Physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles affect circulation, biodistribution, cellular internalization, and trafficking

Gallium-containing mesoporous nanoparticles influence in-vitro osteogenic and osteoclastic activity

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles were synthesized using a microemulsion-assisted sol-gel method, and calcium, gallium or a combination of both, were used as dopants. The influence of these metallic ions on the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles was investigated by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, as well as N2 adsorption-desorption methods. The presence of calcium had a significant impact on the morphology and textural features of the nanoparticles. The addition of calcium increased the average diameter of the nanoparticles from 80 nm to 150 nm, while decreasing their specific surface area from 972 m2/g to 344 m2/g. The nanoparticles of all compositions were spheroidal, with a disordered mesoporous structure. An ion release study in cell culture medium demonstrated that gallium was released from the nanoparticles in a sustained manner. In direct contact with concentrations of up to 100 μg/mL of the nanoparticles, gallium-containing nanoparticles did not exhibit cytotoxicity towards pre-osteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells. Moreover, in vitro cell culture tests revealed that the addition of gallium to the nanoparticles enhanced osteogenic activity. Simultaneously, the nanoparticles disrupted the osteoclast differentiation of RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. These findings suggest that gallium-containing nanoparticles possess favorable physicochemical properties and biological characteristics, making them promising candidates for applications in bone tissue regeneration, particularly for unphysiological or pathological conditions such as osteoporosis.

Biocompatible fluorescent carbon nanoparticles as nanocarriers for targeted delivery of tamoxifen for regression of Breast carcinoma

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy among females worldwide, and its high metastasis rates are the leading cause of death just after lung cancer. Currently, tamoxifen (TAM) is a hydrophobic anticancer agent and a selective estrogen modulator (SERM), approved by the FDA that has shown potential anticancer activity against BC, but the non-targeted delivery has serious side effects that limit its ubiquitous utility. Therefore, releasing anti-cancer drugs precisely to the tumor site can improve efficacy and reduce the side effects on the body. Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most important strategies to solve the issue of overdose TAM toxicity, owing to the ability of nano-enabled formulations to deliver desirable quantity of TAM to cancer cells over a longer period of time. In view of this, use of fluorescent carbon nanoparticles in targeted drug delivery holds novel promise for improving the efficacy, safety, and specificity of TAM therapy. Here, we synthesized biocompatible carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) using chitosan molecules without any toxic surface passivating agent. Synthesized CNPs exhibit good water dispersibility and emit intense blue fluorescence upon excitation (360 nm source). The surface of the CNPs has been functionalized with folate using click chemistry to improve the targeted drug uptake by the malignant cell. The pH difference between cancer and normal cells was successfully exploited to trigger TAM release at the target site. After six hours of incubation, CNPs released ∼ 74 % of the TAM drug in acidic pH. In vitro, studies have also demonstrated that after treatment with the synthesized CNPs, significant inhibition of the tumor growth could be achieved.

Recent advances in biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for cancer therapy

The emerging strategy of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) via cellular membrane camouflage holds great promise in cancer therapy. This scholarly review explores the utilization of cellular membranes derived from diverse cellular entities; blood cells, immune cells, cancer cells, stem cells, and bacterial cells as examples of NP coatings. The camouflaging strategy endows NPs with nuanced tumor-targeting abilities such as self-recognition, homotypic targeting, and long-lasting circulation, thus also improving tumor therapy efficacy overall. The comprehensive examination encompasses a variety of cell membrane camouflaged NPs (CMCNPs), elucidating their underlying targeted therapy mechanisms and delineating diverse strategies for anti-cancer applications. Furthermore, the review systematically presents the synthesis of source materials and methodologies employed in order to construct and characterize these CMCNPs, with a specific emphasis on their use in cancer treatment.

Acid-Responsive Decomposable Nanomedicine Based on Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks for Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging/Chemotherapy Combined Tumor Theranostics

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles (NPs) are gaining traction in tumor theranostics for their effectiveness in encapsulating both imaging agents and therapeutic drugs. While typically, similar hydrophilic molecules are encapsulated in either pure aqueous or organic environments, few studies have explored co-encapsulation of chemotherapeutic drugs and imaging agents with varying hydrophilicity and, consequently, constructed multifunctional ZIF-8 composite NPs for acid-responsive, near-infrared fluorescence imaging/chemotherapy combined tumor theranostics. Here, we present a one-pot method for the synthesis of uniform Cy5.5&DOX@ZIF-8 nanoparticles in mixed solvents, efficiently achieving simultaneous encapsulation of hydrophilic doxorubicin (DOX) and hydrophobic Cyanine-5.5 (Cy5.5). Surface decoration with dextran (Dex) enhanced colloidal stability and biocompatibility. The method significantly facilitated co-loading of Cy5.5 dyes and DOX drugs, endowing the composite NPs with notable fluorescent imaging capabilities and pH-responsive chemotherapy capacities. In vivo near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging in A549 tumor-bearing mice demonstrated significant accumulation of Cy5.5 at tumor sites due to enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effects, with fluorescence intensities approximately 48-fold higher than free Cy5.5. Enhanced therapeutic efficiency was observed in composite NPs compared to free DOX, validating tumor-targeted capability. These findings suggest ZIF-8-based nanomedicines as promising platforms for multifunctional tumor theranostics.

Antifungal efficacy and immunomodulatory effect of PLGA nanoparticle-encapsulated itraconazole in histoplasmosis in vivo model

INTRODUCTION

Histoplasma capsulatum is the etiological agent of histoplasmosis, the most common endemic pulmonary mycosis. Itraconazole (ITZ) is the choice for mild disease and a step-down therapy in severe and disseminated clinical presentations. Drug encapsulation into nanoparticles (NPs) is an alternative to improve drug solubility and bioavailability, reducing undesirable interactions and drug degradation and reaching the specific therapeutic target with lower doses.

OBJECTIVE

evaluate the antifungal and immunomodulatory effect of ITZ encapsulated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs, administrated orally and intraperitoneally in an in vivo histoplasmosis model.

RESULTS

After intranasal infection and treatment of animals with encapsulated ITZ by intraperitoneal and oral route, fungal burden control, biodistribution, immune response, and histopathology were evaluated. The results showed that the intraperitoneal administered and encapsulated ITZ has an effective antifungal effect, significantly reducing the Colony-Forming-Units (CFU) after the first doses and controlling the infection dissemination, with a higher concentration in the liver, spleen, and lung compared to the oral treatment. In addition, it produced a substantial immunomodulatory effect on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and immune cell infiltrates confirmed by histopathology.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, results suggest a synergistic effect of the encapsulated drug and the immunomodulatory effect contributing to infection control, preventing their dissemination.

Paclitaxel Overload Supramolecular Oxidative Stress Nanoamplifier with a CDK12 Inhibitor for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Combination therapy has emerged as a promising approach for treating tumors, although there is room for improvement. This study introduced a novel strategy that combined the enhancement of apoptosis, ferroptosis, and DNA damage to improve therapeutic outcomes for prostate cancer. Specifically, we have developed a supramolecular oxidative stress nanoamplifier, which was comprised of β-cyclodextrin, paclitaxel, and ferrocene-poly(ethylene glycol). Paclitaxel within the system disrupted microtubule dynamics, inducing G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis. Concurrently, ferrocene utilized hydrogen peroxide to generate toxic hydroxyl radicals in cells through the Fenton reaction, triggering a cascade of reactive oxygen species expansion, reduction of glutathione levels, lipid peroxidation, and ferroptosis. The increased number of hydroxyl radicals and the inhibitory effect of THZ531 on DNA repair mechanisms exacerbated DNA damage within tumor cells. As expected, the supramolecular nanoparticles demonstrated excellent drug delivery ability to tumor cells or tissues, exhibited favorable biological safety in vivo, and enhanced the killing effect on prostate cancer.

