A Comparison of the ancient use of ginseng in traditional Chinese medicine with modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials

Aerosol inhalation of total ginsenosides repairs acute lung injury and inhibits pulmonary fibrosis through SMAD2 signaling-mediated mechanism

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive lung disease caused by previous acute lung injury (ALI), but there is currently no satisfactory therapy available. Aerosol inhalation of medicine is an effective way for treating PF. Total ginsenosides (TG) shows potential for the treatment of ALI and PF, but the effects of inhaled TG remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To determine the therapeutic effects of TG in ALI and PF, to assess the superiority of the inhaled form of TG over the routine form, and to clarify the mechanism of action of inhaled TG.

METHODS

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UPLC-QE-MS) was applied to determine the chemoprofile of TG. A mouse model of ALI and PF was established to evaluate the effects of inhaled TG by using bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) analysis, histopathological observation, hydroxyproline assay, and immunohistochemical analysis. Primary mouse lung fibroblasts (MLF) and human lung fibroblast cell line (HFL1) were applied to determine the in vitro effects and mechanism of TG by using cell viability assay, quantitative real time PCR (qPCR) assay, and western blot (WB) analysis.

RESULTS

The UPLC-QE-MS results revealed the main types of ginsenosides in TG, including Re (14.15 ± 0.42%), Rd (8.42 ± 0.49%), Rg1 (6.22 ± 0.42%), Rb3 (3.28 ± 0.01%), Rb2 (3.09 ± 0.00%), Rc (2.33 ± 0.01%), Rg2 (2.09 ± 0.04%), Rb1 (1.43 ± 0.24%), and Rf (0.13 ± 0.06%). Inhaled TG, at dosages of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg significantly alleviated both ALI and PF in mice. Analyses of BALF and HE staining revealed that TG modulated the levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β, and TGF-β1, reduced inflammatory cell infiltration, and restored the alveolar architecture of the lung tissues. Furthermore, HE and Masson's trichrome staining demonstrated that TG markedly decreased fibroblastic foci and collagen fiber deposition, evidenced by the reduction of blue-stained collagen fibers. Hydroxyproline assay and immunohistochemical analyses indicated that TG significantly decreased hydroxyproline level and down-regulated the expression of Col1a1, Col3a1, and α-sma. The inhaled administration of TG demonstrated enhanced efficacy over the oral route when comparable doses were used. Additionally, inhaled TG showed superior safety and therapeutic profiles compared to pirfenidone, as evidenced by a CCK8 assay, which confirmed that TG concentrations ranging from 20 to 120 μg/ml were non-cytotoxic. qPCR and WB analyses revealed that TG, at concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 μg/ml, significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of smad2 induced by TGF-β1 and down-regulated the expression of fibrotic genes and proteins, including α-sma, Col1a1, Col3a1, and FN1, suggesting an anti-fibrotic mechanism mediated by the smad2 signaling pathway. In vitro, TG's safety and efficacy were also found to be superior to those of pirfenidone.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates, for the first time, the therapeutic efficacy of inhaled TG in treating ALI and PF. Inhaled TG effectively inhibits inflammation and reduces collagen deposition, with a particular emphasis on its role in modulating the Smad2 signaling pathway, which is implicated in the anti-fibrotic mechanism of TG. The study also highlights the superiority of inhaled TG over the oral route and its favorable safety profile in comparison to pirfenidone, positioning it as an ideal alternative for ALI and PF therapy.

Preparation and evaluation of proliposomes formulation for enhancing the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides

Background

This research main objective was to evaluate a proliposomes (PLs) formulation for the enhancement of oral bioavailability of ginsenosides, using ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) as a marker.

Methods

A novel PLs formulation was prepared using a modified evaporation-on-matrix method. Soy phosphatidylcholine, Rg3-enriched extract, poloxamer 188 (Lutrol® F 68) and sorbitol were mixed and dissolved using a aqueous ethanolic solution, followed by the removal of ethanol and lyophilization. The characterization of Rg3-PLs formulations was performed by powder X-ray diffractometry (PXRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and in vitro release. The enhancement of oral bioavailability was investigated and analyzed by non-compartmental parameters after oral administration of the formulations.

Results

PXRD of Rg3-PLs indicated that Rg3 was transformed from crystalline into its amorphous form during the preparation process. The Rg3-encapsulated liposomes with vesicular-shaped morphology were generated after the reconstitution by gentle hand-shaking in water; they had a mean diameter of approximately 350 nm, a negative zeta potential (-28.6 mV) and a high entrapment efficiency (97.3%). The results of the in vitro release study exhibited that significantly more amount of Rg3 was released from the PLs formulation in comparison with that from the suspension of Rg3-enriched extract (control group). The pharmacokinetic parameters after oral administration of PLs formulation in rats showed an approximately 11.8-fold increase in the bioavailability of Rg3, compared to that of the control group.

Conclusion

The developed PLs formulation could be a favorable delivery system to improve the oral bioavailability of ginsenosides, including Rg3.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on the motor performance and ataxia

This study presents a preliminary exploration into the effect of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on the cerebellum in individuals with cerebellar atrophy. Over a three month-long period, nine subjects received a 4.5g of KRG daily, with assessments including the ARS, ADAS-Cog, and FDG-PET/CT scans. Results revealed a notable improvement in ataxia and cognitive function without a significant correlation between them. PET/CT scans and SUVR analyses supported these findings, showing an increase in cerebellar glucose uptake after KRG intake. These outcomes suggest a potential pleiotropic effect of KRG on cerebellar function.

Ginsenoside Rg1 modulates PI3K/AKT pathway for enhanced osteogenesis via GPER

BACKGROUND

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by decreased bone density and the degradation of bone tissue microarchitecture. Ginsenoside Rg1, derived from Panax ginseng, has been a part of traditional Chinese medicine in China for centuries, particularly for treating osteoporosis. However, there remains limited research on the osteogenic potential of Rg1 within the glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIOP) model and its specific mechanisms.

PURPOSE

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the osteogenic potential of Rg1 within the GIOP model and explore the signaling pathways associated with its in vivo and in vitro effects.

METHODS

Cell proliferation, differentiation and mineralization were evaluated by the Cell counting kit 8(CCK8) assay, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test and Alizarin Red S staining, respectively. The qPCR technique was used to determine the relative expression of mRNA and the western blot was used to determine the relative expression of protein. In vivo experiments, spinal vertebrae staining in zebrafish larvae was accomplished by alizarin red S staining.

RESULTS

Zebrafish larvae's hatching, survival, malformation, and heart rate were unaffected by 50 μM of Rg1 in vivo, while the MEC3T3-E1 cell line's proliferation was unaffected by 50 μM of Rg1 in vitro. Meanwhile, Rg1 was shown to improve osteogenic differentiation or bone formation as well as the level of mRNA expression of osteogenic markers in vivo and in vitro. Treatment with Rg1 significantly increased the expression of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) and pAKT. In addition, the GPER inhibitor G15 could significantly reduce the mRNA and protein expression levels of GPER and phosphorylated AKT, LY294002, a PI3K/AKT pathway inhibitor, markedly suppresses the expression of phosphorylated AKT, yet shows no significant impact on GPER expression. Both G15 and LY294002 can significantly blocked the Rg1-mediated enhancement of osteogenesis capacity in the GIOP model. In contrast, when both the agonists G1 of GPER and LY294002 were added, G1 increased the relative expression of mRNA and protein of GPER, but not the expression of osteogenic capacity and osteogenic markers.

CONCLUSIONS

This study investigates the mineralization effects and mechanisms of Ginsenoside Rg1 both in vitro and in vivo. For the first time, we propose that Rg1 might regulate osteogenesis by modulating AKT phosphorylation through mediating GPER expression within the PI3K/AKT pathway in the GIOP model. This discovery introduces novel targets and avenues for osteoporosis treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg1 Attenuates Chronic Sleep Deprivation-Induced Hippocampal Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Improves Memory by the AMPK-SIRT3 Pathway

Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) is the main bioactive ginseng component. This study investigates the effects of Rg1 on cognitive deficits triggered by chronic sleep deprivation stress (CSDS) and explores its underlying mechanisms. Rg1 effectively improved spatial working and recognition memory, as evidenced by various behavioral tests. RNA-sequence analysis revealed differential gene expression in the metabolic pathway. Treatment with Rg1 abrogated reductions in SOD and CAT activity, lowered MDA content, and increased Nrf2 and HO-1 protein levels. Rg1 administration alleviated hippocampal mitochondrial dysfunction by restoring normal ultrastructure and enhancing ATP activities and Mfn2 expression while regulating Drp-1 expression. Rg1 mitigated neuronal apoptosis by reducing the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the levels of cleaved caspase-3. Additionally, Rg1 upregulated AMPK and SIRT3 protein expressions. These findings suggest that Rg1 has potential as a robust intervention for cognitive dysfunction associated with sleep deprivation, acting through the modulation of mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and the AMPK-SIRT3 axis.

