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Sun Y, Tang S, Li E, Wang C, Chang H, Huang Y, Yang Y, Jiao L, Yan W, Lu Y, Wan Y. Identification of Sulfur-Containing Chlorinated Paraffin Structural Analogues in Human Serum: Origination from Biotransformation or Bioaccumulation? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38324775 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are manufactured and used in high quantities and have diverse structural analogues. It is generally recognized that sulfur-containing structural analogues of CPs are mainly derived from sulfate-conjugated phase II metabolism. In this study, we non-targeted identified three classes of sulfur-containing CP structural analogues (CPs-S) in human serum, including 44 CP sulfates (CPs-SO4H/CPs-SO4H-OH), 14 chlorinated benzene sulfates (CBs-SO4H), and 19 CP sulfite esters (CPs-SO3/CPs-S2O6), which were generated during the production of commercial mixtures of CPs and, thus, bioaccumulated via environmental exposures. We first wrote a program to screen CPs-S, which were baseline-separated from CPs according to their polar functional groups. Then, mass spectral analyses of alkalization-acidification liquid-liquid extracts of serum samples and Orbitrap mass spectrometry analyses in the presence and absence of tetraphenylphosphonium chloride (Ph4PCl), respectively, were performed to determine the ionization forms ([M + Cl]- or [M - H]-) of CPs-S. The presence of fragment ions (SO4H-, SO3-, SO2Cl-, and HSO3-) revealed the structures of CPs-S, which were validated by their detections in commercial mixtures of CPs. The estimated total concentrations of CPs-S in the human serum samples were higher than the concentrations of medium- and long-chain CPs. The profiles of CPs-S in human serum were similar to those detected in CP commercial mixtures and rats exposed to the commercial mixtures, but CPs-S were not detected in human liver S9 fractions or rat tissues after exposure to CP standards. These results, together with the knowledge of the processes used to chemically synthesize CPs, demonstrate that CPs-S in humans originates from environmental bioaccumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibin Sun
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
| | - Song Tang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100021, People's Republic of China
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, People's Republic of China
| | - Enrui Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Wang
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100021, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Chang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Yixuan Huang
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Yang
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Jiao
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenyan Yan
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100021, People's Republic of China
| | - Yifu Lu
- China CDC Key Laboratory of Environment and Population Health, National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100021, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Wan
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
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Girones L, Guida Y, Oliva AL, Machado Torres JP, Marcovecchio JE, Vetter W, Arias AH. Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in fish from an anthropized south-western Atlantic estuary, Bahía Blanca, Argentina. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 328:138575. [PMID: 37011823 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are synthetic organic compounds of growing environmental and social concern. Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) were listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in 2017. Further, in 2021, medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) were proposed to be listed as POPs. We investigated SCCP and MCCP amounts and homolog profiles in four wild fish species from Bahía Blanca Estuary, a South Atlantic Ocean coastal habitat in Argentina. SCCPs and MCCPs were detected in 41% and 36% of the samples, respectively. SCCP amounts ranged from <12 to 29 ng g-1 wet weight and <750-5887 ng g-1 lipid weight, whereas MCCP amounts ranged from <7 to 19 ng g-1 wet weight and <440-2848 ng g-1 lipid weight. Amounts were equivalent to those found in fish from the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans and from some North American and Tibetan Plateau lakes. We performed a human health risk assessment and found no direct risks to human health for SCCP or MCCP ingestion, according to present knowledge. Regarding their environmental behavior, no significant differences were observed among SCCP amounts, sampling locations, species, sizes, lipid content, and age of the specimens. However, there were significant differences in MCCP amounts across species, which could be attributed to fish size and feeding habits. Homolog profiles in all fish were dominated by the medium-chlorinated (Cl6 and Cl7) CPs and shorter chain length CPs were the most abundant, with C10Cl6 (12.8%) and C11Cl6 (10.1%) being the predominant SCCPs and C14Cl6 (19.2%) and C14Cl7 (12.4%) the predominant MCCPs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on the presence of CPs in the environment in Argentina and the South Atlantic Ocean. CP occurrence in the environment, particularly in the food chain, promotes the need for further research on their occurrence and behavior, and the impact of CPs in marine ecosystems in Argentina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lautaro Girones
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO - CONICET/UNS), Camino La Carrindanga Km 7.5, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Yago Guida
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902, Rio Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ana Laura Oliva