Nanomaterials in crossroad of autophagy control in human cancers: Amplification of cell death mechanisms

Cancer is the result of genetic abnormalities that cause normal cells to grow into neoplastic cells. Cancer is characterized by several distinct features, such as uncontrolled cell growth, extensive spreading to other parts of the body, and the ability to resist treatment. The scientists have stressed the development of nanostructures as novel therapeutic options in suppressing cancer, in response to the emergence of resistance to standard medicines. One of the specific mechanisms with dysregulation during cancer is autophagy. Nanomaterials have the ability to specifically carry medications and genes, and they can also enhance the responsiveness of tumor cells to standard therapy while promoting drug sensitivity. The primary mechanism in this process relies on autophagosomes and their fusion with lysosomes to break down the components of the cytoplasm. While autophagy was initially described as a form of cellular demise, it has been demonstrated to play a crucial role in controlling metastasis, proliferation, and treatment resistance in human malignancies. The pharmacokinetic profile of autophagy modulators is poor, despite their development for use in cancer therapy. Consequently, nanoparticles have been developed for the purpose of delivering medications and autophagy modulators selectively and specifically to the cancer process. Furthermore, several categories of nanoparticles have demonstrated the ability to regulate autophagy, which plays a crucial role in defining the biological characteristics and response to therapy of tumor cells.

Charge-Switchable nanoparticles to enhance tumor penetration and accumulation

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems hold potential in chemotherapy, but their limited accumulation in tumor tissues hinders effective drug concentration for combating tumor growth. Hence, altering the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, particularly their surface charge, can enhance their performance. This study utilized a computational model to explore a nanoparticle drug delivery system capable of dynamically adjusting its surface charge. In the model, nanoparticles in the bloodstream were assigned a neutral or positive charge, which, upon reaching the tumor microenvironment, switched to a neutral or negative charge, and releasing chemotherapy drugs into the extracellular space. Results revealed that circulating nanoparticles with a positive surface charge, despite having a shorter circulation and high clearance rate compared to their neutral counterparts, could accumulate significantly in the tissue due to their high transvascular rate. After extravasation, neutralized surface-charged nanoparticles tended to accumulate only near blood microvessels due to their low diffusion rate, resulting in substantial released drug drainage back into the bloodstream. On the other hand, nanoparticles with a negative surface charge in the tumor's extracellular space, due to the reduction of nano-bio interactions, were able to penetrate deeper into the tumor, and increasing drug bioavailability by reducing the volume of drained drugs. Furthermore, the analysis suggested that burst drug release yields a higher drug concentration than sustained drug release, however their creation of bioavailability dependent on nanoparticle accumulation in the tissue. The study's findings demonstrate the potential of this delivery system and offer valuable insights for future research in this area.

Tumor-oriented and chemo-photothermal nanoplatform capable of sensitizing chemotherapy and ferroptosis against osteosarcoma metastasis

The clinical use of chemotherapy for refractory osteosarcoma (OS) is limited due to its multiorgan toxicity. To overcome this challenge, new dosage forms and combination treatments, such as phototherapy, are being explored to improve targeted delivery and cytocompatibility of chemotherapeutic agents. In addition, inducing ferroptosis in iron-rich tumors could be a promising strategy to enhance OS therapy. In this study, a novel formulation was developed using natural biological H-ferritin (HFn) encapsulating the photosensitizer IR-780 and the chemotherapy drug gemcitabine (Gem) for OS-specific targeted therapy (HFn@Gem/IR-780 NPs). HFn@Gem/IR-780 NPs were designed to specifically bind and internalize into OS cells by interacting with transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) which is overexpressed on the surface of OS cell membranes. The Gem and IR-780 were then released responsively under mildly acidic conditions in tumors. HFn@Gem/IR-780 NPs achieved cascaded antitumor therapeutic efficacy through the combination of chemotherapy and phototherapy under near-infrared irradiation in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, HFn@Gem/IR-780 NPs demonstrated excellent safety profile with significantly decreased drug exposure to normal organs, indicating its potential for reducing systemic toxicity. Thus, utilizing HFn as a vehicle to encapsulate highly effective antitumor drugs provides a promising approach for the treatment of OS metastasis and relapse.

AA, Chulanov V, Parodi A, Kostyushev D. Swelling, Rupture and Endosomal Escape of Biological Nanoparticles Per Se and Those Fused with Liposomes in Acidic Environment

Biological nanoparticles (NPs), such as extracellular vesicles (EVs), exosome-mimetic nanovesicles (EMNVs) and nanoghosts (NGs), are perspective non-viral delivery vehicles for all types of therapeutic cargo. Biological NPs are renowned for their exceptional biocompatibility and safety, alongside their ease of functionalization, but a significant challenge arises when attempting to load therapeutic payloads, such as nucleic acids (NAs). One effective strategy involves fusing biological NPs with liposomes loaded with NAs, resulting in hybrid carriers that offer the benefits of both biological NPs and the capacity for high cargo loads. Despite their unique parameters, one of the major issues of virtually any nanoformulation is the ability to escape degradation in the compartment of endosomes and lysosomes which determines the overall efficiency of nanotherapeutics. In this study, we fabricated all major types of biological and hybrid NPs and studied their response to the acidic environment observed in the endolysosomal compartment. In this study, we show that EMNVs display increased protonation and swelling relative to EVs and NGs in an acidic environment. Furthermore, the hybrid NPs exhibit an even greater response compared to EMNVs. Short-term incubation of EMNVs in acidic pH corresponding to late endosomes and lysosomes again induces protonation and swelling, whereas hybrid NPs are ruptured, resulting in the decline in their quantities. Our findings demonstrate that in an acidic environment, there is enhanced rupture and release of vesicular cargo observed in hybrid EMNVs that are fused with liposomes compared to EMNVs alone. This was confirmed through PAGE electrophoresis analysis of mCherry protein loaded into nanoparticles. In vitro analysis of NPs colocalization with lysosomes in HepG2 cells demonstrated that EMNVs mostly avoid the endolysosomal compartment, whereas hybrid NPs escape it over time. To conclude, (1) hybrid biological NPs fused with liposomes appear more efficient in the endolysosomal escape via the mechanism of proton sponge-associated scavenging of protons by NPs, influx of counterions and water, and rupture of endo/lysosomes, but (2) EMNVs are much more efficient than hybrid NPs in actually avoiding the endolysosomal compartment in human cells. These results reveal biochemical differences across four major types of biological and hybrid NPs and indicate that EMNVs are more efficient in escaping or avoiding the endolysosomal compartment.

Efferocytosis-Inspired Biomimetic Nanoplatform for Targeted Acute Lung Injury Therapy

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a serious inflammatory disease that causes impairment of pulmonary function. Phenotypic modulation of macrophage in the lung using fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) may be a potential strategy to alleviate lung inflammation. Consequently, achieving specific delivery of FGF21 to the inflamed lung and subsequent efficient FGF21 internalization by macrophages within the lung becomes critical for effective ALI treatment. Here, an apoptotic cell membrane-coated zirconium-based metal-organic framework UiO-66 is reported for precise pulmonary delivery of FGF21 (ACM@U-FGF21) whose design is inspired by the process of efferocytosis. ACM@U-FGF21 with apoptotic signals is recognized and internalized by phagocytes in the blood and macrophages in the lung, and then the intracellular ACM@U-FGF21 can inhibit the excessive secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by these cells to relieve the inflammation. Utilizing the homologous targeting properties inherited from the source cells and the spontaneous recruitment of immune cells to inflammatory sites, ACM@U-FGF21 can accumulate preferentially in the lung after injection. The results prove that ACM@U-FGF21 effectively reduces inflammatory damage to the lung by modulating lung macrophage polarization and suppressing the excessive secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by activated immune cells. This study demonstrates the usefulness of efferocytosis-inspired ACM@U-FGF21 in the treatment of ALI.

Layered Double Hydroxides: Recent Progress and Promising Perspectives Toward Biomedical Applications

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) have been widely studied for biomedical applications due to their excellent properties, such as good biocompatibility, degradability, interlayer ion exchangeability, high loading capacity, pH-responsive release, and large specific surface area. Furthermore, the flexibility in the structural composition and ease of surface modification of LDHs makes it possible to develop specifically functionalized LDHs to meet the needs of different applications. In this review, the recent advances of LDHs for biomedical applications, which include LDH-based drug delivery systems, LDHs for cancer diagnosis and therapy, tissue engineering, coatings, functional membranes, and biosensors, are comprehensively discussed. From these various biomedical research fields, it can be seen that there is great potential and possibility for the use of LDHs in biomedical applications. However, at the same time, it must be recognized that the actual clinical translation of LDHs is still very limited. Therefore, the current limitations of related research on LDHs are discussed by combining limited examples of actual clinical translation with requirements for clinical translation of biomaterials. Finally, an outlook on future research related to LDHs is provided.