Synergism of fermented feed and ginseng polysaccharide on growth performance, intestinal development, and immunity of Xuefeng black-bone chickens

Microbial fermented feed (MF) is considered a valuable strategy to bring advantages to livestock and is widely practiced. Oral supplementation of Ginseng polysaccharide (Gps) eliminated weight loss in chickens following vaccination. This study investigated the effects of the combined use of Gps and MF on growth performance and immune indices in Xuefeng black-bone chickens. A total of 400 Xuefeng black-bone chickens at the age of 1 day were randomly assigned to four groups. Normal feed group (Control group), ginseng polysaccharide (200 mg/kg) group (Gps group), microbially fermented feed (completely replace the normal feed) group (MF group), and microbially fermented feed and add ginseng polysaccharide just before use (MF + Gps group). Each group contained 5 pens per treatment and 20 birds per pen. The body weight and average daily gain in the Gps, MF, and MF + Gps groups increased significantly (P < 0.01), while the feed conversion ratio decreased significantly (P < 0.01). The combined use of MF and Gps showed a synergistic effect. There was no significant difference in villus height (cecal) between the experimental group and the Con group. The crypt depth of the three experimental groups exhibited a significantly lower value compared to the Control group (P < 0.05). The V/C ratio of the Gps group and MF + Gps was significantly increased (P < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in the MF group. Moreover, the diarrhea rate of the Gps and the MF + Gps groups was lower than that of the Con group, while that of the MF + Gps group decreased the mortality rate (P < 0.05). The serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) levels in the MF, Gps, and MF + Gps groups decreased significantly (P < 0.01), the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels increased significantly (P < 0.01), while the combination of MF and Gps had a synergistic effect. The combined use of Gps and MF not only further improved growth performance and immune parameters, but also reduced the diarrhea rate and mortality.

A 4.7-kDa polysaccharide from Panax ginseng suppresses Aβ pathology via mitophagy activation in cross-species Alzheimer's disease models

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological condition that progresses with age. Amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation has been suggested to be a key pathogenic process in Alzheimer's disease. Ginseng polysaccharides (GP), the main biologically active components isolated from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (ginseng), may act as neuroprotective agents with potential benefits for AD patients. However, GP effects on Aβ pathology and AD symptoms are still unclear. Here, a 4.7-kDa GP termed GP4 was purified and subjected to basic physicochemical characterization. The biological effects of GP4 to prevent Aβ aggregation were then assessed with cross-species AD models, including Aftin-5-treated SH-SY5Y cells and cerebral organoids, and transgenic C. elegans overexpressing the full-length human Aβ42 peptide. These analyses ultimately demonstrated that GP4 was capable of inhibiting Aβ accumulation both in vivo and vitro, and with early intervention of GP4 being sufficient to alleviate Aβ42-associated aging phenotypes and memory loss in C. elegans model of AD. Furthermore, neuroinflammation was significantly down-regulated in human cells and cerebral organoids. From a mechanistic perspective, the ability of GP4 to inhibit Aβ aggregation was found to be related to its ability to promote neuronal mitophagic activity. This finding offers a robust theoretical foundation for the further development of GP4 as a candidate drugs with the potential to treat AD.

Ginsenosides: changing the basic hallmarks of cancer cells to achieve the purpose of treating breast cancer

In 2021, breast cancer accounted for a substantial proportion of cancer cases and represented the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women worldwide. Although tumor cells originate from normal cells in the human body, they possess distinct biological characteristics resulting from changes in gene structure and function of cancer cells in contrast with normal cells. These distinguishing features, known as hallmarks of cancer cells, differ from those of normal cells. The hallmarks primarily include high metabolic activity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and resistance to cell death. Current evidence suggests that the fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells affect the tissue structure, function, and metabolism of tumor cells and their internal and external environment. Therefore, these fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells enable tumor cells to proliferate, invade and avoid apoptosis. Modifying these hallmarks of tumor cells represents a new and potentially promising approach to tumor treatment. The key to breast cancer treatment lies in identifying the optimal therapeutic agent with minimal toxicity to normal cells, considering the specific types of tumor cells in patients. Some herbal medicines contain active ingredients which can precisely achieve this purpose. In this review, we introduce Ginsenoside's mechanism and research significance in achieving the therapeutic effect of breast cancer by changing the functional hallmarks of tumor cells, providing a new perspective for the potential application of Ginsenoside as a therapeutic drug for breast cancer.

New perspective on the immunomodulatory activity of ginsenosides: Focus on effective therapies for post-COVID-19

More than 700 million confirmed cases of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) have been reported globally, and 10-60% of patients are expected to exhibit "post-COVID-19 symptoms," which will continue to affect human life and health. In the absence of safer, more specific drugs, current multiple immunotherapies have failed to achieve satisfactory efficacy. Ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine, is often used as an immunomodulator and has been used in COVID-19 treatment as a tonic to increase blood oxygen saturation. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng. In this review, we summarize the multiple ways in which ginsenosides affect post-COVID-19 symptoms, including inhibition of lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor signaling, modulation of chemokine receptors and inflammasome activation, induction of macrophage polarization, effects on Toll-like receptors, nuclear factor kappa-B, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, lymphocytes, intestinal flora, and epigenetic regulation. Ginsenosides affect virus-mediated tissue damage, local or systemic inflammation, immune modulation, and other links, thus alleviating respiratory and pulmonary symptoms, reducing the cardiac burden, protecting the nervous system, and providing new ideas for the rehabilitation of patients with post-COVID-19 symptoms. Furthermore, we analyzed its role in strengthening body resistance to eliminate pathogenic factors from the perspective of ginseng-epidemic disease and highlighted the challenges in clinical applications. However, the benefit of ginsenosides in modulating organismal imbalance post-COVID-19 needs to be further evaluated to better validate the pharmacological mechanisms associated with their traditional efficacy and to determine their role in individualized therapy.

The unique activity of saponin: Induction of cytotoxicity in HTLV-1 infected cells

Infection with the retrovirus human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) sometimes causes diseases that are difficult to cure. To find anti-HTLV-1 natural compounds, we opted to screen using the HTLV-1-infected T-cell line, MT-2. Based on our results, an extract of the pulp/seeds of Akebia quinata Decaisne fruit killed MT-2 cells but did not affect the Jurkat cell line that was not infected with virus. To determine the active ingredients, seven saponins with one-six sugar moieties were isolated from A. quinata seeds, and their activities against the two cell lines were examined. Both cell lines were killed in a similar manner by Akebia saponins A and B. Further, Akebia saponins D, E, PK and G did not exhibit cytotoxicity. Akebia saponin C had a similar activity to the extract found in the screening. This compound was found to enhance Gag aggregation, induce the abnormal cleavage of Gag, suppress virion release, and preferentially kill HTLV-1 infected cells; however, their relationship remains elusive. Our findings may lead to the development of new therapies for infectious diseases based on the removal of whole-virus-infected cells.

Ginsenoside Rh2: A shining and potential natural product in the treatment of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases in the near future

BACKGROUND

Ginseng is well-known as one of the most valuable and commonly used Chinese medicines not only in ancient China but also worldwide including East, Russia, Southeast Asia, North America and some Western European countries. Ginsenosides, as one of the main high active components of Ginseng, have various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antianaphylaxis, anti-depression, and anticancer activities. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), one of the major bioactive ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, also exhibits versatile pharmacological activities, such as increasing non-specific resistance and specific immune response, improving cardiac function and fibrosis, anti-inflammatory effects and antitumor effects, which may serve as an excellent medicinal potential.

PURPOSE

As one of hundreds of ginsenosides being identified from ginseng, Rh2 exerts a markedly pharmacological effect on various diseases without severe toxicity, it has attracted many researchers 'attention. Although Rh2 plays important roles in some animal models and cell lines to simulate human diseases, its underlying molecular mechanisms have yet to be determined. During the past ten years, nearly 450 studies on Rh2 in the treatment of complex disease have been reported, however, up to now, no comprehensive reviews about the roles of Rh2 in animal models and cellular lines of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases have been conducted.