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO - CONICET/UNS), Camino La Carrindanga Km 7.5, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - João Paulo Machado Torres
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, 21941-902, Rio Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jorge Eduardo Marcovecchio
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO - CONICET/UNS), Camino La Carrindanga Km 7.5, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Universidad de la Fraternidad de Agrupaciones Santo Tomás de Aquino, Gascón 3145, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina; Universidad Tecnológica Nacional - FRBB, 11 de Abril 445, 8000, Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales (ANCEFN), Av. Alvear 1711, 1014, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), DE-70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Andrés Hugo Arias
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO - CONICET/UNS), Camino La Carrindanga Km 7.5, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Av. Alem 1253, 8000, Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
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Schweizer S, Schulz T, Vetter W. A fast gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ion mass spectrometry in selected ion monitoring mode screening method for short-chain and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2022; 36:e9382. [PMID: 36001505 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a group of anthropogenic pollutants that consist of complex mixtures of polychlorinated n-alkanes of different chain lengths (~C10 to C30 ). Persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity, and long-range transport of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs, C10 - to C13 -CPs) have prompted their classification as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention in 2017. Due to the varying chain lengths and chlorination degrees, quantification of SCCPs and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs, C14 - to C17 ) using gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ion mass spectrometry in selected ion monitoring mode (GC/ECNI-MS-SIM) is not only challenging but also very time consuming. In particular, up to eight GC runs per sample are required for the comprehensive GC/ECNI-MS-SIM quantification of SCCPs and MCCPs. These efforts are high especially if the samples do not contain CPs above the limit of detection (LOD), subsequently. METHODS We developed a semi-quantitative and sensitive method for the examination of SCCPs and MCCPs in one GC run. This GC/ECNI-MS-SIM screening method was based on the recording of Cl- (m/z 35 and 37), Cl2 - (m/z 70 and 72), and HCl2 - (m/z 71 and 73) isotope ions and evaluation of the ratios between them. RESULTS Correctness of the results of the screening method was verified by analysis of edible oils with and without CPs, CP standards, as well as a technical CP mixture. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other polyhalogenated aromatic compounds, as well as brominated flame retardants, do not form all of the fragment ions analyzed by the screening method. CONCLUSIONS After the screening, only CP-positive samples may need to be measured in detail. Measurement time will already be gained in the case of ~10% samples without CPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Schweizer
- Department of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Tobias Schulz
- Department of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Department of Food Chemistry (170b), University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Stuttgart, Germany
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Chlorinated paraffins in nut-nougat and chocolate spreads from the German market. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hanari N, Aoyagi Y, Orihara Y. A reference material (NMIJ RM 4076-a) for the determination of short-chain chlorinated paraffins. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:46273-46281. [PMID: 35165847 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-19120-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins are primary industrial chemical products used for metalworking fluids and flame retardants. However, short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are registered in Annex A of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Therefore, since an accurate quantitative determination of SCCPs is crucial to monitor the level of pollution, analysis quality assurance with reference materials is needed. In this study, a reference material (RM), NMIJ RM 4076-a, was developed by the National Metrology Institute of Japan at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST) for the quantification of SCCPs. We determined the mass fraction of SCCPs by subtracting the impurities quantified using the mass-balance method, a combination of gas chromatography-flame ionization detection, Karl Fischer titrations, headspace-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and thermal gravimetric analysis. The mass fraction value of NMIJ RM 4076-a was concluded to be 0.9996 kg/kg. The standard uncertainty of this mass fraction was evaluated on the basis of the mass-balance method, the sample homogeneity, and stability obtained using the above analytical techniques. Accordingly, the expanded uncertainty estimated using a coverage factor of k = 2 was found to be 0.0013 kg/kg. The mass fraction of chlorine and the homologue compositional ratios are also given for this RM as supplementary technical information. This RM is expected to be applicable for use in the calibration of instruments, or for checking the validity of analytical methods or instruments for estimating the comparability of SCCP analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyasu Hanari
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST), 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8563, Japan.