Oligonucleotide based nanogels for cancer therapeutics

Oligonucleotide-based nanogels, as nascent biomaterials, possess several unique functional, structural, and physicochemical features with excellent drug-loading capacity and high potential for cancer gene therapy. Ongoing studies utilizing oligonucleotide-based nanogels hold great promise, as these cutting-edge nanoplatforms can be elegantly developed with predesigned oligonucleotide sequences and complementary strands which are self-assembled or chemically crosslinked leading to the development of nanogels with predictable shape and tunable size with the desired functional properties. Current paper provides a summary of the properties, preparation methods, and applications of oligonucleotide-based nanogels in cancer therapy. The review is focused on both conventional and modified forms of oligonucleotide-based nanogels, including targeted nanogels, smart release nanogels (responsive to stimuli such as pH, temperature, and enzymes), as well as nanogels used for gene delivery. Their application in cancer immunotherapy and vaccination, photodynamic therapy, and diagnostic applications when combined with other nanoparticles is further discussed. Despite emerging designs in the development of oligonucleotide based nanogels, this field of study is still in its infancy, and clinical translation of these versatile nano-vehicles might face challenges. Hence, extensive research must be performed on in vivo behavior of such platforms determining their biodistribution, biological fate, and acute/subacute toxicity.

The effect of comb length on the in vitro and in vivo properties of self-assembled poly(oligoethylene glycol methacrylate)-based block copolymer nanoparticles

Comb copolymer analogues of poly(lactic acid)-polyethylene glycol block copolymers (PLA-b-PEG) offer potential to overcome the inherent chemistry and stability limitations of their linear block copolymer counterparts. Herein, we examine the differences between P(L)LA10K-b-PEG10K and linear-comb copolymer analogues thereof in which the linear PEG block is replaced by poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (POEGMA) blocks with different side chain (comb) lengths but the same overall molecular weight. P(L)LA10K-b-POEGMA47510K and P(L)LA10K-b-POEGMA200010K block copolymers were synthesized via activators regenerated by electron transfer atom transfer radical polymerization (ARGET ATRP) and fabricated into self-assembled nanoparticles using flash nanoprecipitation via confined impinging jet mixing. Linear-comb copolymer analogues based on PLA-b-POEGMA yielded smaller but still well-controlled nanoparticle sizes (88 ± 2 nm and 114 ± 1 nm respectively compared to 159 ± 2 nm for P(L)LA10K-b-PEG10K nanoparticles) that exhibited improved colloidal stability relative to linear copolymer-based nanoparticles over a 15 day incubation period while maintaining comparably high cytocompatibility, although the comb copolymer analogues had somewhat lower loading capacity for doxorubicin hydrochloride. Cell spheroid studies showed that the linear-comb copolymers promoted enhanced tumor transport and thus cell killing compared to conventional linear block copolymers. In vivo studies showed all NP types could passively accumulate within implanted CT26 tumors but with different accumulation profiles, with P(L)LA10K-b-POEGMA200010K NPs showing continuous accumulation throughout the full 24 h monitoring period whereas tumor accumulation of P(L)LA10K-b-POEGMA47510K NPs was significant only between 8 h and 24 h. Overall, the linear-comb copolymer analogues exhibited superior stability, biodistribution, spheroid penetration, and inherent tunability over linear NP counterparts.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Inhibit Tumor Progression and Suppress Lung Metastases in Mouse Models of Breast Cancer

Systemic exposure to starch-coated iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) can stimulate antitumor T cell responses, even when little IONP is retained within the tumor. Here, we demonstrate in mouse models of metastatic breast cancer that IONPs can alter the host immune landscape, leading to systemic immune-mediated disease suppression. We report that a single intravenous injection of IONPs can inhibit primary tumor growth, suppress metastases, and extend survival. Gene expression analysis revealed the activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways involving signaling via Toll/Interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-β (TRIF), a TLR pathway adaptor protein. Requisite participation of TRIF in suppressing tumor progression was demonstrated with histopathologic evidence of upregulated IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a downstream protein, and confirmed in a TRIF knockout syngeneic mouse model of metastatic breast cancer. Neither starch-coated polystyrene nanoparticles lacking iron, nor iron-containing dextran-coated parenteral iron replacement agent, induced significant antitumor effects, suggesting a dependence on the type of IONP formulation. Analysis of multiple independent clinical databases supports a hypothesis that upregulation of TLR3 and IRF3 correlates with increased overall survival among breast cancer patients. Taken together, these data support a compelling rationale to re-examine IONP formulations as harboring anticancer immune (nano)adjuvant properties to generate a therapeutic benefit without requiring uptake by cancer cells.

Cell-mediated nanoparticle delivery systems: towards precision nanomedicine

Cell-mediated nanoparticle delivery systems (CMNDDs) utilize cells as carriers to deliver the drug-loaded nanoparticles. Unlike the traditional nanoparticle drug delivery approaches, CMNDDs take the advantages of cell characteristics, such as the homing capabilities of stem cells, inflammatory chemotaxis of neutrophils, prolonged blood circulation of red blood cells, and internalization of macrophages. Subsequently, CMNDDs can easily prolong the blood circulation, cross biological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier and the bone marrow-blood barrier, and rapidly arrive at the diseased areas. Such advantageous properties make CMNDDs promising delivery candidates for precision targeting. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in CMNDDs fabrication and biomedical applications. Specifically, ligand-receptor interactions, non-covalent interactions, covalent interactions, and internalization are commonly applied in constructing CMNDDs in vitro. By hitchhiking cells, such as macrophages, red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils, and platelets, nanoparticles can be internalized or attached to cells to construct CMNDDs in vivo. Then we highlight the recent application of CMNDDs in treating different diseases, such as cancer, central nervous system disorders, lung diseases, and cardiovascular diseases, with a brief discussion about challenges and future perspectives in the end.

The interaction between particles and vascular endothelium in blood flow

Particle-based drug delivery systems have shown promising application potential to treat human diseases; however, an incomplete understanding of their interactions with vascular endothelium in blood flow prevents their inclusion into mainstream clinical applications. The flow performance of nano/micro-sized particles in the blood are disturbed by many external/internal factors, including blood constituents, particle properties, and endothelium bioactivities, affecting the fate of particles in vivo and therapeutic effects for diseases. This review highlights how the blood constituents, hemodynamic environment and particle properties influence the interactions and particle activities in vivo. Moreover, we briefly summarized the structure and functions of endothelium and simulated devices for studying particle performance under blood flow conditions. Finally, based on particle-endothelium interactions, we propose future opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies and provide solutions to challenges in particle delivery systems for accelerating their clinical translation. This review helps provoke an increasing in-depth understanding of particle-endothelium interactions and inspires more strategies that may benefit the development of particle medicine.

Emerging strategies for nanomedicine in autoimmunity

Autoimmune disorders have risen to be among the most prevalent chronic diseases across the globe, affecting approximately 5-7% of the population. As autoimmune diseases steadily rise in prevalence, so do the number of potential therapeutic strategies to combat them. In recent years, fundamental research investigating autoimmune pathologies has led to the emergence of several cellular targets that provide new therapeutic opportunities. However, key challenges persist in terms of accessing and specifically combating the dysregulated, self-reactive cells while avoiding systemic immune suppression and other off-target effects. Fortunately, the continued advancement of nanomedicines may provide strategies to address these challenges and bring innovative autoimmunity therapies to the clinic. Through precise engineering and rational design, nanomedicines can possess a variety of physicochemical properties, surface modifications, and cargoes, allowing for specific targeting of therapeutics to pathological cell and organ types. These advances in nanomedicine have been demonstrated in cancer therapies and have the broad potential to advance applications in autoimmunity therapies as well. In this review, we focus on leveraging the power of nanomedicine for prevalent autoimmune disorders throughout the body. We expand on three key areas for the development of autoimmunity therapies - avoiding systemic immunosuppression, balancing interactions with the immune system, and elevating current platforms for delivering complex cargoes - and emphasize how nanomedicine-based strategies can overcome these barriers and enable the development of next-generation, clinically relevant autoimmunity therapies.