METHOD

We searched articles on ginsenoside-related diseases from December 2010 to February 2023 in peer-reviewed and nonclinical databases, which include Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, China national knowledge internet and Medline, and using the following keywords: Ginsenoside Rh2, Human diseases, Cancer, Mechanisms, Chinese herbal medicine, Natural products and Signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Therefore, in this review, we make a comprehensive summary on the roles of Rh2 and support the potential mechanisms of Rh2 according to the disease classification, including nonmalignant disease such as ulcerative colitis, neuropathic pain, Asthma, myocardial injury, depression and malignant disease such as breast cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma and gastric cancer. Finally, the combination therapy of Rh2 and other medications in human diseases are summarized, apart from that, there are other problems such as the bioavailability of oral administration Rh2 to be overcome in following research.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide strong evidence that Ginsenoside Rh2 plays important roles in the treatment of nonmalignant and malignant diseases.

Regulatory mechanisms of natural compounds from traditional Chinese herbal medicines on the microglial response in ischemic stroke

BACKGROUND

Development of clinically effective neuroprotective agents for stroke therapy is still a challenging task. Microglia play a critical role in brain injury and recovery after ischemic stroke. Traditional Chinese herbal medicines (TCHMs) are based on a unique therapeutic principle, have various formulas, and have long been widely used to treat stroke. Therefore, the active compounds in TCHMs and their underlying mechanisms of action are attracting increasing attention in the field of stroke drug development.

PURPOSE

To summarize the regulatory mechanisms of TCHM-derived natural compounds on the microglial response in animal models of ischemic stroke.

METHODS

We searched studies published until 10 April 2023 in the Web of Science, PubMed, and ScienceDirect using the following keywords: natural compounds, natural products or phytochemicals, traditional Chinese Medicine or Chinese herbal medicine, microglia, and ischemic stroke. This review was prepared according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines.

RESULTS

Natural compounds derived from TCHMs can attenuate the M1 phenotype of microglia, which is involved in the detrimental inflammatory response, via inhibition of NF-κB, MAPKs, JAK/STAT, Notch, TLR4, P2X7R, CX3CR1, IL-17RA, the NLRP3 inflammasome, and pro-oxidant enzymes. Additionally, the neuroprotective response of microglia with the M2 phenotype can be enhanced by activating Nrf2/HO-1, PI3K/AKT, AMPK, PPARγ, SIRT1, CB2R, TREM2, nAChR, and IL-33/ST2. Several clinical trials showed that TCHM-derived natural compounds that regulate microglial responses have significant and safe therapeutic effects, but further well-designed clinical studies are needed.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research regarding the direct targets and potential pleiotropic or synergistic effects of natural compounds would provide a more reasonable approach for regulation of the microglial response with the possibility of successful stroke drug development.

Ginsenoside Rc from Panax Ginseng Ameliorates Palmitate-Induced UB/OC-2 Cochlear Cell Injury

By 2050, at least 700 million people will require hearing therapy while 2.5 billion are projected to suffer from hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) arises from the inability of the inner ear to convert fluid waves into neural electric signals because of injury to cochlear hair cells that has resulted in their death. In addition, systemic chronic inflammation implicated in other pathologies may exacerbate cell death leading to SNHL. Phytochemicals have emerged as a possible solution because of the growing evidence of their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. Ginseng and its bioactive molecules, ginsenosides, exhibit effects that suppress pro-inflammatory signaling and protect against apoptosis. In the current study, we investigated the effects of ginsenoside Rc (G-Rc) on UB/OC-2 primary murine sensory hair cell survival in response to palmitate-induced injury. G-Rc promoted UB/OC-2 cell survival and cell cycle progression. Additionally, G-Rc enhanced the differentiation of UB/OC-2 cells into functional sensory hair cells and alleviated palmitate-induced inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and apoptosis. The current study offers novel insights into the effects of G-Rc as a potential adjuvant for SNHL and warrants further studies elucidating the molecular mechanisms.

Inhibition of the pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathway: The important potential mechanism of ginsenosides in ameliorating diabetes and its complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications have become an important global public health issue, affecting human health and negatively impacting life and lifespan. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death (PCD). To date, pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways have been identified primarily in the canonical and non-canonical inflammasome pathway, apoptotic caspase-mediated pathway, granzyme-mediated pathway, and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB)-mediated pathway. The activation of diabetes-mediated pyroptosis-associated factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of DM and its complications. Studies have shown that ginsenosides exert significant protective effects on DM and its complications. Through inhibiting the activation of pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways, and then the DM and its complications are improved. This review summarizes the subtypes of ginsenosides and their chemical characteristics, pharmacokinetics and side effects, the main pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways that have been discovered to date, and the potential mechanism of different subtypes of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications (such as diabetic cardiomyopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic liver injury, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic ischemic stroke) via anti-pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways. These findings may provide ideas for further research to explore ginsenoside mechanism in improving DM and its complications. However, many pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways and targets involved in the occurrence and development of DM and its complications are still unknown. In the future, further studies using in vitro cell models, in vivo animal models, and human disease models can be used to further elucidate the mechanism of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications.

Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits CBP/p300-mediated FOXO3a acetylation and epilepsy-induced oxidative damage via the FOXO3a-KEAP1-NRF2 pathway

Epilepsy is a chronic disease that affects a wide range of people. Furthermore, a third of patients suffering from epileptic seizures do not respond to antiepileptic drugs. In recent years, increasing attention has focused on the role of oxidative stress in acquired epilepsy, and adjuvant antiepileptic drugs to reduce oxidative stress may be a new therapeutic strategy. In this study ginsenoside Rh2 was resistant to oxidative stress induced by epileptic activity in vivo and in vitro. Using online databases, we identified forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a) overexpression in epilepsy tissue and validated this in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical tissues of patients with epilepsy. An in vitro epilepsy model revealed that the overexpression of FOXO3a led to more severe oxidative stress, while the knockdown of FOXO3a had a protective effect on SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, our results showed that the positive effect of FOXO3a on oxidative stress was caused by the transcriptional activation of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), a negative regulator of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2). We also found that ginsenoside Rh2 can directly inhibit the activation of FOXO3a by selectively blocking CREB-binding protein (CBP)/p300-mediated FOXO3a acetylation and play a role in regulating the KEAP1-NRF2 pathway to resist oxidative stress.

How ginseng regulates autophagy: Insights from multistep process

BACKGROUND

Although autophagy is a recognized contributor to the pathogenesis of human diseases, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are the only two FDA-approved autophagy inhibitors to date. Emerging evidence has revealed the potential therapeutic benefits of various extracts and active compounds isolated from ginseng, especially ginsenosides and their derivatives, by mediating autophagy. Mechanistically, active components from ginseng mediate key regulators in the multistep processes of autophagy, namely, initiation, autophagosome biogenesis and cargo degradation.

AIM OF REVIEW

To date, a review that systematically described the relationship between ginseng and autophagy is still lacking. Breakthroughs in finding the key players in ginseng-autophagy regulation will be a promising research area, and will provide positive insights into the development of new drugs based on ginseng and autophagy.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Here, we comprehensively summarized the critical roles of ginseng-regulated autophagy in treating diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and neurotoxicity. The dual effects of the autophagy response in certain diseases are worthy of note; thus, we highlight the complex impacts of both ginseng-induced and ginseng-inhibited autophagy. Moreover, autophagy and apoptosis are controlled by multiple common upstream signals, cross-regulate each other and affect certain diseases, especially cancers. Therefore, this review also discusses the cross-signal transduction pathways underlying the molecular mechanisms and interaction between ginseng-regulated autophagy and apoptosis.

Panax ginseng against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury: A review of preclinical evidence and potential mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is effective in the prevention and treatment of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. The mechanism by which P. ginseng exerts cardioprotective effects is complex. P. ginseng contains many pharmacologically active ingredients, such as molecular glycosides, polyphenols, and polysaccharides. P. ginseng and each of its active components can potentially act against myocardial I/R injury. Myocardial I/R was originally a treatment for myocardial ischemia, but it also induced irreversible damage, including oxygen-containing free radicals, calcium overload, energy metabolism disorder, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, microvascular injury, autophagy, and apoptosis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to clarify the protective effects of P. ginseng and its active ingredients against myocardial I/R injury, so as to provide experimental evidence and new insights for the research and application of P. ginseng in the field of myocardial I/R injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review was based on a search of PubMed, NCBI, Embase, and Web of Science databases from their inception to February 21, 2022, using terms such as "ginseng," "ginsenosides," and "myocardial reperfusion injury." In this review, we first summarized the active ingredients of P. ginseng, including ginsenosides, ginseng polysaccharides, and phytosterols, as well as the pathophysiological mechanisms of myocardial I/R injury. Importantly, preclinical models with myocardial I/R injury and potential mechanisms of these active ingredients of P. ginseng for the prevention and treatment of myocardial disorders were generally summarized.