| | - Yoshie Aoyagi
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST), 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8563, Japan
| | - Yukari Orihara
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (NMIJ/AIST), 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8563, Japan
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Knobloch MC, Sprengel J, Mathis F, Haag R, Kern S, Bleiner D, Vetter W, Heeb NV. Chemical synthesis and characterization of single-chain C 18-chloroparaffin materials with defined degrees of chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132938. [PMID: 34798110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Technical chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are produced via radical chlorination of n-alkane feedstocks with different carbon chain-lengths (∼C10-C30). Short-chain CPs (SCCPs, C10-C13) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention. This regulation has induced a shift to use longer-chain CPs as substitutes. Consequently, medium-chain (MCCPs, C14-C17) and long-chain (LCCPs, C>17) CPs have become dominant homologues in recent environmental samples. However, no suitable LCCP-standard materials are available. Herein, we report on the chemical synthesis of single-chain C18-CP-materials, starting with a pure n-alkane and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2). Fractionation of the crude product by normal-phase liquid-chromatography and pooling of suitable fractions yielded in four C18-CP-materials with different chlorination degrees (mCl,EA = 39-52%). In addition, polar side-products, tentatively identified as sulfite-, sulfate- and bis-sulfate-diesters, were separated from CPs. The new single-chain materials were characterized by LC-MS, 1H-NMR and EA. LC-MS provided Relative retention times for different C18-CP homologues and side-products. Mathematical deconvolution of full-scan mass spectra revealed the presence of chloroparaffins (57-93%) and chloroolefins (COs, 7-26%) in the four single-chain C18-CP-materials. Homologue distributions and chlorination degrees were deduced for CPs and COs. 1H-NMR revealed chemical shift ranges of mono-chlorinated (δ = 3.2-5.3 ppm) and non-chlorinated (δ = 1.0-3.2 ppm) hydrocarbon moieties. The synthesized C18-single-chain standard materials and respective spectroscopic data are useful to identify and quantify LCCPs in various materials and environmental samples. CP- and CO-distributions resemble the ones of existing SCCP and MCCP reference materials and technical mixtures. Furthermore, these materials now allow specific studies on the environmental fate and the transformation of long-chain chloroparaffins and chloroolefins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Regula Haag
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Vetter W, Sprengel J, Krätschmer K. Chlorinated paraffins - A historical consideration including remarks on their complexity. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 287:132032. [PMID: 34523451 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume chemicals currently produced and used in higher quantities than any other medium-size polyhalogenated compound (class). In addition, the composition of industrial CP mixtures is highly complex and poorly understood. In this article, we searched in the literature for the beginning of the chlorination of alkanes and how this substance class developed from niche applications to unmatched quantities in various industrial applications. Also, an estimation was made on the theoretical variety of chloroparaffins and the possible complexity of industrial CP mixtures. These data may explain why little is known about CPs although the production volume throughout the industrial generation was virtually always higher than the one of PCBs and has continued to increase after the ban of the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany; European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for halogenated POPs in Feed and Food, Bissierstraße 5, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
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Fernandes AR, Vetter W, Dirks C, van Mourik L, Cariou R, Sprengel J, Heeb N, Lentjes A, Krätschmer K. Determination of chlorinated paraffins (CPs): Analytical conundrums and the pressing need for reliable and relevant standards. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 286:131878. [PMID: 34416588 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The determination of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) has posed an intractable challenge in analytical chemistry for over three decades. The combination of an as yet unspecifiable number (tens - hundreds of thousands) of individual congeners in mass produced commercial CP mixtures and the steric interactions between them, contrive to defy efforts to characterise their residual occurrences in environmental compartments, food and human tissues. However, recent advances in instrumentation (mass spectrometric detectors and nuclear magnetic resonance), combined with interlaboratory studies, have allowed a better insight into the nature of the conundrums. These include the variability of results, even between experienced laboratories when there is insufficient matching between analytical standards and occurrence profiles, the poor (or no) response of some