Sonodynamic-chemotherapy synergy with chlorin e6-based carrier-free nanoparticles for non-small cell lung cancer

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT), an emerging cancer treatment with significant potential, offers the advantages of non-invasiveness and deep tissue penetrability. The method involves activating sonosensitizers with ultrasound to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) capable of eradicating cancer cells, addressing the challenge faced by photodynamic therapy (PDT) where conventional light sources struggle to penetrate deep tissues, impacting treatment efficacy. This study addresses prevalent challenges in numerous nanodiagnostic and therapeutic agents, such as intricate synthesis, poor repeatability, low stability, and high cost, by introducing a streamlined one-step assembly method for nanoparticle preparation. Specifically, the sonosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6) and the chemotherapy drug erlotinib are effortlessly combined and self-assembled under sonication, yielding carrier-free nanoparticles (EC-NPs) for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment. The resulting EC-NPs exhibit optimal drug loading capacity, a simplified preparation process, and robust stability both in vitro and in vivo, owing to their carrier-free characteristics. Under the synergistic treatment of sonodynamic therapy and chemotherapy, EC-NPs induce an excess of reactive oxygen in tumor tissue, prompting apoptosis of cancer cells and reducing their proliferative capacity. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate superior therapeutic effects of EC-NPs under ultrasound conditions compared to free Ce6. In summary, our research findings highlight that the innovatively designed carrier-free sonosensitizer EC-NPs present a therapeutic option with commendable efficacy and minimal side effects.

Refining nanoprobes for monitoring of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a gastrointestinal immune disease that requires clear diagnosis, timely treatment, and lifelong monitoring. The diagnosis and monitoring methods of IBD mainly include endoscopy, imaging examination, and laboratory examination, which are constantly developed to achieve early definite diagnosis and accurate monitoring. In recent years, with the development of nanotechnology, the diagnosis and monitoring methods of IBD have been remarkably enriched. Nanomaterials, characterized by their minuscule dimensions that can be tailored, along with their distinctive optical, magnetic, and biodistribution properties, have emerged as valuable contrast agents for imaging and targeted agents for endoscopy. Through both active and passive targeting mechanisms, nanoparticles accumulate at the site of inflammation, thereby enhancing IBD detection. This review comprehensively outlines the existing IBD detection techniques, expounds upon the utilization of nanoparticles in IBD detection and diagnosis, and offers insights into the future potential of in vitro diagnostics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Due to their small size and unique physical and chemical properties, nanomaterials are widely used in the biological and medical fields. In the area of oncology and inflammatory disease, an increasing number of nanomaterials are being developed for diagnostics and drug delivery. Here, we focus on inflammatory bowel disease, an autoimmune inflammatory disease that requires early diagnosis and lifelong monitoring. Nanomaterials can be used as contrast agents to visualize areas of inflammation by actively or passively targeting them through the intestinal mucosal epithelium where gaps exist due to inflammation stimulation. In this article, we summarize the utilization of nanoparticles in inflammatory bowel disease detection and diagnosis, and offers insights into the future potential of in vitro diagnostics.

Nanoparticle applications in agriculture: overview and response of plant-associated microorganisms

Globally, food security has become a critical concern due to the rise in human population and the current climate change crisis. Usage of conventional agrochemicals to maximize crop yields has resulted in the degradation of fertile soil, environmental pollution as well as human and agroecosystem health risks. Nanotechnology in agriculture is a fast-emerging and new area of research explored to improve crop productivity and nutrient-use efficiency using nano-sized agrochemicals at lower doses than conventional agrochemicals. Nanoparticles in agriculture are applied as nanofertilizers and/or nanopesticides. Positive results have been observed in terms of plant growth when using nano-based agricultural amendments. However, their continuous application may have adverse effects on plant-associated rhizospheric and endospheric microorganisms which often play a crucial role in plant growth, nutrient uptake, and disease prevention. While research shows that the application of nanoparticles has the potential to improve plant growth and yield, their effect on the diversity and function of plant-associated microorganisms remains under-explored. This review provides an overview of plant-associated microorganisms and their functions. Additionally, it highlights the response of plant-associated microorganisms to nanoparticle application and provides insight into areas of research required to promote sustainable and precision agricultural practices that incorporate nanofertilizers and nanopesticides.

Engineered macrophage-derived cellular vesicles for NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided precise cancer photo-immunotherapy

Significant progress has been made in cancer immunotherapy; however, challenges such as interpatient variability, limited treatment response, and severe side effects persist. Although nanoimmunotherapy has emerged as a promising approach, the construction of precise and efficient nanosystems remain formidable challenges. Herein, a multifunctional nanoplatform was developed using macrophage-derived cellular vesicles (MCVs) for NIR-II imaging-guided precise cancer photo-immunotherapy. MCVs exhibited excellent tumor targeting and TAMs re-education effects, serving as both delivery carriers and therapeutic agents. Through amide bond, indocyanine green (ICG) was conjugated to the surface of MCVs, enabling in vivo tracking of MCVs distribution. Notably, ICG exhibited dual functionality as a NIR-II fluorescent agent and possessed photodynamic and photothermal effects, enabling the conversion of light energy into chemical or heat energy to eliminate tumor cells. This precision phototherapy triggered immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor, thereby activating the anti-tumor immune response. Additionally, MCVs loaded with R848, a toll-like receptor agonist, augmented the ICD-induced anti-tumor immunity. Animal experiments confirmed that MCVs-mediated photoimmunotherapy promoted T cell infiltration, inhibited tumor growth, and improved survival rates. In conclusion, we have developed a promising precision immunotherapy strategy capable of enhancing the immune response while mitigating off-target effects. These findings offer encouraging prospects for clinical translation.

A multivalent CD44 glycoconjugate vaccine candidate for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer presents a high mortality rate due to ineffective treatments and tumour relapse with progression. Cancer vaccines hold tremendous potential due to their capability to eradicate tumour and prevent relapse. In this study, we present a novel glycovaccine for precise targeting and immunotherapy of aggressive solid tumours that overexpress CD44 standard isoform (CD44s) carrying immature Tn and sialyl-Tn (sTn) O-glycans. We describe an enzymatic method and an enrichment strategy to generate libraries of well-characterized cancer-specific CD44s-Tn and/or sTn glycoproteoforms, which mimic the heterogeneity found in tumours. We conjugated CD44-Tn-derived glycopeptides with carrier proteins making them more immunogenic, with further demonstration of the importance of this conjugation to overcome the glycopeptides' intrinsic toxicity. We have optimized the glycopeptide-protein maleimide-thiol conjugation chemistry to avoid undesirable cross-linking between carrier proteins and CD44s glycopeptides. The resulting glycovaccines candidates were well-tolerated in vivo, inducing both humoral and cellular immunity, including immunological memory. The generated antibodies exhibited specific reactivity against synthetic CD44s-Tn glycopeptides, CD44s-Tn glycoengineered cells, and human tumours. In summary, we present a promising prototype of a cancer glycovaccine for future therapeutical pre-clinical efficacy validation.