RESULTS

P. ginseng and its active components can regulate oxidative stress related proteins, inflammatory cytokines, and apoptosis factors, while protecting the myocardium and preventing myocardial I/R injury. Therefore, P. ginseng can play a role in the prevention and treatment of myocardial I/R injury.

CONCLUSIONS

P. ginseng has a certain curative effect on myocardial I/R injury. It can prevent and treat myocardial I/R injury in several ways. When ginseng exerts its effects, should be based on the theory of traditional Chinese medicine and with the help of modern medicine; the clinical efficacy of P. ginseng in preventing and treating myocardial I/R injury can be improved.

Natural Compounds as Integrative Therapy for Liver Protection against Inflammatory and Carcinogenic Mechanisms: From Induction to Molecular Biology Advancement

The liver is exposed to several harmful substances that bear the potential to cause excessive liver damage ranging from hepatitis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease to extreme cases of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver ailments have been effectively treated from very old times with Chinese medicinal herbal formulations and later also applied by controlled trials in Japan. However, these traditional practices have been hardly well characterized in the past till in the last decades when more qualified studies have been carried out. Modern advances have given rise to specific molecular targets which are specifically good candidates for affecting the intricate mechanisms that play a role at the molecular level. These therapeutic regimens that mainly affect the progression of the disease by inhibiting the gene expression levels or by blocking essential molecular pathways or releasing cytokines may prove to play a vital role in minimizing the tissue damage. This review, therefore, tries to throw light upon the variation in the therapies for the treatment of benign and malignant liver disease from ancient times to the current date. Nonetheless, clinical research exploring the effectiveness of herbal medicines in the treatment of benign chronic liver diseases as well as prevention and treatment of HCC is still warranted.

Potential of Medicago sativa and Perilla frutescens for overcoming the soil sickness caused by ginseng cultivation

There are serious soil sickness in ginseng cultivation. Crop rotation is an effective agricultural management to improve soil sustainability and reduce soil sickness. To explore an appropriate ginseng rotation system, Medicago sativa (alfalfa) and Perilla frutescens (perilla) were planted on ginseng cultivation soil for 1 year to evaluate the improvement effect of both. Through chemical analysis and high-throughput sequencing technology, we found that after alfalfa and perilla cultivation for one-year, various nutrients and enzyme activities in ginseng cultivation soil were significantly improved. In addition, perilla significantly increased the diversity and richness of soil fungal communities. Cultivation of alfalfa and perilla significantly changed the composition of soil bacterial and fungal communities and significantly reduced the abundance of the potentially pathogenic fungi Ilyonectria. Further pot experiments also showed that the improved soil could significantly increase root activity of ginseng plant after two plants were planted. It should be noted that, unlike alfalfa, perilla decreased soil electrical conductivity, increased soil organic matter, soil urease, and may significantly improve the diversity and richness of soil fungal community. Moreover, in the pot experiment, the root fresh weight of ginseng cultured in perilla treated soil increased significantly. This study highlights that perilla may have better soil improvement effect than alfalfa and it has the potential to be used in the soil improvement of ginseng cultivation.

Omics as a Tool to Help Determine the Effectiveness of Supplements

There has been considerable interest in dietary supplements in the last two decades. Companies are releasing new specifics at an alarming pace, while dietary supplements are one of the less-studied substances released for public consumption. However, access to state-of-the-art and high-throughput techniques, such as the ones used in omics, make it possible to check the impact of a substance on human transcriptome or proteome and provide answers to whether its use is reasonable and beneficial. In this review, the main domains of omics are briefly introduced. The review focuses on the three most widely used omics techniques: NGS, LC-MS, NMR, and their usefulness in studying dietary supplements. Examples of studies are described for some of the most commonly supplemented substances, such as vitamins: D, E, A, and plant extracts: resveratrol, green tea, ginseng, and curcumin extract. Techniques used in omics have proven to be useful in studying dietary supplements. NGS techniques are helpful in identifying pathways that change upon supplementation and determining polymorphisms or conditions that qualify for the necessity of a given supplementation. LC-MS techniques are used to establish the serum content of supplemented a compound and its effects on metabolites. Both LC-MS and NMR help establish the actual composition of a compound, its primary and secondary metabolites, and its potential toxicity. Moreover, NMR techniques determine what conditions affect the effectiveness of supplementation.

Ginsenoside Rg1 interferes with the progression of diabetic osteoporosis by promoting type H angiogenesis modulating vasculogenic and osteogenic coupling

Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) has been demonstrated to have antidiabetic and antiosteoporotic activities. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of Rg1 against diabetic osteoporosis and the underlying mechanism. In vitro, we found that Rg1 increased the number of osteoprogenitors and alleviated high glucose (HG) induced apoptosis of osteoprogenitors by MTT assays and flow cytometry. qRT‒PCR and western blot analysis suggested that Rg1 can also promote the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) by osteoprogenitors and promote the coupling of osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Rg1 can also promote the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) cultured in high glucose, enhance the angiogenic ability of endothelial cells, and activate the Notch pathway to promote endothelial cells to secrete the osteogenesis-related factor Noggin to regulate osteogenesis, providing further feedback coupling of angiogenesis and osteogenesis. Therefore, we speculated that Rg1 may have similar effects on type H vessels. We used the Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rat model to perform immunofluorescence staining analysis on two markers of type H vessels, Endomucin (Emcn) and CD31, and the osteoblast-specific transcription factor Osterix, and found that Rg1 stimulates type H angiogenesis and bone formation. In vivo experiments also demonstrated that Rg1 promotes VEGF secretion, activates the Noggin/Notch pathway, increases the level of coupling between type H vessels and osteogenesis, and improves the bone structure of GK rats. All of these data reveal that Rg1 is a promising candidate drug for treating diabetic osteoporosis as a potentially bioactive molecule that promotes angiogenesis and osteointegration coupling.

Anticancer natural products targeting immune checkpoint protein network

Normal cells express surface proteins that bind to immune checkpoint proteins on immune cells to turn them off, whereby the immune system does not attack normal healthy cells. Cancer cells can also utilize this same protective mechanism by expressing surface proteins that can interact with checkpoint proteins on immune cells to overcome the immune surveillance. Immunotherapy is making the best use of the body's own immune system to reinforce anti-tumor responses. The most generally used immunotherapy is the control of immune checkpoints including the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell deathreceptor 1 (PD-1), or programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1). In spite of the clinical effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitors, the overall response rate still remains low. Therefore, there have been considerable efforts in searching for alternative immune checkpoint proteins that may work as new therapeutic targets for treatment of cancer. Recent studies have identified several additional novel immune checkpoint targets, including lymphocyte activation gene-3, T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3, T cell immunoglobulin and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif domain, V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation, B7 homolog 3 protein, B and T cell lymphocyte attenuator, and inducible T cell COStimulator. Natural compounds, especially those present in medicinal or dietary plants, have been investigated for their anti-tumor effects in various in vitro and in vivo models. Some phytochemicals exert anti-tumor activities based on immunoregulatioby blocking interaction between proteins involved in immune checkpoint signal transduction or regulating their expression/activity. Recently, synergistic anti-cancer effects of diverse phytochemicals with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 or anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody drugs have been continuously reported. Considering an increasing attention to noteworthy therapeutic effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the cancer therapy, this review focuses on regulatory effects of selected phytochemicals on immune checkpoint protein network and their combinational effectiveness with immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting tumor cells.

Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic complication that affects people of all ages. The increased prevalence of diabetes worldwide has led to the development of several synthetic drugs to tackle this health problem. Such drugs, although effective as antihyperglycemic agents, are accompanied by various side effects, costly, and inaccessible to the majority of people living in underdeveloped countries. Medicinal plants have been used traditionally throughout the ages to treat various ailments due to their availability and safe nature. Medicinal plants are a rich source of phytochemicals that possess several health benefits. As diabetes continues to become prevalent, health care practitioners are considering plant-based medicines as a potential source of antidiabetic drugs due to their high potency and fewer side effects. To better understand the mechanism of action of medicinal plants, their active phytoconstituents are being isolated and investigated thoroughly. In this review article, we have focused on pharmacologically active phytomolecules isolated from medicinal plants presenting antidiabetic activity and the role they play in the treatment and management of diabetes. These natural compounds may represent as good candidates for a novel therapeutic approach and/or effective and alternative therapies for diabetes.

