese or nonobese men, or conditioned media generated under obese or nonobese conditions. Matrigel invasion chambers were used to assess macrophage recruitment in vitro, and immunohistochemical analysis evaluated recruitment in a PTEN knockout mouse model. qPCR was used to measure mRNA levels of CCL2, COX-2, IL-10, TGF-beta, VEGF-A, arginase-1, and MMP-9. PGE2 production was measured by ELISA. Obesity increased macrophage and TAM recruitment, and increased mRNA levels of TAM markers in macrophages. Similarly, obese conditions increased CCL2 and COX-2 expression, as well as PGE2 levels in prostate cancer cells. COX-2 inhibition resulted in lower expression of obesity-induced TAM markers. Our data suggest that obesity promotes macrophage infiltration into the prostate tumor microenvironment, and induces TAM polarization through the COX-2/PGE2 pathway.

Total glucosides of paeony inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced proliferation, migration and invasion in androgen insensitive prostate cancer cells

Previous studies demonstrated that inflammatory microenvironment promoted prostate cancer progression. This study investigated whether total glucosides of paeony (TGP), the active constituents extracted from the root of Paeonia Lactiflora Pall, suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated proliferation, migration and invasion in androgen insensitive prostate cancer cells. PC-3 cells were incubated with LPS (2.0 μg/mL) in the absence or presence of TGP (312.5 μg /mL). As expected, cells at S phase and nuclear CyclinD1, the markers of cell proliferation, were increased in LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells. Migration activity, as determined by wound-healing assay and transwell migration assay, and invasion activity, as determined by transwell invasion assay, were elevated in LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells. Interestingly, TGP suppressed LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells proliferation. Moreover, TGP inhibited LPS-stimulated migration and invasion of PC-3 cells. Additional experiment showed that TGP inhibited activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/p38 in LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells. Correspondingly, TGP attenuated upregulation of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 in LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells. In addition, TGP inhibited nuclear translocation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in LPS-stimulated PC-3 cells. These results suggest that TGP inhibits inflammation-associated STAT3 activation and proliferation, migration and invasion in androgen insensitive prostate cancer cells.

Anti-cancer effect of danshen and dihydroisotanshinone I on prostate cancer: targeting the crosstalk between macrophages and cancer cells via inhibition of the STAT3/CCL2 signaling pathway

Danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge) is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. In our study, the in vivo protective effect of danshen in prostate cancer patients was validated through data from the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan. In vitro, we discovered that dihydroisotanshinone I (DT), a bioactive compound present in danshen, can inhibit the migration of both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate cancer cells. In addition, we noted that DT substantially inhibited the migratory ability of prostate cancer cells in both a macrophage-conditioned medium and macrophage/prostate cancer coculture medium. Mechanistically, DT both diminished the ability of prostate cancer cells to recruit macrophages and reduced the secretion of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) from both macrophages and prostate cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, DT inhibited the protein expression of p-STAT3 and decreased the translocation of STAT3 into nuclear chromatin. DT also suppressed the expression of tumor epithelial-mesenchymal transition genes, including RhoA and SNAI1. In conclusion, danshen can prolong the survival rate of prostate cancer patients in Taiwan. Furthermore, DT can inhibit the migration of prostate cancer cells by interrupting the crosstalk between prostate cancer cells and macrophages via the inhibition of the CCL2/STAT3 axis. These results may provide the basis for a new therapeutic approach toward the treatment of prostate cancer progression.

MMP-2 and 9 in Chronic Kidney Disease

Gelatinases are members of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) family; they play an important role in the degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This effect is also crucial in the development and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Its expression, as well as its activity regulation are closely related to the cell signaling pathways, hypoxia and cell membrane structural change. Gelatinases also can affect the development and progression of CKD through the various interactions with tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), monocyte chemoattractant proteins (MCPs), growth factors (GFs), oxidative stress (OS), and so on. Currently, their non-proteolytic function is a hot topic of research, which may also be associated with the progression of CKD. Therefore, with the in-depth understanding about the function of gelatinases, we can have a more specific and accurate understanding of their role in the human body.