Nanomaterials in Medicine: Understanding Cellular Uptake, Localization, and Retention for Enhanced Disease Diagnosis and Therapy

Nanomaterials (NMs) have emerged as promising tools for disease diagnosis and therapy due to their unique physicochemical properties. To maximize the effectiveness and design of NMs-based medical applications, it is essential to comprehend the complex mechanisms of cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and cellular retention. This review illuminates the various pathways that NMs take to get from the extracellular environment to certain intracellular compartments by investigating the various mechanisms that underlie their interaction with cells. The cellular uptake of NMs involves complex interactions with cell membranes, encompassing endocytosis, phagocytosis, and other active transport mechanisms. Unique uptake patterns across cell types highlight the necessity for customized NMs designs. After internalization, NMs move through a variety of intracellular routes that affect where they are located subcellularly. Understanding these pathways is pivotal for enhancing the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and imaging probes. Furthermore, the cellular retention of NMs plays a critical role in sustained therapeutic efficacy and long-term imaging capabilities. Factors influencing cellular retention include nanoparticle size, surface chemistry, and the cellular microenvironment. Strategies for prolonging cellular retention are discussed, including surface modifications and encapsulation techniques. In conclusion, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms governing cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and cellular retention of NMs is essential for advancing their application in disease diagnosis and therapy. This review provides insights into the intricate interplay between NMs and biological systems, offering a foundation for the rational design of next-generation nanomedicines.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

CRISPR/Cas gene editing and delivery systems for cancer therapy

CRISPR/Cas systems stand out because of simplicity, efficiency, and other superiorities, thus becoming attractive and brilliant gene-editing tools in biomedical field including cancer therapy. CRISPR/Cas systems bring promises for cancer therapy through manipulating and engineering on tumor cells or immune cells. However, there have been concerns about how to overcome the numerous physiological barriers and deliver CRISPR components to target cells efficiently and accurately. In this review, we introduced the mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas systems, summarized the current delivery strategies of CRISPR/Cas systems by physical methods, viral vectors, and nonviral vectors, and presented the current application of CRISPR/Cas systems in cancer clinical treatment. Furthermore, we discussed prospects related to delivery approaches of CRISPR/Cas systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

In situ formation of alginic acid-gold nanohybrids for application in cancer photothermal therapy

Gold-based nanoparticles present excellent optical properties that propelled their widespread application in biomedicine, from bioimaging to photothermal applications. Nevertheless, commonly employed manufacturing methods for gold-based nanoparticles require long periods and laborious protocols that reduce cost-effectiveness and scalability. Herein, a novel methodology was used for producing gold-alginic acid nanohybrids (Au-Alg-NH) with photothermal capabilities. This was accomplished by promoting the in situ reduction and nucleation of gold ions throughout a matrix of alginic acid by using ascorbic acid. The results obtained reveal that the Au-Alg-NHs present a uniform size distribution and a spike-like shape. Moreover, the nanomaterials were capable to mediate a temperature increase of ≈11°C in response to the irradiation with a near-infrared region (NIR) laser (808 nm, 1.7 W cm-2 ). The in vitro assays showed that Au-Alg-NHs were able to perform a NIR light-triggered ablation of cancer cells (MCF-7), being observed a reduction in the cell viability to ≈27%. Therefore, the results demonstrate that this novel methodology holds the potential for producing Au-Alg-NH with photothermal capacity and higher translatability to the clinical practice, namely for cancer therapy.

Novel Biomaterials Based Strategies for Neurodegeneration: Recent Advancements and Future Prospects

Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease, pose significant challenges for effective treatment due to the complex nature of the central nervous system and the limited delivery of therapeutic agents to the brain. Biomaterial-based drug delivery systems offer promising strategies to overcome these challenges and improve therapeutic outcomes. These systems utilize various biomaterials, such as nanoparticles, hydrogels, and implants, to deliver drugs, genes, or cells to the affected regions of the brain. They provide advantages such as targeted delivery, controlled release, and protection of therapeutic agents. This review examines the role of biomaterials in drug delivery for neurodegeneration, discussing different biomaterialbased approaches, including surface modification, encapsulation, and functionalization techniques. Furthermore, it explores the challenges, future perspectives, and potential impact of biomaterialbased drug delivery systems in the field of neurodegenerative diseases.

Polyacrylic-Coated Solid Nanoparticles Increase the Aquaporin Permeability to Hydrogen Peroxide

Aquaporins (AQPs) allow the diffusion of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and act as ROS scavenging systems, which are important for controlling the redox state of cells. Recently, cerium oxide nanoparticles were found to increase the water and H2O2 permeability by modulating AQPs. To further analyze the action of nanoparticles (NPs) on AQP, we examined the effect of the NPs presenting different core compositions (CeO2, Gd2O3, Fe3O4, and TiO2), hydrodynamic sizes, and surface functionalization. The NPs produced an increase in H2O and H2O2 permeability as a general trend. The hydrodynamic sizes of the NPs in the range of 22-100 nm did not produce any significant effect. The chemical nature of the NPs' core did not modify the effect and its intensity. On the other hand, the NPs' functionalized surface plays a major role in influencing both water and H2O2 permeability. The results suggest that NPs can play a significant role in controlling oxidative stress in cells and might represent an innovative approach in the treatment of a number of pathologies associated with an increased oxidative status.

Multi-Stimuli-Responsive and Cell Membrane Camouflaged Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanogels for Precise Chemo-photothermal Synergistic Therapy of Tumors

Targeted and controllable drug release at lesion sites with the aid of visual navigation in real-time is of great significance for precise theranostics of cancers. Benefiting from the marvelous features (e.g., bright emission and phototheranostic effects in aggregates) of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials, constructing AIE-based multifunctional nanocarriers that act as all-arounders to integrate multimodalities for precise theranostics is highly desirable. Here, an intelligent nanoplatform (P-TN-Dox@CM) with homologous targeting, controllable drug release, and in vivo dual-modal imaging for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy is proposed. AIE photothermic agent (TN) and anticancer drug (Dox) are encapsulated in thermo-/pH-responsive nanogels (PNA), and the tumor cell membranes are camouflaged onto the surface of nanogels. Active targeting can be realized through homologous effects derived from source tumor cell membranes, which advantageously elevates the specific drug delivery to tumor sites. After being engulfed into tumor cells, the nanogels exhibit a burst drug release at low pH. The near-infrared (NIR) photoinduced local hyperthermia can activate severe cytotoxicity and further accelerate drug release, thus generating enhanced synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy to thoroughly eradicate tumors. Moreover, P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels could achieve NIR-fluorescence/photothermal dual-modal imaging to monitor the dynamic distribution of therapeutics in real-time. This work highlights the great potential of smart P-TN-Dox@CM nanogels as a versatile nanoplatform to integrate multimodalities for precise chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy in combating cancers.

Improving nanochemoimmunotherapy efficacy by boosting "eat-me" signaling and downregulating "don't-eat-me" signaling with Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide-based drug delivery

To address the challenges posed by low immunogenicity and immune checkpoints during cancer treatment, we propose an alternative strategy that combines immunogenic cell death (ICD) effects with CD47/SIRPα blockade to reactivate phagocytosis of tumor cells by macrophages with polysaccharide-based drug delivery. In this study, the EGFR inhibitor gefitinib was identified as a novel CD47 modulator, which promoted the translocation of CD47 molecules from the cell membrane to endosomes through the EGFR-Rab5 pathway, leading to reduced cell surface CD47 levels and limiting interaction with SIRPα. Based on this finding, we developed prophagocytic mixed nanodrugs to enhance macrophage phagocytosis by encapsulating ICD inducer doxorubicin and CD47 inhibitor gefitinib with immunostimulatory polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum. This approach downregulated cell surface CD47 expression to attenuate "don't-eat-me" signaling, while increasing doxorubicin accumulation in tumors by inhibiting drug-resistance proteins, leading to more exposure of calreticulin and amplifying the "eat-me" signaling. In vivo experiments demonstrated that this approach significantly suppressed intraperitoneal tumor dissemination, reversed doxorubicin-induced weight loss, and effectively induced macrophage polarization, dendritic cell maturation, and CD8+ T cell activation. These findings highlighted the significant potential of our macrophage-centered therapeutic strategy using polysaccharide-based nanocarriers and provided new perspectives for chemoimmunotherapy.

REVIEW: "ISCHEMIC STROKE: From Fibrinolysis to Functional Recovery" Nanomedicine: Emerging Approaches to Treat Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is responsible for 11% of all deaths worldwide, the majority of which are caused by ischemic strokes, thus making the need to urgently find safe and effective therapies. Today, these can be cured either by mechanical thrombectomy when the thrombus is accessible, or by intravenous injection of fibrinolytics. However, the latter present several limitations, such as potential severe side effects, few eligible patients and low rate of partial and full recovery. To design safer and more effective treatments, nanomedicine appeared in this medical field a few decades ago. This review will explain why nanoparticle-based therapies and imaging techniques are relevant for ischemic stroke management. Then, it will present the different nanoparticle types that have been recently developed to treat this pathology. It will also study the various targeting strategies used to bring nanoparticles to the stroke site, thereby limiting side effects and improving the therapeutic efficacy. Finally, this review will present the few clinical studies testing nanomedicine on stroke and discuss potential causes for their scarcity.