instrumentation to some CP congener configurations (multiple terminal chlorines or < four chlorines) and the occurrence of chlorinated olefins in commercial mixtures. The findings illustrate some limitations in the existing set of commercially available standards. These include cross-contamination of some standards (complex CP mixtures), an insufficient number of single chain standards (existing ones do not fully reflect food/biota occurrences), lack of homologue group standards and unsuitability of some configurationally defined CP congeners/labelled standards (poor instrument response and a smaller likelihood of occurrence in commercial mixtures). They also indicate an underestimation in reported occurrences arising from those CPs that are unresponsive during measurement. A more extensive set of standards is suggested and while this might not be a panacea for accurate CP determination, it would reduce the layers of complexity inherent in the analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alwyn R Fernandes
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry, (170b), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstraße 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Caroline Dirks
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708 WB, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Louise van Mourik
- Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Jannik Sprengel
- Institute of Food Chemistry, (170b), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstraße 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Norbert Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Anouk Lentjes
- Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated POPs in Feed and Food, Bissierstraße 5, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
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Sprengel J, Rixen S, Kappenstein O, Vetter W. Transport of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) from baking oven doors into the food. FOOD CHEMISTRY-X 2021; 10:100122. [PMID: 34189456 PMCID: PMC8220329 DOI: 10.1016/j.fochx.2021.100122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) have been repeatedly detected in the kitchen environment. Especially baking ovens were contaminated with high CP amounts on the insides of the doors. To investigate if CPs could be transferred into baked food, we spiked self-synthesized single chain C12-CP and C15-CP standards onto the inside door of an unused, CP-free baking oven. Experiments were performed under different conditions to assess possible CP transportation pathways. Coconut fat was used as food simulant, the exhaust air was monitored with cellulose filter paper and remaining CPs were collected via cotton wipes. In all experiments, both C12- and C15-CPs could be identified in both the food simulant and the cellulose samplers. Mean transfer rates into the food simulant amounted to 2.2% for C12-CPs and 5.8% for C15-CPs. Baking of food in CP-containing baking ovens may perceptibly increase the CP intake of consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Sprengel
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stefanie Rixen
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Oliver Kappenstein
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
- Corresponding author.
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Sprengel J, Vetter W. Chlorinated paraffins in hinges of kitchen appliances. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:250. [PMID: 33829339 PMCID: PMC8026443 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09023-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are anthropogenic pollutants of growing environmental concern. These highly complex mixtures of thousands of homologs and congeners are usually applied as additives in lubricants or as flame retardants and plasticizers in polymers and paints. Recent studies indicated the presence of high amounts of CPs in the kitchen environment whose sources could not be unequivocally identified. One option was the use of CPs as or in lubricants of hinges. To test this hypothesis, we performed wipe tests on lubricants on 29 hinges of different types of kitchen appliances (refrigerators, baking ovens, dishwashers, freezers, microwave oven, pasta machine, food processor, steam cooker) and analyzed them for short-chain CPs (SCCPs) and medium-chain CPs (MCCPs). CPs were detected in 21 samples (72%). Per wipe, SCCP concentrations ranged between 0.02 and 10 µg (median 0.23 µg), while MCCPs ranged from 0.09 to 750 µg (median 1.0 µg). Highest MCCP amounts (380 and 750 µg per wipe, respectively) were determined in new and unused appliances. A medium correlation between SCCP content and appliance age was observed, but no additional statistic correlation between SCCP/MCCP amount and appliance type or manufacturer could be observed. CPs released from hinges by volatilization, abrasion, and cleaning processes could enter the environment and come in contact with persons living in the corresponding households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Sprengel
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170B), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 28, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- Institute of Food Chemistry (170B), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 28, 70593, Stuttgart, Germany.