Natural Products and their Derivatives as Immune Check Point Inhibitors: Targeting Cytokine/Chemokine Signalling in Cancer

Cancer immunotherapy is the new generation and widely accepted form of tumour treatment. It is, however, associated with exclusive challenges which include organ-specific inflammation, and single-target strategies. Therefore, approaches that can enhance the efficiency of existing immunotherapies and expand their indications are required for the further development of immunotherapy. Natural products and medicines are stated to have this desired effect on cancer immunotherapy (adoptive immune-cells therapy, cancer vaccines, and immune-check point inhibitors). They refurbish the immunosuppressed tumour microenvironment, which is the primary location of interaction of tumour cells with the host immune system. Various immune cell subsets, via interaction with cytokine/chemokine receptors, are recruited into this microenvironment, and these subsets have roles in tumour progression and treatment responsiveness. This review summarises cytokine/chemokine signalling, types of cancer immunotherapy and the herbal medicine-derived natural products targeting cytokine/chemokines and immune checkpoints. These natural compounds possess immunomodulatory activities and exert their anti-tumour effect by either blocking the interaction or modulating the expression of the proteins linked with immune checkpoint signaling pathways. Some compounds also show a synergistic effect in combination with existing monoclonal antibody drugs to reverse the tumour microenvironment. Additionally, we have also reported some studies about the derivatives and formulations used to overcome the limitations of natural forms. This review can provide important insights for directing future research.

Traditional East Asian Herbal Medicine Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a leading progressive neurodegenerative disease worldwide, and its treatment is a challenging clinical problem. This review was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of herbal medicine for AD treatment. The PubMed, CENTRAL, EMBASE, CNKI, OASIS, KTKP, and CiNii databases were searched until June 2020 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on herbal medicine for AD, and a meta-analysis of 57 RCTs was conducted. For cognitive function, herbal medicine significantly improved the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and AD Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-cog) scores compared with conventional medicine. The MMSE scores showed no significant difference between the groups treated with herbal medicine and donepezil; however, herbal medicine significantly lowered the ADAS-cog score. Acori Graminei Rhizoma-containing and Cnidii Rhizoma-containing herbal medicine significantly improved the MMSE and ADAS-cog scores compared with conventional medicine. Ginseng Radix-containing herbal medicine showed a positive, but not statistically significant, tendency toward improving the MMSE score compared with conventional medicine. Herbal medicine with conventional medicine significantly improved the MMSE, ADAS-cog, and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scores compared with conventional medicine, and herbal medicine with donepezil also significantly improved these scores compared with donepezil. Acori Graminei Rhizoma or Cnidii Rhizoma-containing herbal medicine with conventional medicine significantly improved the MMSE and ADAS-cog scores compared with conventional medicine. Ginseng Radix-containing herbal medicine + conventional medicine significantly improved the MMSE score, but not the ADAS-cog score, compared with conventional medicine. For behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia, the Neuropsychiatry Inventory (NPI) score was not significantly different between herbal and conventional medicines. Herbal medicine with conventional medicine significantly improved the NPI and Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale scores compared with conventional medicine. The NPI score showed no significant difference between the groups treated with herbal medicine and placebo. Furthermore, herbal medicine with conventional medicine significantly lowered plasma amyloid beta levels compared with conventional medicine alone. Herbal medicine, whether used alone or as an adjuvant, may have beneficial effects on AD treatment. However, owing to the methodological limitations and high heterogeneity of the included studies, concrete conclusions cannot be made.

Panaxadiol inhibits IL-1β secretion by suppressing zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The use of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. in traditional Chinese medicine dates back to about 5000 years ago thanks to its several beneficial and healing properties. Panaxadiol is a triterpenoid sapogenin monomer found in the roots of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. and has been proven to have various bio-activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour and neuroprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study focuses on investigating the inflammation inhibitory effect and mechanism of panaxadiol by regulating zinc finger protein 91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs in macrophages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro, the underlying mechanisms by which panaxadiol inhibits ZFP91-regulated IL-1β expression were investigated using molecular docking, western blotting, RT-PCR, ELISA, immunofluorescence, and immunoprecipitation assays. In vivo, colitis was induced by oral administration of DSS in drinking water, and peritonitis was induced by an intraperitoneal injection of alum. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV serotype 9) vector was used to establish ZFP91 knockdown mouse.

RESULTS

We confirmed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91 in macrophages. Further analysis revealed that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome. Meanwhile, panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of MAPKs. In vivo, prominent anti-inflammatory effects of panaxadiol were demonstrated in a DSS induced acute colitis mouse model and in an alum-induced peritonitis model by suppressing ZFP91-regulated secretion of inflammatory mediators, consistent with the results of the AAV-ZFP91 knockdown in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We report for the first time that panaxadiol inhibited IL-1β secretion by suppressing ZFP91-regulated activation of non-canonical caspase-8 inflammasome and MAPKs, providing evidence for anti-inflammation mechanism of panaxadiol treatment for inflammatory diseases.

Ginsenoside Rb1 prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced depressive-like behavior by inhibiting inflammation and neural dysfunction and F2 elicits a novel antidepressant-like effect: A metabolite-based network pharmacology study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inflammatory responses are associated wieh the pathophysiology of depression. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) exerts antidepressant effect, but the relationship between its activity and inflammation remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, the antidepressant-like effect and underlying mechanisms of Rb1 were been investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The neuroinflammatory mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute depression-like behavior was employed to detect the action of Rb1. An integrative strategy combining the identification of prototype (Rb1) and its metabolites in vivo with network pharmacology analysis was used to explore therapeutic mechanisms of these ingredients. The putative targets and signalings were experimentally validated. The antidepressant-like effect of F2, the metabolite of Rb1, was firstly evaluated.

RESULTS

Rb1 significantly ameliorated LPS-induced depressive-like behavior. Rb1 and its metabolites (Rd, F2, compound K, Rh2, Rg3, PPD) were identified and then a disease-component-target network was established. Experimental validation showed that Rb1 inhibited peripheral and hippocampal inflammation via MAPK/NF-κB signaling. In inflammatory-mediated depression state, Rb1 improved impaired glucocorticoid receptor, suppressed indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity, increased 5-HT level and 5-HT_1A receptor expression. Additionally, F2 was firstly discovered to exert antidepressant-like effect, and it existed higher activity than Rb1 against depression.

CONCLUSION

The study highlighted the potential of Rb1 and F2 as healthy supplement or agent for inflammation-induced depression.

Protective Effects and Therapeutics of Ginsenosides for Improving Endothelial Dysfunction: From Therapeutic Potentials, Pharmaceutical Developments to Clinical Trials

The endothelium covers the internal lumen of the entire circulatory system and plays an important modulatory role in vascular homeostasis. Endothelium dysfunction, characterized by a vasoconstrictive, pro-inflammatory, and pro-coagulant state, usually manifests as a significant pathological process of vascular diseases, including hypertension, atherosclerosis (AS), stroke, diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, and cancer. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity to seek promising therapeutic drugs or remedies to ameliorate endothelial dysfunction-induced vascular ailments and complications. Recently, much attention has been attached to ginsenosides, the most significant active components of ginseng, which have always been referred to as "all-healing" and widely used for its extensively medicinal value. Surprisingly, ginsenosides have diverse biological activity which might be related to inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and angiogenesis. In this review, a brief introduction about endothelial dysfunction and ginsenosides was demonstrated, and the emphasis was put on summarizing multi-faceted pharmacological effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of ginsenosides on the endothelium, including vasorelaxation, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, and angio-modulation. Beyond that, nanotechnology to improve efficacy and the existing clinical trials of ginsenosides were concluded. Hopefully, our work will give suggestions for promoting clinical application of traditional Chinese medicine, e.g., hypertension, AS, diabetes, ischemic stroke, and cancer. This review provides a comprehensive base of knowledge for ginsenosides to prevention and treatment of vascular injury- related diseases with clinical significance.

Ginsenoside Rd: A promising natural neuroprotective agent

BACKGROUND

Neurological diseases seriously affect human health, which are arousing wider attention, and it is a great challenge to discover neuroprotective drugs with minimal side-effects and better efficacies. Natural agents derived from herbs or plants have become unparalleled resources for the discovery of novel drug candidates. Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, a well-known herbal medicine in China, occupies a very important position in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) with a long history of clinical application. Ginsenoside Rd is the active compound in P. ginseng known to have broad-spectrum pharmacological effects to reduce neurological damage that can lead to neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, depression, cognitive impairment, and cerebral ischemia.

PURPOSE

To review and discuss the effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rd in the treatment of neurological diseases.