The spatiotemporal journey of nanomedicines in solid tumors on their therapeutic efficacy

The rapid development of nanomedicines is revolutionizing the landscape of cancer treatment, while effectively delivering them into solid tumors remains a formidable challenge. Currently, there is a huge disconnect on therapeutic response between regulatory approved nanomedicines and laboratory reported nanoparticles. The discrepancy is mainly resulted from the failure of using the classic overall pharmacokinetics behaviors of nanomedicines in tumors to predict the antitumor efficacy. Increasing evidence has revealed that the therapeutic efficacy predominantly relies on the intratumoral spatiotemporal distribution of nanomedicines. This review focuses on the spatiotemporal distribution of systemically administered chemotherapeutic nanomedicines in solid tumor. Firstly, the intratumoral biological barriers that regulate the spatiotemporal distribution of nanomedicines are described in detail. Next, the influences on antitumor efficacy caused by the spatial distribution and temporal drug release of nanomedicines are emphatically analyzed. Then, current methodologies for evaluating the spatiotemporal distribution of nanomedicines are summarized. Finally, the advanced strategies to positively modulate the spatiotemporal distribution of nanomedicines for an optimal tumor therapy are comprehensively reviewed.

Evaluating the antioxidant potential of resveratrol-gold nanoparticles in preventing oxidative stress in endothelium on a chip

Vascular endothelial cells play a vital role in the health and maintenance of vascular homeostasis, but hyperglycemia disrupts their function by increasing cellular oxidative stress. Resveratrol, a plant polyphenol, possesses antioxidant properties that can mitigate oxidative stress. Addressing the challenges of its limited solubility and stability, gold nanoparticles (GNps) were utilized as carriers. A microfluidic chip (MFC) with dynamic flow conditions was designed to simulate body vessels and to investigate the antioxidant properties of resveratrol gold nanoparticles (RGNps), citrate gold nanoparticles (CGNps), and free Resveratrol on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay was employed to measure the extracellular antioxidant potential, and cell viability was determined using the Alamar Blue test. For assessing intracellular oxidative stress, the 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay was conducted, and results from both the cell culture plate and MFC were compared. Free Resveratrol demonstrated peak DPPH scavenging activity but had a cell viability of about 24-35%. RGNPs, both 3.0 ± 0.5 nm and 20.2 ± 4.7 nm, consistently showed high cell viability (more than about 90%) across tested concentrations. Notably, RGNPs (20 nm) exhibited antioxidative properties through DPPH scavenging activity (%) in the range of approximately 38-86% which was greater than that of CGNps at about 21-32%. In the MFC,the DCFH-DA analysis indicated that RGNPs (20 nm) reduced cellular oxidative stress by 57-82%, surpassing both CGNps and free Resveratrol. Morphologically, cells in the MFC presented superior structure compared to those in traditional cell culture plates, and the induction of hyperglycemia successfully led to the formation of multinucleated variant endothelial cells (MVECs). The MFC provides a distinct advantage in observing cell morphology and inducing endothelial cell dysfunction. RGNps have demonstrated significant potential in alleviating oxidative stress and preventing endothelial cell disorders.

Stimuli-sensitive nano-drug delivery with programmable size changes to enhance accumulation of therapeutic agents in tumors

Nano-based drug delivery systems hold significant promise for cancer therapies. Presently, the poor accumulation of drug-carrying nanoparticles in tumors has limited their success. In this study, based on a combination of the paradigms of intravascular and extravascular drug release, an efficient nanosized drug delivery system with programmable size changes is introduced. Drug-loaded smaller nanoparticles (secondary nanoparticles), which are loaded inside larger nanoparticles (primary nanoparticles), are released within the microvascular network due to temperature field resulting from focused ultrasound. This leads to the scale of the drug delivery system decreasing by 7.5 to 150 times. Subsequently, smaller nanoparticles enter the tissue at high transvascular rates and achieve higher accumulation, leading to higher penetration depths. In response to the acidic pH of tumor microenvironment (according to the distribution of oxygen), they begin to release the drug doxorubicin at very slow rates (i.e., sustained release). To predict the performance and distribution of therapeutic agents, a semi-realistic microvascular network is first generated based on a sprouting angiogenesis model and the transport of therapeutic agents is then investigated based on a developed multi-compartment model. The results show that reducing the size of the primary and secondary nanoparticles can lead to higher cell death rate. In addition, tumor growth can be inhibited for a longer time by enhancing the bioavailability of the drug in the extracellular space. The proposed drug delivery system can be very promising in clinical applications. Furthermore, the proposed mathematical model is applicable to broader applications to predict the performance of drug delivery systems.

Development of Statistically Optimized Piperine-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer: In Vitro Evaluation and Cell Culture Studies

Piperine (PPN) is a natural alkaloid derived from black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and has garnered substantial attention for its potential in breast cancer therapy due to its diverse pharmacological properties. However, its highly lipophilic characteristics and poor dissolution in biological fluids limit its clinical application. Therefore, to overcome this limitation, we formulate and evaluate PPN-encapsulated polycaprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles (PPN-PCL-NPs). The nanoparticles were prepared by a single-step nanoprecipitation method and further optimized by a formulation design approach. The influence of selected independent variables PCL (X1), poloxamer 188 (P-188; X2), and stirring speed (SS; X3) were investigated on the particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and % encapsulation efficiency (EE). The selected optimized nanoparticles were further assessed for stability, in vitro release, and in vitro antibreast cancer activity in the MCF-7 cancer cell line. The PS, PDI, zeta potential, and % EE of the optimized PPN-PCL-NPs were observed to be 107.61 ± 5.28 nm, 0.136 ± 0.011, -20.42 ± 1.82 mV, and 79.53 ± 5.22%, respectively. The developed PPN-PCL-NPs were stable under different temperature conditions with insignificant changes in their pharmaceutical attributes. The optimized PPN-PCL-NPs showed a burst release for the first 6 h and later showed sustained release for 48 h. The PPN-PCL-NPs exhibit exceptional cytotoxic effects in MCF-7 breast tumor cells in comparison with the native PPN. Thus, the formulation of PPN-loaded PCL-NPs can be a promising approach for better therapeutic efficacy against breast cancer.

Virus-Bionic Mesoporous Silica Nanoplatform for Malignant Tumor Inhibition via Effective Cellular Uptake and Precise Drug Delivery

Over the past few decades, sophisticated nanomaterials have been used as carries for the targeted delivery of therapeutics to solid tumors. However, the low efficiency of intracellular internalization of nanocarriers in current use restricts their biomedical application. In this work, we demonstrate that novel virus-bionic mesoporous-silica-based nanocarriers can be successfully prepared for programmed precise drug delivery. These unique viral mimic nanovesicles not only present virus bionic counterparts and nanostructures, but also have infectious virus-like properties toward tumor cells and tumor tissues. Encouragingly, their large surface area (322.1 m2 /g) endows them with high loading capacity for therapeutic agents, especially, they have more effective gene transfection properties than the commercially available LipoGeneTM transfection reagent. Thanks to their virus-inspired morphology, they exhibit outstanding cellular uptake efficiency with living tumor cells and the ability to invade cells in large quantities with incubation times as short as 5 min, which is much faster than traditional mesoporous silica nanoparticles (mSN) with smooth appearance. Importantly, after doxorubicin (DOX) loading and surface modification of tumor recognition motifs, RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp, vMN@DOX-RGD), the bionic drug-loaded viral mimics elicit potent tumor cell elimination both in vitro and in vivo, greatly exceeding the mSN-based group. Our work paves the way toward virus bionic nanocarrier design for malignant tumor suppression in the clinic.

mPEG-CS-modified flexible liposomes-reinforced thermosensitive sol-gel reversible hydrogels for ocular delivery of multiple drugs with enhanced synergism

Non-invasive drug delivery offers a safe treatment while improving patient compliance. However, due to the particular physiological structure of the ocular, long-term retention and sustained drug release of the drug delivery system is crucial. Herein, this study aimed to design mPEG-CS-modified flexible liposomes-reinforced thermosensitive sol-gel reversible hydrogels (mPEG-CS-FL-TSG) for the delivery of astragaloside IV (AS-IV) and tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) to treat age-related macular degeneration. In vitro biological properties of mPEG-CS-FL and mPEG-CS-FL-TSG showed that they could be successfully taken up by ARPE-19 cells, and the uptake rate of mPEG-CS-FL-TSG was higher. Not only that, the release rate of mPEG-CS-FL-TSG was slower. More significantly, the results showed that the cytotoxicity of mPEG-CS-FL-TSG was lower than that of mPEG-CS-FL. In vivo result revealed that the drug delivery system could prominently enhance the ocular bioavailability of AS-IV and TMP, which is the enhanced synergism of well-permeable liposome and slow-releasing hydrogel. In summary, the mPEG-CS-FL-TSG can compensate for the short retention time and sudden release of liposome, as well as the low drug penetration of hydrogel, in order to show great promise in the non-invasive delivery of multiple drugs for the treatment of posterior ocular diseases.