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Krätschmer K, Schächtele A, Vetter W. Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffin exposure in South Germany: A total diet, meal and market basket study. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 272:116019. [PMID: 33293103 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs, MCCPs) are high-production volume industrial chemicals that have been previously reported to occur in food, packaging material and the environment. This study presents an assessment of dietary exposure for consumers in Southern Germany based on three different sampling approaches: (i) a classical market basket study (n = 154), (ii) the analysis of ready-made meals from restaurants (n = 10), and (iii) a total diet approach (n = 21). In 35% of the samples, CPs were below the method limit of quantification. Highest amounts of SCCPs and MCCPs were found especially in extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) and fish. Homologue patterns indicated the partial removal of CPs during the refining of (other) edible oils. Ready-made meals contained only low amounts of CPs equal to estimations based on market basket samples. Total diet samples from the same hospital were generally comparable with each other regardless of diet, although vegetarian meal plans with high amounts of cheese and other dairy products contained up to an order of magnitude more CPs than other diets. Taking all approaches into account, calculated daily exposures for adults ranged 35-420 ng/kg bw/day for ΣSCCPs and 22-840 ng/kg bw/day for ΣMCCPs, which is between one and two orders of magnitude higher than the current dietary intake of polychlorinated biphenyls (indicator PCBs) in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Krätschmer
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated POPs in Feed and Food, Bissierstraße 5, 79114, Freiburg, Germany; University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Alexander Schächtele
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated POPs in Feed and Food, Bissierstraße 5, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
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In vitro human cell-based TTR-TRβ CALUX assay indicates thyroid hormone transport disruption of short-chain, medium-chain, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1391-1396. [PMID: 33555371 PMCID: PMC8032603 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-02994-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decades, short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs), and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs) have become the most heavily produced monomeric organohalogen compound class of environmental concern. However, knowledge about their toxicology is still scarce, although SCCPs were shown to have effects on the thyroid hormone system. The lack of data in the case of MCCPs and LCCPs and the structural similarity with perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) prompted us to test CPs in the novel TTR-TR CALUX assay for their thyroid hormone transport disrupting potential. Four self-synthesized and additionally purified single chain length CP mixtures (C10-CPs, C11-CPs, C14-CPs and C16-CPs) and two each of industrial MCCP and LCCP products were tested in parallel with PFOA. All CP mixtures influenced the TTR binding of T4, giving activities of 1,300 to 17,000 µg/g PFOA equivalents and lowest observable effect concentrations (LOELs) of 0.95 to 0.029 mM/L incubate. Highest activities and lowest LOELs were observed for C16-CPs (48.3% Cl content, activity 17,000, LOEL 0.047 mM/L) and a LCCP mixture (71.7% Cl content; activity 10,000; LOEL 0.029 mM/L). A trend of higher activities and lower LOELs towards longer chains and higher chlorination degrees was implied, but could not be statistically confirmed. Irrespectively, the less well examined and current-use LCCPs showed the highest response in the TTR-TRβ CALUX assay.
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Optimization and validation of an analytical method for the quantification of short- and medium-chained chlorinated paraffins in food by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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A simplified screening method for short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in food by gas chromatography-low resolution mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1631:461574. [PMID: 32987312 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluates the performance of a simplified screening method for short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs, respectively) based on gas chromatography-electron capture negative ionization/mass spectrometry (GC-ECNI/MS) analysis and chlorine content quantification. The response from different combinations of 'indicator' congener groups present in technical mixture standards were used within calibration calculations to test the hypothesis that ∑SCCPs and ∑MCCPs could be quantified with acceptable accuracy using only a subset of the commonly analysed C10 to C17 and Cl5 to Cl10 groups. Potential combinations were assessed with respect to calibration curve performance and accuracy of SCCP and MCCP analysis of spiked food samples (olive oil, salmon, pork sausage, breakfast cereal, cow's milk and lard). Based on these trials, a screening method which quantifies ∑SCCPs and ∑MCCPs using only congener groups with 6 and 8 chlorine atoms for each carbon chain length was proposed. Concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs in triplicate analyses of spiked food samples calculated using the proposed screening method deviated by ≤ 25% for the vast majority of samples (maximum deviation 37%) from levels determined using all analysed congener groups. The mean trueness of the screening method as applied to each of the spiked food samples and lard samples from a previous European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) interlaboratory study ranged from 65 to 110% for ∑SCCPs and 102 to 175% for ∑MCCPs. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) were ≤ 25% for all triplicate analyses and matrix specific LOQs ranged from 0.7 to 6 ng/g ww for ∑SCCPs and from 1.3 to 12 ng/g ww for ∑MCCPs. The proposed screening method has the potential to deliver substantial time savings in instrumental analysis and manual labour without greatly reducing the overall accuracy and sensitivity of SCCP and MCCP quantification.