STUDY DESIGN & METHODS

The related information was compiled by the major scientific databases, such as Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Elsevier, ScienceDirect, PubMed, SpringerLink, Web of Science, and GeenMedical. Using 'Ginsenoside Rd', 'Ginsenosides', 'Anti-inflammation', 'Antioxidant', 'Apoptosis' and 'Neuroprotection' as keywords, the correlated literature was extracted and conducted from the databases mentioned above.

RESULTS

Through summarizing the existing research progress, we found that the general effects of ginsenoside Rd are anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, inhibition of Ca²⁺ influx and protection of mitochondria, and through these pathways, the compound can inhibit excitatory toxicity, regulate nerve growth factor, and promote nerve regeneration.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenoside Rd is a promising natural neuroprotective agent. This review would contribute to the future development of ginsenoside Rd as a novel clinical candidate drug for treating neurological diseases.

Phytomolecules Repurposed as Covid-19 Inhibitors: Opportunity and Challenges

The SARS-CoV-2 virus has spread worldwide to cause a full blown pandemic since 2020. To date, several promising synthetic therapeutics are repurposed and vaccines through different stages of clinical trials were approved and being administered, but still the efficacy of the drugs and vaccines are yet to be decoded. This article highlights the importance of traditional medicinal plants and the phytomolecules derived from them, which possess in vitro antiviral and anti-CoV properties and further explores their potential as inhibitors to molecular targets of SARS-CoV-2 that were evaluated by in silico approaches. Botanicals in traditional medicinal systems have been investigated for anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity through in silico and in vitro studies. However, information linking structure of phytomolecules to their antiviral activity is limited. Most phytomolecules with anti-CoV activity were studied for inhibition of the human ACE2 receptor through which the virus enters host cells, and non-structural proteins 3CLpro and PLpro. Although the proteases are ideal anti-CoV targets, information on plant-based inhibitors for the CoV structural proteins, e.g., spike, envelope, membrane, nucleocapsid required further investigations. In absence of scientific evaluations through in vitro and biocompatibility studies, plant-based antivirals fall short as treatment options. Plant-based anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics can be promising alternatives to their synthetic counterparts as they are economical and bear fewer chances of toxicity, side effects, and viral resistance. Our review could provide a systematic overview of the potential phytomolecules which can be repurposed and subjected to further modes of experimental evaluation to qualify for use in treatment and prophylaxis of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

Dose Correlation of Panax ginseng and Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. Drug Pairs in the Chinese Medicine Prescription Based on the Copula Function

Objective

Panax ginseng and Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. (AMK) are widely used in treating various diseases; however, research is insufficient on measuring the relationship that exists by combining this drug pair using the copula function.

Methods

In this study, 279 traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions containing the Panax ginseng and AMK drug pair were extracted from the prescription database for three types of screened indications, namely, diabetes mellitus, diarrhea, and insomnia. Following the principle of dose conversion, each dynasty unit was uniformly converted into a modern unit. Then, the kernel density distribution of Panax ginseng and AMK was fitted with their empirical distribution functions. Finally, the optimal copula function was selected from the copula function family as a t-copula function.

Results

The empirical distribution and probability density functions of Panax ginseng and AMK were obtained. From the results, their Kendall rank correlation coefficients with indications of diabetes mellitus, insomnia, and diarrhea were 0.8689, 0.7858, and 0.7403, whereas their Spearman rank correlation coefficients were 0.9563, 0.9276, and 0.8958. Results also indicated that the use of the t-copula function can better reflect the correlation between Panax ginseng and AMK doses.

Conclusion

From the three indications, the dose between Panax ginseng and AMK was positively correlated. This study, therefore, confirms the medicinal principle of Chinese medicine “combining” from the perspective of mathematical statistics. Results from this study are practical to evaluate the correlation between the drug pair doses, Panax ginseng and AMK, using the copula function model, which provides a new model for the scientific explanation of compatibility for Chinese medicines. This study also provides a methodological basis for more drug measurement studies and clinical medications.

Characterisation, Chain Conformation and Antifatigue Effect of Steamed Ginseng Polysaccharides With Different Molecular Weight

Two polysaccharides were obtained from steamed ginseng via ultrafiltration, and their physical–chemical properties, solution properties and antifatigue activities were studied. WSGP-S3 and WSGP-G3 were acid heteropolysaccharides with the molecular weights of 2.03 × 10⁴ and 4.86 × 10⁴, respectively. They were composed of different molar ratios of the monosaccharides Rha, GlcA, GalA, Glc, Gal, and Ara. The results of size-exclusion chromatography–multiangle laser light scattering analysis, Conge red staining and Circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed that WSGP-S3 exhibited a random conformation of branched clusters in solution. By contrast, WSGP-G3 exhibited an ordered conformation, including helix-like conformations in aqueous solution. Antifatigue activity tests proved that WSGP-S3 markedly prolonged the exhaustive swimming time of fatigued mice; increased liver and muscle glycogen levels and superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase activities and decreased blood lactic acid, nitrogen and malondialdehyde levels compared with the control treatment. Moreover, it enhanced spleen cell proliferation in fatigued mice. By contrast, WSGP-G3 had no significant effect on fatigued mice. The results showed that WSGP-S3 might have a major contribution to the antifatigue effects of steamed ginseng polysaccharides and could be a potential anti-fatigue polysaccharide.

Positive influence of gut microbiota on the effects of Korean red ginseng in metabolic syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Background

Ginseng, a traditional herbal medicine, has been used for thousands of years to treat various diseases including metabolic syndrome (MS). However, the underlying mechanism(s) of such beneficial actions of ginseng against MS is poorly understood. Emerging evidence indicates a close association of the host gut microbiota with MS. The present study was conducted to examine, whether the beneficial effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) against MS could be influenced by gut microbial population and whether gut microbial profile could be considered a valuable biomarker for targeted treatment strategy for MS in compliance with the predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM / 3PM).

Methods

This clinical study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluating the effects of KRG treatment for 8 weeks on patients with MS. The anthropometric parameters, vital signs, metabolic biomarkers, and gut microbial composition through 16S rRNA gene sequencing were assessed at the baseline and endpoint. The impact of KRG was also evaluated after categorizing the subjects into responders and non-responders, as well as enterotypes 1 and 2 based on their gut microbial profile at the baseline.

Results

Fifty out of 60 subjects who meet the MS criteria completed the trial without showing adverse reactions. The KRG treatment caused a significant decrease in systolic blood pressure (SBP). Microbial analysis revealed a decrease in Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and an increase in Bacteroidetes in response to KRG. In patient stratification analysis, the responders showing marked improvement in the serum levels of lipid metabolic biomarkers TC and LDL due to the KRG treatment exhibited higher population of both the family Lachnospiraceae and order Clostridiales compared to the non-responders. The homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and insulin level were decreased in enterotype 1 (Bacteroides-abundant group) and increased in enterotype 2 (prevotella-abundant group) following the KRG treatment.

Conclusion

In this study, the effects of KRG on the glucose metabolism in MS patients were influenced by the relative abundances of gut microbial population and differed according to the individual enterotype. Therefore, the analysis of enterotype categories is considered to be helpful in predicting the effectiveness of KRG on glucose homeostasis of MS patients individually. This will further help to decide on the appropriate treatment strategy for MS, in compliance with the perspective of PPPM.

Recent Advances in Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer as a Herb for Anti-Fatigue: An Effects and Mechanisms Review

As an ancient Chinese herbal medicine, Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (P. ginseng) has been used both as food and medicine for nutrient supplements and treatment of human diseases in China for years. Fatigue, as a complex and multi-cause symptom, harms life from all sides. Millions worldwide suffer from fatigue, mainly caused by physical labor, mental stress, and chronic diseases. Multiple medicines, especially P. ginseng, were used for many patients or sub-healthy people who suffer from fatigue as a treatment or healthcare product. This review covers the extract and major components of P. ginseng with the function of anti-fatigue and summarizes the anti-fatigue effect of P. ginseng for different types of fatigue in animal models and clinical studies. In addition, the anti-fatigue mechanism of P. ginseng associated with enhancing energy metabolism, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity is discussed.

Transcriptome-Wide Analysis for Ginsenoside Rb3 Synthesis-Related Genes and Study on the Expression of Methyl Jasmonate Treatment in Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is a kind of renascent herb that belongs to the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae. It is a traditional Chinese precious herbal medicine with a long history of medicinal use. Ginsenoside Rb3 is one of the important active ingredients in ginseng and has important physiological activity in the treatment of many diseases. In this study, we screened and systematically analyzed the candidate genes related to ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis through bioinformatics methods; discussed the functions, expression patterns, and interactions of the genes related to ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis; and finally, selected seven genes, mainly PgRb3, that directly contribute to the synthesis of ginsenoside Rb3. This study provides a reference for revealing the expression rules of ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis-related genes and elucidating the regulatory mechanism of methyl jasmonate, lays a theoretical foundation for the research of ginsenoside Rb3 synthesis, and provides theoretical and technical support for the factory production of ginsenoside monomer saponins.