Cell membrane-camouflaged bufalin targets NOD2 and overcomes multidrug resistance in pancreatic cancer

AIMS

Multidrug resistance in pancreatic cancer poses a significant challenge in clinical treatment. Bufalin (BA), a compound found in secretions from the glands of toads, may help overcome this problem. However, severe cardiotoxicity thus far has hindered its clinical application. Hence, the present study aimed to develop a cell membrane-camouflaged and BA-loaded polylactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticle (CBAP) and assess its potential to counter chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

The toxicity of CBAP was evaluated by electrocardiogram, body weight, distress score, and nesting behavior of mice. In addition, the anticarcinoma activity and underlying mechanism were investigated both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

CBAP significantly mitigated BA-mediated acute cardiotoxicity and enhanced the sensitivity of pancreatic cancer to several clinical drugs, such as gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil, and FOLFIRINOX. Mechanistically, CBAP directly bound to nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain containing protein 2 (NOD2) and inhibited the expression of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells. This inhibits the expression of ATP-binding cassette transporters, which are responsible for chemoresistance in cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that CBAP directly inhibits NOD2. Combining CBAP with standard-of-care chemotherapeutics represents a safe and efficient strategy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Selective Endocytic Uptake of Targeted Liposomes Occurs within a Narrow Range of Liposome Diameters

Cell surface receptors facilitate signaling and nutrient uptake. These processes are dynamic, requiring receptors to be actively recycled by endocytosis. Due to their differential expression in disease states, receptors are often the target of drug-carrier particles, which are adorned with ligands that bind specifically to receptors. These targeted particles are taken into the cell by multiple routes of internalization, where the best-characterized pathway is clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Most studies of particle uptake have utilized bulk assays rather than observing individual endocytic events. As a result, the detailed mechanisms of particle uptake remain obscure. To address this gap, we employed a live-cell imaging approach to study the uptake of individual liposomes as they interact with clathrin-coated structures. By tracking individual internalization events, we find that the size of liposomes rather than the density of the ligands on their surfaces primarily determines their probability of uptake. Interestingly, targeting has the greatest impact on endocytosis of liposomes of intermediate diameters, with the smallest and largest liposomes being internalized or excluded, respectively, regardless of whether they are targeted. These findings, which highlight a previously unexplored limitation of targeted delivery, can be used to design more effective drug carriers.

Integrin-targeting disulfide-crosslinked micellar docetaxel eradicates lung and prostate cancer patient-derived xenografts

Actively targeted nanomedicines though conceptually attractive for tumor therapy are extremely hard to realize due to problems of premature drug leakage, excessive liver accretion, inadequate tumor uptake, and/or retarded drug release inside tumor cells. Here, we systemically studied the influence of disulfide crosslinking on the in vitro and in vivo performance of integrin-targeting micellar docetaxel (t-MDTX). Of note, t-M5DTX with a high disulfide content was clearly advantageous in terms of stability, intracellular drug release, anti-tumor activity toward αVβ3-overexpressing A549 cells, blood circulation and therapeutic efficacy in orthotopic A549-luc lung tumor-bearing mice. t-MDTX induced extraordinary tumor targetability with tumor-to-normal tissue ratios of 1.7-8.3. Further studies indicated that t-M5DTX could effectively eradicate αVβ3-overexpressing lung and prostate cancer patient-derived xenografts (PDX), in which ca. 80% mice became tumor-free. This integrin-targeting disulfide-crosslinked micellar docetaxel emerges as a promising actively targeted nanoformulation for tumor therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Nanomedicines have a great potential in treating advanced tumor patients; however, their tumor-targeting ability and therapeutic efficacy remain unsatisfactory. In addition to PEGylation and ligand selection, particle size, stability and drug release behavior are also critical to their performance in vivo. In this paper, we find that small and cRGD-guided disulfide-crosslinked micellar docetaxel (t-MDTX) induces superior tumor uptake and retention but without increasing liver burden, leading to extraordinary selectivity and inhibition of αvβ3 overexpressing lung tumors. t-MDTX is further shown to effectively treat αvβ3-positive patient-derived tumor models, lending it a high potential for clinical translation.

Engineering endosomolytic nanocarriers of diverse morphologies using confined impingement jet mixing

The clinical translation of many biomolecular therapeutics has been hindered by undesirable pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, inadequate membrane permeability, poor endosomal escape and cytosolic delivery, and/or susceptibility to degradation. Overcoming these challenges merits the development of nanoscale drug carriers (nanocarriers) to improve the delivery of therapeutic cargo. Herein, we implement a flash nanoprecipitation (FNP) approach to produce nanocarriers of diverse vesicular morphologies by using various molecular weight PEG-bl-DEAEMA-co-BMA (PEG-DB) polymers. We demonstrated that FNP can produce uniform (PDI < 0.1) particles after 5 impingements, and that by varying the copolymer hydrophilic mass fraction, FNP enables access to a diverse variety of nanoarchitectures including micelles, unilamellar vesicles (polymersomes), and multi-compartment vesicles (MCVs). We synthesized a library of 2 kDa PEG block copolymers, with DEAEMA-co-BMA second block molecular weights of 3, 6, 12, 15, 20, and 30 kDa. All formulations were both pH responsive, endosomolytic, and capable of loading and cytosolically delivering small negatively charged molecules - albeit to different degrees. Using a B16.F10 melanoma model, we showcased the therapeutic potential of a lead FNP formulated PEG-DB nanocarrier, encapsulating the cyclic dinucleotide (CDN) cGAMP to activate the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway in a therapeutically relevant context. Collectively, these data demonstrate that an FNP process can be used to formulate pH-responsive nanocarriers of diverse morphologies using a PEG-DB polymer system. As FNP is an industrially scalable process, these data address the critical translational challenge of producing PEG-DB nanoparticles at scale. Furthermore, the diverse morphologies produced may specialize in the delivery of distinct biomolecular cargos for other therapeutic applications, implicating the therapeutic potential of this platform in an array of disease applications.

Enhanced specific loss power of hematite-chitosan nanohybrid synthesized by hydrothermal method

We used a hydrothermal technique to develop nano-scale α-Fe2O3 particles and functionalized them with chitosan. An X-ray diffraction study revealed α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles were of single-phase, lattice constants were a = 5.07 Å and c = 13.68 Å, and the grain size was 27 nm. The presence of lattice fringes in the HRTEM image confirmed the crystalline nature of the α-Fe2O3. The Mössbauer spectra reveal a mixed relaxation state, which supports the PPMS studies. Zero-field cooled studies revealed the existence of a Morin transition and blocking temperature. The z-average value of the coated particles by DLS was between 218 and 235 nm, PDI ranged from 0.048 to 0.119, and zeta potential was +46.8 mV. We incubated the Vero and HeLa cell lines for 24 h to study the viability of the nanohybrids at different concentrations. Hyperthermia studies revealed the maximum temperature and specific loss power attained by the hematite-chitosan nanohybrid solution of a concentration between 0.25-4 mg ml-1. The Tmax at the lowest and highest concentrations of 0.25 and 4 mg ml-1 were 42.9 and 48.3°C, while the SLP were 501.6 and 35.5 W g-1, which are remarkably high when the maximum magnetization of α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles was as small as 1.98 emu g-1 at 300 K.