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Mézière M, Krätschmer K, Pe Rkons I, Zacs D, Marchand P, Dervilly G, Le Bizec B, Schächtele A, Cariou R, Vetter W. Addressing Main Challenges Regarding Short- and Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffin Analysis Using GC/ECNI-MS and LC/ESI-MS Methods. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2020; 31:1885-1895. [PMID: 32872783 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.0c00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The risk assessment of chlorinated paraffins (CPs), chemicals of widespread industrial use, is struggling without standardized analytical methods to obtain reliable occurrence data. Indeed, scientists face analytical challenges that hinder the comparability of analytical methods, among them uncontrolled ionization efficiency and lack of quantification standards. In this study, our goal was to investigate potential issues faced when comparing data from different mass spectrometry platforms and quantification methods. First, the injection of the same set of single-chain length standards in three different instrumental mass spectrometry set-ups (liquid chromatography-electrospray-Orbitrap (LC/ESI-HRMS), liquid chromatography-electrospray-time-of-flight (LC/ESI-MS), and gas chromatography-electron capture negative ion-Orbitrap (GC/ECNI-HRMS)) revealed a shift of homologue response patterns even in-between LC/ESI-based set-ups, which was more pronounced for CPs of low chlorination degree. This finding emphasizes the need for a comprehensive description of instrument parameters when publishing occurrence data. Second, the quantification of a data set of samples with four quantification methods showed that quantification at the sum SCCP and MCCP levels presented good comparability, while quantification at the homologue level remained unsatisfactory. In light of those results, we suggest that (i) response pattern comparison should only be performed between similar instrumental set-ups, (ii) experimental chlorination degrees should be used when quantifying according to the %Cl (instead of those provided by the suppliers), and (iii) concentration results should be expressed as the sum of SCCPs and MCCPs primarily, with an indication on the match between samples and quantification standards (for example their chlorine content).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- EURL for Halogenated POPs, c/o State Institute for Chemical and Veterinary Analysis of Food (CVUA) Freiburg, Bissierstraße 5, 79114 Freiburg, Germany
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Alexander Schächtele
- EURL for Halogenated POPs, c/o State Institute for Chemical and Veterinary Analysis of Food (CVUA) Freiburg, Bissierstraße 5, 79114 Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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Heeb NV, Iten S, Schinkel L, Knobloch M, Sprengel J, Lienemann P, Bleiner D, Vetter W. Characterization of synthetic single-chain CP standard materials - Removal of interfering side products. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 255:126959. [PMID: 32388263 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The photolytic chlorination of n-alkanes in presence of sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2) was explored to produce new standard materials. Five mixtures of chlorinated tetradecanes were synthesized with chlorination degrees (mCl,EA) varying from 43.7% to 59.4% (m/m) based on elemental analysis. Chlorine-enhanced negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CE-NCI-MS) forcing the formation of chloride-adduct ions [M+Cl]- was applied to characterize these materials which all contained tetra-to deca-chlorinated paraffins. Deconvolution of respective mass spectra revealed the presence of chlorinated olefins (COs). CO levels were highest in materials, which were exposed longest. All synthesized materials also contained two classes of polar impurities, tentatively assigned as sulfite- and sulfate-diesters with molecular formulas of C14H28-xO3SClx (x = 1-4) and C14H28-xO4SClx (x = 3-6), respectively. MS data were in accordance with the proposed structures but further work is needed to deduce their constitutions. These compounds are thermolabile and were not detected with GC-MS methods. We could remove these sulfur-containing impurities from the CPs with normal-phase liquid chromatography. In conclusion, single-chain CP materials were synthesized via chlorination of n-alkanes with sulfuryl chloride, but these materials contained reactive side products which should be removed to gain non-reactive and stable CP materials suitable as standards and for fate and toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert V Heeb
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - Silvan Iten
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; ZHAW, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Reidbach, CH-8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Lena Schinkel
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Marco Knobloch
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; University of Zürich, Department of Chemistry, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Lienemann