Ginseng for erectile dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Dietary supplements with ginseng, or ginseng alone, are widely used for a broad range of conditions, including erectile dysfunction. Ginseng is particularly popular in Asian countries. Individual studies assessing its effects are mostly small, of uneven methodological quality and have unclear results.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of ginseng on erectile dysfunction.

SEARCH METHODS

We conducted systematic searches on multiple electronic databases, including CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, AMED, and loco-regional databases of east Asia, from their inceptions to 30 January 2021 without restrictions on language and publication status. Handsearches included conference proceedings.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized or quasi-randomized controlled trials that evaluated the use of any type of ginseng as a treatment for erectile dysfunction compared to placebo or conventional treatment.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently classified studies and three authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias in the included studies. We rated the certainty of evidence according to the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

We included nine studies with 587 men with mild to moderate erectile dysfunction, aged from 20 to 70 years old. The studies all compared ginseng to placebo. We found only short-term follow-up data (up to 12 weeks).  Primary outcomes Ginseng appears to have a trivial effect on erectile dysfunction when compared to placebo based on the Erectile Function Domain of the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF)-15 instrument (scale: 1 to 30, higher scores imply better function; mean difference [MD] 3.52, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.79 to 5.25; I² = 0%; 3 studies; low certainty evidence) assuming a minimal clinically important difference (MCID) of 4.  Ginseng probably also has a trivial effect on erectile function when compared to placebo based on the IIEF-5 instrument (scale: 1 to 25, higher scores imply better function; MD 2.39, 95% CI 0.89 to 3.88; I² = 0%; 3 studies; moderate certainty evidence) assuming a MCID of 5. Ginseng may have little to no effect on adverse events compared to placebo (risk ratio [RR] 1.45, 95% CI 0.69 to 3.03; I² = 0%; 7 studies; low certainty evidence). Based on 86 adverse events per 1000 men in the placebo group, this would correspond to 39 more adverse events per 1000 (95% CI 27 fewer to 174 more). Secondary outcomes Ginseng may improve men's self-reported ability to have intercourse (RR 2.55, 95% CI 1.76 to 3.69; I² = 23%; 6 studies; low certainty evidence). Based on 207 per 1000 men self-reporting the ability to have intercourse in the placebo group, this would correspond to 321 more men (95% CI 158 more to 558 more) per 1000 self-reporting the ability to have intercourse. Ginseng may have a trivial effect on men's satisfaction with intercourse based on the Intercourse Satisfaction Domain of the IIEF-15 (scale: 0 to 15, higher scores imply greater satisfaction; MD 1.19, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.97; I²=0%; 3 studies; low certainty evidence) based on a MCID of 25% improvement from baseline. It may also have a trivial effect on men's satisfaction with intercourse based on item 5 of the IIEF-5 (scale: 0 to 5, higher scores imply more satisfaction; MD 0.60, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.18; 1 study; low certainty evidence) based on a MCID of 25% improvement from baseline. No study reported quality of life as an outcome. We found no trial evidence to inform comparisons to other treatments for erectile dysfunction, such as phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors. We were unable to conduct any predefined subgroup analyses.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Based on mostly low certainty evidence, ginseng may only have trivial effects on erectile function or satisfaction with intercourse compared to placebo when assessed using validated instruments. Ginseng may improve men's self-reported ability to have intercourse. It may have little to no effect on adverse events. We found no trial evidence comparing ginseng to other agents with a more established role in treating erectile dysfunction, such as phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.

Ginsenoside Rb1 protects porcine oocytes against methylglyoxal damage thus it improves the quality of parthenogenetic activation and in vitro fertilization embryos

Panax ginseng, a functional food, has been widely used as an edible nourishment and medicinal supplement. Ginsenoside Rb1 is a major bioactive ingredient of ginseng, which shows very specific anti-apoptosis and anti-oxidant activities. Methylglyoxal (MGO) is one of intermediate products of glucose metabolism, which is absorbed easily from high sugar foods or carbonated beverages. It may involve in a variety of detrimental processes in vivo. However, it has not been fully explored the effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on MGO-induced oocytes damage. This study found that MGO-induced DNA damage and mitochondrial dysfunction result in the failure of porcine oocytes maturation and low in vitro development capacity of parthenogenetic activation (PA) and in vitro fertilization (IVF) embryos. Conversely, Rb1 supplementation recovered the rate of maturation, and improved in vitro development capacity of PA and IVF embryos. Rb1 also provided porcine oocytes a lower level of reactive oxygen species production, higher level of ATP content and mitochondrial membrane potential, and stimulated pluripotency gene expression in blastocysts. The findings of this study reveal ginsenoside Rb1 protects porcine oocyte from the cytotoxicity effects of methylglyoxal and provides novel perspectives for the protection of reproduction system by functional food of ginseng.

Cardioprotection of Panax Notoginseng saponins against acute myocardial infarction and heart failure through inducing autophagy

Morbidity and mortality from acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains substantial although interventional coronary reperfusion strategies are widely use and successful. MI remains the most common cause of heart failure (HF) worldwide. Here we demonstrated that Panax Notoginseng saponins (PNS), the extract of Panax notoginseng, exerts cardioprotective effect in AMI and the underlying mechanism refers to inducing cardiomyocyte autophagy, antiplatelet aggregation, enhancing endothelial migration and angiogenesis. PNS was initially tested to rescue the myocardial infarct size and cardiac function in left anterior descending (LAD) ligation-operated mice to mimic AMI. RNA-seq to profile transcriptome changes in the heart by treatment with PNS were then conducted. PNS and its main constituents Rg1 and Rd directly inhibited platelet aggregation of healthy subjects with VerifyNow Aspirin and P2Y12 assays but less affecting on coagulation compared with dual-antiplatelet (DAPT). In addition, wound healing scratch assay and heart staining demonstrated that PNS and its main constituents Rg1 and R1 significant enhanced the migration of endothelial cells and angiogenesis in response to MI injury. Interestingly, PNS rather than its constituents enhanced glucose deprivation (GD)-induced autophagy through phosphorylation of AMPK Thr172 and CaMKII Thr287 in cardiomyocytes. These findings provide new insights for drug development from natural products like PNS against ischemia heart diseases and HF post MI.

Ameliorative effects of ginsenosides on myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

and ethnopharmacological relevance: As the major side effect of radiotherapy or chemotherapy, myelosuppression usually leads to anemia, hemorrhage, immunosuppression, and even fatal infections, which may discontinue the process of cancer treatment. As a result, more and more attention is paid to the treatment of myelosuppression. Ginseng, root of Panax ginseng Meyer (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey), is considered as the king of herbs in the Orient, particularly in China, Korea and Japan. Ginsenosides, the most important active ingredients of ginseng, have been shown to have a variety of therapeutic effects, such as neuroprotective, anti-cancer and anti-diabetic properties. Considering that ginsenosides are closely associated with the pathogenesis of myelosuppression, researchers have carried out a few experiments on ginsenosides to attenuate myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy in recent years.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To summarize previous studies about the effects of ginsenosides on alleviating myelosuppression and the mechanisms of action.

METHODS

Literatures in this review were searched in PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Web of Science, and ScienceDirect.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides play an important role in relieving myelosuppression predominantly by restoring hematopoiesis and immunity.

CONCLUSION

Ginsenosides might be potential candidates for the treatment of myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Anticancer Effects of Ginsenoside Rh2: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

As one of the effective pharmacological constituents of Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) exerts a remarkable anticancer effect on various cancer cell lines in vitro and strongly inhibits tumor growth in vivo without severe toxicity.

OBJECTIVE

This article reviewed existing evidence supporting the anticancer effects of Rh2 to classify and conclude previous and current knowledge on the mechanisms and therapeutic effects of Rh2, as well as to promote the clinical application of this natural product.

CONCLUSION

This article reviewed the anticancer efficacies and mechanisms of Rh2, including the induction of cell cycle arrest and programmed cell death, repression of metastasis, alleviation of drug resistance, and regulation of the immune system. Finally, this paper discussed the research and application prospects of Rh2.