Emerging Concepts Linking Obesity with the Hallmarks of Cancer

There is compelling epidemiological evidence linking obesity to many tumours; however, the molecular mechanisms fuelling this association are not clearly understood. Emerging evidence links changes in the tumour microenvironment with the obese state, and murine and human studies highlight the relevance of adipose stromal cells (ASCs), including immune cells, both at remote fat depots, such as the omentum, as well as in peritumoural tissue. These obesity-associated changes have been implicated in several hallmarks of cancer, including the chronic inflammatory state and associated cell signalling, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), tumour-related fibrosis, angiogenesis, and genomic instability. Here, we present a summary of developments over the past 5 years, with particular focus on the tumour microenvironment in the obese state.

Serum chemokine (CC motif) ligand 2 level as a diagnostic, predictive, and prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is regarded as the most sensitive biomarker for prostate cancer. Although androgen/androgen receptor (AR) signaling promotes prostate cancer progression, suppression of AR signaling induces chemokine (CC motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), which enables prostate cancer cells to gain metastatic potential. AR-controlled PSA alone may be an unreliable biomarker for patients receiving androgen deprivation therapy. Therefore, we investigated the validity of CCL2 as a complementary biomarker to PSA for prostate cancer. Our in vitro approach of enriching for prostate cancer cells with higher migration potential showed that CCL2 activated cellular migration. Importantly, we found that CCL2 levels were significantly different between men (n = 379) with and without prostate cancer. Patients with CCL2 ≥ 320 pg/mL had worse overall survival and prostate cancer -specific survival than those with CCL2 < 320 pg/mL. A novel risk classification was developed according to the risk factors CCL2 ≥ 320 pg/mL and PSA ≥ 100 ng/mL, and scores of 2, 1, and 0 were defined as poor, intermediate, and good risk, respectively, and clearly distinguished patient outcomes. CCL2 may serve as a novel biomarker for prostate cancer. The novel risk classification based on combining CCL2 and PSA is more reliable than using either alone.

Adipocytes promote prostate cancer stem cell self-renewal through amplification of the cholecystokinin autocrine loop

Obesity has long been linked with prostate cancer progression, although the underlying mechanism is still largely unknown. Here, we report that adipocytes promote the enrichment of prostate cancer stem cells (CSCs) through a vicious cycle of autocrine amplification. In the presence of adipocytes, prostate cancer cells actively secrete the peptide hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), which not only stimulates prostate CSC self-renewal, but also induces cathepsin B (CTSB) production of the adipocytes. In return, CTSB facilitates further CCK secretion by the cancer cells. More importantly, inactivation of CCK receptor not only suppresses CTSB secretion by the adipocytes, but also synergizes the inhibitory effect of CTSB inhibitor on adipocyte-promoted prostate CSC self-renewal. In summary, we have uncovered a novel mechanism underlying the mutual interplay between adipocytes and prostate CSCs, which may help explaining the role of adipocytes in prostate cancer progression and provide opportunities for effective intervention.

STAMP2 is required for human adipose-derived stem cell differentiation and adipocyte-facilitated prostate cancer growth in vivo

Six Transmembrane Protein of Prostate 2 (STAMP2) has been implicated in both prostate cancer (PCa) and metabolic disease. STAMP2 has unique anti-inflammatory and pro-metabolic properties in mouse adipose tissue, but there is limited information on its role in human metabolic tissues. Using human adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs), we report that STAMP2 expression is dramatically upregulated during adipogenesis. shRNA-mediated STAMP2 knockdown in ASCs significantly suppresses adipogenesis and interferes with optimal expression of adipogenic genes and adipocyte metabolic function. Furthermore, ASC-derived adipocyte-mediated stimulation of prostate tumor growth in nude mice is significantly reduced upon STAMP2 knockdown in ASC adipocytes. These results suggest that STAMP2 is crucial for normal ASC conversion into adipocytes and their metabolic function, as well as their ability to facilitate PCa growth in vivo.