- ZHAW, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Reidbach, CH-8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; University of Zürich, Department of Chemistry, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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Krätschmer K, Schächtele A. Interlaboratory studies on chlorinated paraffins: Evaluation of different methods for food matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 234:252-259. [PMID: 31220658 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Short-chained chlorinated paraffins (SCCP) and medium-chained chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) are two of the main groups currently used to classify chlorinated paraffins (CPs). Since only SCCPs have been restricted by the Stockholm Convention, a robust but selective analysis with comparable results especially for SCCPs, but also for all other CPs is needed to ensure official controls to enforce future resulting food legislation. Failing that, expansion of the legislation towards total CP or to include MCCPs and other main groups needs to be considered. A survey taken amongst official and private laboratories in the EU and beyond revealed a large variety of methods currently in use or in planning stages for CP analysis. In June 2017, spiked samples of coconut fat were sent to 27 registered participants from 18 countries for an interlaboratory study. In July 2018, lard samples spiked with CPs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were sent to 13 registered participants from 11 countries. In both cases, more than 55% of participants had a satisfactory overall performance (AZ2<3, σ = 25%). The greatest challenge seemed to be correct quantification of SCCP and MCCP mixtures, hinting at future problems with the through biodegradation much more complex food samples. Of the wide variety of methods being used, GC-MS based methods were favoured. Both HRMS and LRMS methods were able to perform satisfactorily. Identified influencing factors included choice of instrument, choice of standards and data processing strategy. These factors need to be further investigated in future interlaboratory studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Krätschmer
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Feed and Food, 79114, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - A Schächtele
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Feed and Food, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
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Oellig C, Hammel YA. Screening for chlorinated paraffins in vegetable oils and oil-based dietary supplements by planar solid phase extraction. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1606:460380. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Sprengel J, Wieselmann S, Kröpfl A, Vetter W. High amounts of chlorinated paraffins in oil-based vitamin E dietary supplements on the German market. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 128:438-445. [PMID: 31082722 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a group of man-made pollutants of growing environmental concern. Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) were recently classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), while medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) are still unregulated. Foodstuff is a major pathway for the human CP intake, and the regular diet has been analyzed in several studies recently. However, dietary supplements (DS) had not been analyzed on CPs. Our goal was to investigate the occurrence of CPs in DS and to evaluate the possible threat for the consumers. DS (n = 25) made from plant or fish oils were selected on the German market with main emphasis on vitamin E products. The lipid components were removed by sulphuric acid treatment and silica gel column chromatography. CP quantification was performed via gas chromatography coupled to electron capture negative ion mass spectrometry. Six vitamin E preparations containing palm oil showed alarmingly high CP concentrations of >35 μg/g fat. Six other DS contained much lower CP amounts (<4 μg/g fat). If consumed as recommended, the mean daily intake of CPs (5.5 μg SCCPs + 38 μg MCCPs) via palm oil based DS surpassed that of the regular diet by a factor of 4 for SCCPs and 13 for MCCPs, exceeding the PCB intake via food by up to two orders of magnitude. Samples reached up to 26% of the TDI of MCCPs for an average European adult. Consequently, the P95 intake of those samples would amount to ~43 mg CPs per year. The CP contamination probably originated from raw material, as CPs were also found in palm oils and vitamin E concentrates made from palm oil. Our findings suggest that DS can contain high amounts of contaminants that compromise the purpose of the product and should be considered for regular CP monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sina Wieselmann
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexander Kröpfl
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