Design and development of pH-responsive alginate-based nanogel carriers for etoposide delivery

Recently, pH-responsive nanogels are playing progressively important roles in cancer treatment. The present study focuses on designing and developing pH-responsive alginate-based nanogels to achieve a controlled release of etoposide (Et) while enhancing its hydrophilicity. Alginate (ALG) is grafted with 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylamide (HPMA) through a microwave-supported method, and the chemical structure of the graft copolymer (ALG-g-PHPMA) was verified by 1H/13C NMR and FTIR techniques. The ALG-g-PHPMA and anticancer drug-loaded ALG-g-PHPMA@Et nanogels were obtained using an emulsion method, and their structures were characterized through FTIR, TG/DSC, AFM/TEM, BET, and DLS analyses. The ALG-g-PHPMA nanogels demonstrated a good drug encapsulation efficiency (79.60 %), displaying a pH-dependent release profile and an in vitro accelerated release of Et compared to the ALG nanogels. Thermal and BET analyses revealed enhanced stability, surface area, and porosity volume of the alginate nanogels. The grafting of PHPMA chains onto alginate altered the surface topology of the ALG nanogels, resulting in lower surface roughness. Furthermore, cytotoxicity tests showed the high biocompatibility of the ALG-g-PHPMA copolymer and its nanogels. The ALG-g-PHPMA@Et nanogels exhibited a higher anticancer effect on lung cancer (H1299) cells than free etoposide. These results suggest that the ALG-g-PHPMA nanogels can be applied as a pH-dependent nanoplatform for delivering anticancer drugs.

Artificial Intelligence's Impact on Drug Discovery and Development From Bench to Bedside

Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques have the potential to revolutionize drug release modeling, optimize therapy for personalized medicine, and minimize side effects. By applying AI algorithms, researchers can predict drug release profiles, incorporate patient-specific factors, and optimize dosage regimens to achieve tailored and effective therapies. This AI-based approach has the potential to improve treatment outcomes, enhance patient satisfaction, and advance the field of pharmaceutical sciences. International collaborations and professional organizations play vital roles in establishing guidelines and best practices for data collection and sharing. Open data initiatives can enhance transparency and scientific progress, facilitating algorithm validation.

Investigating the Effect of Surface Hydrophilicity on the Destiny of PLGA-Poloxamer Nanoparticles in an In Vivo Animal Model

This study aimed to examine the impact of different surface properties of poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (P NPs) and PLGA-Poloxamer nanoparticles (PP NPs) on their in vivo biodistribution. For this purpose, NPs were formulated via nanoprecipitation and loaded with diphenylhexatriene (DPH), a fluorescent dye. The obtained NPs underwent comprehensive characterization, encompassing their morphology, technological attributes, DPH release rate, and thermodynamic properties. The produced NPs were then administered to wild-type mice via intraperitoneal injection, and, at scheduled time intervals, the animals were euthanized. Blood samples, as well as the liver, lungs, and kidneys, were extracted for histological examination and biodistribution analysis. The findings of this investigation revealed that the presence of poloxamers led to smaller NP sizes and induced partial crystallinity in the NPs. The biodistribution and histological results from in vivo experiments evidenced that both, P and PP NPs, exhibited comparable concentrations in the bloodstream, while P NPs could not be detected in the other organs examined. Conversely, PP NPs were primarily sequestered by the lungs and, to a lesser extent, by the kidneys. Future research endeavors will focus on investigating the behavior of drug-loaded NPs in pathological animal models.

Towards a simple in vitro surface chemistry pre-screening method for nanoparticles to be used for drug delivery to solid tumours

An efficient nanoparticulate drug carrier intended for chemotherapy based on intravenous administration must exhibit a long enough blood circulation time, a good penetrability into the tumour volume, as well as an efficient uptake by cancer cells. Limiting factors for the therapeutic outcome in vivo are recognition of the nanoparticles as foreign objects, which triggers nanoparticle uptake by defence organs rich in macrophages, e.g. liver and spleen, on the time-scale of accumulation and uptake in/by the tumour. However, the development of nanomedicine towards efficient nanoparticle-based delivery to solid tumours is hampered by the lack of simple, reproducible, cheap, and predictive means for early identification of promising nanoparticle formulations. The surface chemistry of nanoparticles is known to be the most important determinant for the biological fate of nanoparticles, as it influences the extent of serum protein adsorption, and also the relative composition of the protein corona. Here we preliminarily evaluate an extremely simple screening method for nanoparticle surface chemistry pre-optimization based on nanoparticle uptake in vitro by PC-3 cancer cells and THP-1 macrophages. Only when both selectivity for the cancer cells as well as the extent of nanoparticle uptake are taken into consideration do the in vitro results mirror literature results obtained for small animal models. Furthermore, although not investigated here, the screening method does also lend itself to the study of actively targeted nanoparticles.

Multifunctional Nanotheranostics for Dual-Modal Imaging-Guided Precision Therapy of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Currently, the low survival rate and poor prognosis of patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma are ascribed to the lack of early and accurate diagnosis and resistance to radiotherapy. In parallel, the integration of imaging-guided diagnosis and precise treatment has gained much attention in the field of theranostic nanotechnology. However, constructing dual-modal imaging-guided nanotheranostics with desired imaging performance as well as great biocompatibility remains challenging. Therefore, we developed a simple but multifunctional nanotheranostic GdCPP for the early and accurate diagnosis and efficient treatment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), which combined fluorescence imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) onto a single nanoplatform for imaging-guided subsequent photodynamic therapy (PDT). GdCPP had an appropriate particle size (81.93 ± 0.69 nm) and was highly stable, resulting in sufficient tumor accumulation, which along with massive reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation upon irradiation further significantly killed tumor cells. Moreover, GdCPP owned much stronger r1 relaxivity (9.396 mM-1 s-1) compared to clinically used Gd-DTPA (5.034 mM-1 s-1) and exhibited better T1WI MRI performance. Under dual-modal imaging-guided PDT, GdCPP achieved efficient therapeutic outcomes without causing any noticeable tissue damage. The results of in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that GdCPP may be a suitable candidate for dual-modal imaging-guided precision tumor therapy.

Emerging platinum(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics: A new epoch for platinum-based cancer therapy

Owing to the unique DNA damaging cytotoxicity, platinum (Pt)-based chemotherapy has long been the first-line choice for clinical oncology. Unfortunately, Pt drugs are restricted by the severe dose-dependent toxicity and drug resistance. Correspondingly, Pt(IV) prodrugs are developed with the aim to improve the antitumor performance of Pt drugs. However, as "free" molecules, Pt(IV) prodrugs are still subject to unsatisfactory in vivo destiny and antitumor efficacy. Recently, Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics, inheriting both the merits of Pt(IV) prodrugs and nanotherapeutics, have emerged and demonstrated the promise to address the underexploited dilemma of Pt-based cancer therapy. Herein, we summarize the latest fronts of emerging Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics. First, the basic outlines of Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics are overviewed. Afterwards, how versatile Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics overcome the multiple biological barriers of antitumor drug delivery is introduced in detail. Moreover, advanced combination therapies based on multimodal Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics are discussed with special emphasis on the synergistic mechanisms. Finally, prospects and challenges of Pt(IV) prodrug nanotherapeutics for future clinical translation are spotlighted.

The interplay between PEGylated nanoparticles and blood immune system

During the last two decades, an increasing number of reports have pointed out that the immunogenicity of polyethylene glycol (PEG) may trigger accelerated blood clearance (ABC) and hypersensitivity reaction (HSR) to PEGylated nanoparticles, which could make PEG modification counterproductive. These phenomena would be detrimental to the efficacy of the load and even life-threatening to patients. Consequently, further elucidation of the interplay between PEGylated nanoparticles and the blood immune system will be beneficial to developing and applying related formulations. Many groups have worked to unveil the relevance of structural factors, dosing schedule, and other factors to the ABC phenomenon and hypersensitivity reaction. Interestingly, the results of some reports seem to be difficult to interpret or contradict with other reports. In this review, we summarize the physiological mechanisms of PEG-specific immune response. Moreover, we speculate on the potential relationship between the induction phase and the effectuation phase to explain the divergent results in published reports. In addition, the role of nanoparticle-associated factors is discussed based on the classification of the action phase. This review may help researchers to develop PEGylated nanoparticles to avoid unfavorable immune responses based on the underlying mechanism.