Saponins: Extraction, bio-medicinal properties and way forward to anti-viral representatives

Medicinal or herbal plants are widely used for their many favourable properties and are generally safe without any side effects. Saponins are sugar conjugated natural compounds which possess a multitude of biological activities such as medicinal properties, antimicrobial activity, antiviral activity, etc. Saponin production is a part of the normal growth and development process in a lot of plants and plant extracts such as liquorice and ginseng which are exploited as potential drug sources. Herbal compounds have shown a great potential against a wide variety of infectious agents, including viruses such as the SARS-CoV; these are all-natural products and do not show any adverse side effects. This article reviews the various aspects of saponin biosynthesis and extraction, the need for their integration into more mainstream medicinal therapies and how they could be potentially useful in treating viral diseases such as COVID-19, HIV, HSV, rotavirus etc. The literature presents a close review on the saponin efficacy in targeting mentioned viral diseases that occupy a high mortality rate worldwide. This manuscript indicates the role of saponins as a source of dynamic plant based anti-viral remedies and their various methods for extraction from different sources.

Traditional and Current Use of Ginseng

Ginseng is one of the oldest documented herbs still in use today. It is known as a panacea for many disease states and for the enhancement of wellness affecting most body systems. Very few side effects are experienced, but there are considerations with its use. Three major types of ginseng are described. Asian ginseng is more potent than American ginseng; however, most supplements come from American and Asian types of ginseng. Purchases should be made from reputable sources owing to the lack of standardization of the production of herbal supplements.

Effect of cultivation ages on anti-inflammatory activity of a new type of red ginseng

Ginseng has been widely applied in clinical practice, but the cultivation age cannot be ignored as it influences the quality of ginseng and its products. In this work, different cultivation ages of fresh ginseng (FG) from four to seven years were analysed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. Principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis, which belong to the normal method of multivariate statistical analysis, were applied to discover the characteristic components of FG at different cultivation ages. The components of new type of red ginseng (NRG) derived from FG at different cultivation ages were compared by HPLC analysis. The pharmacological anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by ELISA and qPCR. The result showed that the characteristic components of both 6- and 7-year-old ginseng were ginsenoside Rb1, mal-ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rc, mal-ginsenoside Rb1 isomer, and mal-ginsenoside Rb2. Moreover, the characteristic components of both 4- and 5-year-old ginseng were ADP-glucose and 3-hydroxyhexanoyl CoA. In addition, 6-year-old NRG has higher rare ginsenosides than 4-year-old NRG, which possesses great anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. The results reveal the ginsenoside transformation law of NRG processing and suggest that the cultivation age of FG influences the content of ginsenosides in NRG. Therefore, 6-year-old ginseng is more suitable for red ginseng processing and clinical use.

The Impact of Acute or Chronic Alcohol Intake on the NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Alcohol-Related Liver Disease

Ethanol misuse is frequently associated with a multitude of profound medical conditions, contributing to health-, individual- and social-related damage. A particularly dangerous threat from this classification is coined as alcoholic liver disease (ALD), a liver condition caused by prolonged alcohol overconsumption, involving several pathological stages induced by alcohol metabolic byproducts and sustained cellular intoxication. Molecular, pathological mechanisms of ALD principally root in the innate immunity system and are especially associated with enhanced functionality of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway. NF-κB is an interesting and convoluted DNA transcription regulator, promoting both anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory gene expression. Thus, the abundancy of studies in recent years underlines the importance of NF-κB in inflammatory responses and the mechanistic stimulation of inner molecular motifs within the factor components. Hereby, in the following review, we would like to put emphasis on the correlation between the NF-κB inflammation signaling pathway and ALD progression. We will provide the reader with the current knowledge regarding the chronic and acute alcohol consumption patterns, the molecular mechanisms of ALD development, the involvement of the NF-κB pathway and its enzymatic regulators. Therefore, we review various experimental in vitro and in vivo studies regarding the research on ALD, including the recent active compound treatments and the genetic modification approach. Furthermore, our investigation covers a few human studies.

Total saponin extract, ginsenoside Rb1, and compound K alleviate peripheral and central neuropathic pain through estrogen receptors on rats

In this study, we investigated whether total saponin extract (TSE), ginsenoside Rb1, and Rb1 metabolite compound K, which are isolated from red ginseng, have antinociceptive effects on peripheral and central neuropathic pain (PNP and CNP, respectively). PNP and CNP were induced by tail nerve injury (TNI) at S1 and by contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) at T9 in male Sprague-Dawley rats, respectively. Two weeks after TNI or 4 weeks after SCI, pain-induced rats were orally administered vehicle, TSE (50 mg/kg), Rb1 (12.5 mg/kg), compound K (7 mg/kg), or gabapentin (GBP, 60 mg/kg), and the antinociceptive effects were examined by von Frey filament, cold/warm water, and hot plate analyses. Allodynia and hyperalgesia were significantly alleviated by TSE, Rb1, and GBP 1 hr after drug administration. The immunohistochemistry and real-time RT-PCR results showed that the activation of microglia/astrocytes and the expression of inflammatory mediators such as Il-1β, Il-6, iNOS, and Cox-2 were also significantly inhibited in L4-L5 spinal cord of CNP-induced rats 1 hr after drug administration. Furthermore, the antinociceptive effects of TSE and Rb1 were reversed by treatment with the estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist ICI182780. In particular, compound K also significantly alleviated both PNP and CNP. Therefore, our results indicate that TSE, Rb1, and compound K have potential antinociceptive effects against neuropathic pain that might be mediated through the ER.

Panax ginseng clinical trials: Current status and future perspectives

Panax Ginseng has been widely used in Asian for thousand years. In order to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ginseng, more and more ginseng clinical trials (GCTs) have been conducted recently. However, there is a lack of an extensive review summarizing the current status for the quality and quantity of ginseng clinical researches until now. Therefore, clinical trials for ginseng were retrieved from International Clinical Trials Registration Platform and collected through the system retrieval method of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses in PubMed, the Web of Science, the Korean Studies Information Service System, and SCOPUS database. We summarized the clinical characteristics of 152 registered ginseng clinical trials (R-GCTs) and119 published ginseng clinical trials (P-GCTs), such as source register, recruitment status, primary purpose, duration, sample size, conditions, and outcomes. Among them, ginseng has mainly been studied in clinical trials in the single-center and less than 200 subjects. In the most GCTs, healthy subjects and patients with various conditions, such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases are administrated with ginseng, ginsenosides or the prescriptions containing ginseng for less than 3 months to investigate the protective and therapeutic functions of ginseng. 95 (79.8 %) published articles showed that ginseng has plenty of positive effects. This review could assist the basic researchers and clinical doctors to understand current status and problem of ginseng clinical research, and perhaps could benefit for the reasonable and accurate design of future clinical studies.

Effect of 158 herbal remedies on human TRPV1 and the two-pore domain potassium channels KCNK2, 3 and 9

Background and aim

Herbal medicines are used to treat a broad number of maladies. However, the pharmacological profile of most remedies is poorly understood. We investigated the effect of herbal remedies from kampo, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and other phytotherapies on human two-pore domain potassium channels (KCNK channels; TREK-1, TASK-1 and TASK-3) as well as the human TRPV1 channel. KCNK channels are responsible for the background potassium current of excitable cells, thus essential for the maintenance of the resting membrane potential. Hence, modulators of KCNK channels are of medical significance, e.g. for the treatment of sleep disorders and pain. The transient receptor potential channel TRPV1 is a pain detector for noxious heat. Agonists of this receptor are still used for the treatment of pain in ectopic applications.

Experimental procedure

We evaluated the effect of 158 herbal remedies on these channels in a heterologous expression system (Xenopus laevis oocytes) using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique with the aim of increasing the comprehension of their pharmacological profile.

Results and conclusion

Some remedies with modulating effects were identified such as Angelica pubescens (radix), which inhibit TASK-1 and TASK-3 channels. Furthermore, the modulatory effects of the most effective remedies on the two TASK family members TASK-1 and TASK-3 correlate positively, reflecting their close relation. For the TRPV1 channel Terminalia chebula and Alchemilla xanthochlora were identified as potentiators. This study identifies a variety of herbal remedies as modulators of human K2P and TRPV1 channels and gives new insights into the pharmacological profile of these herbal remedies.

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Effect of kampo and TCM herbs on human two-pore domain potassium and TRP channels.

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Effect of 158 herbal remedies on heterologously expressed ion channels.

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Angelica pubescens (radix) extracts inhibit KCNK3 and KCNK9 channels.

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Modulatory effects of effective remedies on KCNK3 and KCNK9 correlate positively.

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Terminalia chebula and Alchemilla xanthochlora are TRPV1 potentiators.