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Krätschmer K, Schächtele A, Malisch R, Vetter W. Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in salmon sold in southern Germany: Concentrations, homologue patterns and relation to other persistent organic pollutants. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 227:630-637. [PMID: 31009870 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are complex mixtures of persistent contaminants present throughout the aquatic food web. In this study 122 farmed and 11 wild salmon samples were collected over the course of four years (2014-2017). The ratio of short-chain CP and medium-chain CP and the corresponding homologue patterns were determined by means of gas chromatography (GC) with high resolution, accurate mass Orbitrap mass spectrometry (MS) technology. Characteristic patterns were observed, enabling differentiation between European and non-European (Chilean) samples. Concentration ranges of short-chain CPs (0.97-170 ng/g ww) and medium-chain CPs (1.1-79 ng/g ww) were similarly widespread over three orders of magnitude. Yet, both the mean and median concentrations of MCCPs were usually higher than those of the SCCP. CP levels were generally higher than those of marker polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs). An age- and gender-dependent estimated intake range of 4.6-35 ng/kg bw/week for short and medium-chain CPs via the consumption of salmon was calculated for adults in Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Krätschmer
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Feed and Food, 79114, Freiburg, Germany; University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), 70599, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - A Schächtele
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Feed and Food, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
| | - R Malisch
- European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Feed and Food, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
| | - W Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
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Kalinowska K, Lenartowicz P, Namieśnik J, Marć M. Analytical procedures for short chain chlorinated paraffins determination - How to make them greener? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 671:309-323. [PMID: 30928760 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the following paper was to gather current scientific information about the analytical protocols dedicated to measuring the content level of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) in various types of environmental samples. Moreover, the data about the basic validation parameters of applied procedures for SCCPs determination are listed. The main issue which is highlighted in the paper is the possibility of the application of green analytical chemistry (GAC) principals in the SCCPs measuring process to reduce the environmental impact of the applied methodology. Analytical methods dedicated to SCCPs determination contain a significant number of steps and require advanced analytical equipment during the quantitative and qualitative analysis. In addition, there is a substantial issue associated with the reliability of the obtained results, especially in the case of the quantification of individual SCCPs in the studied samples. Due to this fact, the paper attempts to discuss the various stages of the analytical procedure, in which appropriate changes in the formula or equipment solutions might be introduced to ensure a better quality of the analytical results, as well as to meet the requirements of the philosophy of green analytical chemistry. The most important case which concerns this subject is finding an optimal consensus between the economic and logistic aspects and the quality and "greenness" of the analytical procedure employed in SCCPs determination process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaja Kalinowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Paweł Lenartowicz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jacek Namieśnik
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Mariusz Marć
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Analytical and Ecological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Opole University, Opole, Poland.
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Yuan B, Muir D, MacLeod M. Methods for trace analysis of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins: Critical review and recommendations. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1074:16-32. [PMID: 31159936 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Many methods for quantifying chlorinated paraffins (CPs) yield only a total concentration of the mixture as a single value. With appropriate analytical instrumentation and quantification methods, more reliable and detailed analysis can be performed by quantifying total concentrations of short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs (SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs), and in the current optimal situation by quantifying individual carbon-chlorine congener groups (CnClm). Sample extraction and clean-up methods for other persistent organochlorines that have been adapted for recovery of CPs must be applied prior to quantification with appropriate quality assurance and quality control to ensure applicability of the methods for SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs. Part critical review, part tutorial, and part perspective, this paper provides practical guidance to analytical chemists who are interested in establishing a method for analysis of CPs in their lab facilities using commercial reference standards, or for expanding existing analysis of total CPs or SCCPs to analysis of SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, or to analysis of CnClm congener groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Derek Muir
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew MacLeod
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
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