Platelet Membrane-Camouflaged Magnetic Nanoparticles for Ferroptosis-Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Ferroptosis: mechanism, immunotherapy and role in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is currently the second most common malignant tumor among gynecological cancers worldwide, primarily due to challenges in early diagnosis, high recurrence rates, and resistance to existing treatments. Current therapeutic options are inadequate for addressing the needs of ovarian cancer patients. Ferroptosis, a novel form of regulated cell death with demonstrated tumor-suppressive properties, has gained increasing attention in ovarian malignancy research. A growing body of evidence suggests that ferroptosis plays a significant role in the onset, progression, and incidence of ovarian cancer. Additionally, it has been found that immunotherapy, an emerging frontier in tumor treatment, synergizes with ferroptosis in the context of ovarian cancer. Consequently, ferroptosis is likely to become a critical target in the treatment of ovarian cancer.

Current advance of nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment for malignant tumors

Cancer remains a significant risk to human health. Nanomedicine is a new multidisciplinary field that is garnering a lot of interest and investigation. Nanomedicine shows great potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Specifically engineered nanoparticles can be employed as contrast agents in cancer diagnostics to enable high sensitivity and high-resolution tumor detection by imaging examinations. Novel approaches for tumor labeling and detection are also made possible by the use of nanoprobes and nanobiosensors. The achievement of targeted medication delivery in cancer therapy can be accomplished through the rational design and manufacture of nanodrug carriers. Nanoparticles have the capability to effectively transport medications or gene fragments to tumor tissues via passive or active targeting processes, thus enhancing treatment outcomes while minimizing harm to healthy tissues. Simultaneously, nanoparticles can be employed in the context of radiation sensitization and photothermal therapy to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of malignant tumors. This review presents a literature overview and summary of how nanotechnology is used in the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. According to oncological diseases originating from different systems of the body and combining the pathophysiological features of cancers at different sites, we review the most recent developments in nanotechnology applications. Finally, we briefly discuss the prospects and challenges of nanotechnology in cancer.

Targeting novel regulated cell death: Ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 cancer immunotherapy

Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy represent key tumour treatment strategies. Notably, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), particularly anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD1) and anti-programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), have shown clinical efficacy in clinical tumour immunotherapy. However, the limited effectiveness of ICIs is evident due to many cancers exhibiting poor responses to this treatment. An emerging avenue involves triggering non-apoptotic regulated cell death (RCD), a significant mechanism driving cancer cell death in diverse cancer treatments. Recent research demonstrates that combining RCD inducers with ICIs significantly enhances their antitumor efficacy across various cancer types. The use of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy activates CD8+ T cells, prompting the initiation of novel RCD forms, such as ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis. However, the functions and mechanisms of non-apoptotic RCD in anti-PD1/PD-L1 therapy remain insufficiently explored. This review summarises the emerging roles of ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis in anti-PD1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. It emphasises the synergy between nanomaterials and PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors to induce non-apoptotic RCD in different cancer types. Furthermore, targeting cell death signalling pathways in combination with anti-PD1/PD-L1 therapies holds promise as a prospective immunotherapy strategy for tumour treatment.

NIR Absorbing Organic Chromophores Combination with NSAIDs for Remodeling of the Inflammatory Microenvironment to Amplify Tumor Ferroptosis-Photothermal Synergistic Therapy

Photothermal therapy has emerged as a promising approach for cancer treatment, which can cause ferroptosis to enhance immunotherapeutic efficacy. However, excessively generated immunogenicity will induce serious inflammatory response syndrome, resulting in a discounted therapeutic effect. Herein, a kind of NIR absorption small organic chromophore nanoparticles (TTHM NPs) with high photothermal conversion efficiency (68.33%) is developed, which can induce mitochondria dysfunction, generate mitochondrial superoxide, and following ferroptosis. TTHM NPs-based photothermal therapy is combined with Sulfasalazine (SUZ), a kind of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, to weaken inflammation and promote ferroptosis through suppressing glutamate/cystine (Glu/Cys) antiporter system Xc- (xCT). Additionally, the combination of SUZ with PTT can induce immunogenic cell death (ICD), followed by promoting the maturation of DCs and the attraction of CD8+ T cell, which will secrete IFN-γ and trigger self-amplified ferroptosis via inhibiting xCT and simulating Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4). Moreover, the in vivo results demonstrate that this combination therapy can suppress the expression of inflammatory factors, enhance dendritic cell activation, facilitate T-cell infiltration, and realize effective thermal elimination of primary tumors and distant tumors. In general, this work provides an excellent example of combined medication and stimulates new thinking about onco-therapy and inflammatory response.

Chemodynamic therapy combined with endogenous ferroptosis based on "sea urchin-like" copper sulfide hydrogel for enhancing anti-tumor efficacy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is a promising strategy for cancer treatment, however, its application is restricted by low hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration, insufficient reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and high glutathione (GSH) levels. Here, we developed an injectable thermosensitive hydrogel (DSUC-Gel) based on "sea urchin-like" copper sulfide nanoparticles (UCuS) loaded with dihydroartemisinin (DHA) and sulfasalazine (SAS) to overcome these limitations of CDT. DSUC was cleaved to release DHA, SAS and Cu2+ under acidic tumor microenvironment to enhance CDT. DHA with peroxide bridge responded to intracellular Fe2+ to alleviate H2O2 deficiency. SAS prevented GSH synthesis by targeting SLC7A11 and inhibited glutathione peroxidase (GPX4) activity to induce endogenous ferroptosis. ROS produced by Fenton-like reaction of Cu2+ promoted lipid peroxidation (LPO) accumulation to promote ferroptosis. Enhanced CDT and ferroptosis induced immunogenic cell death (ICD), promoted dendritic cells (DCs) maturation and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) infiltration. As a result, DSUC-Gel significantly inhibited tumor growth both in vitro and in vivo. Our study provides a novel approach for enhancing anti-tumor efficacy by combining CDT, endogenous ferroptosis and ICD.

Advances in engineered nanosystems: immunomodulatory interactions for therapeutic applications

Advances in nanotechnology have led to significant progress in the design and fabrication of nanoparticles (NPs) with improved therapeutic properties. NPs have been explored for modulating the immune system, serving as carriers for drug delivery or vaccine adjuvants, or acting as therapeutics themselves against a wide range of deadly diseases. The combination of NPs with immune system-targeting moieties has facilitated the development of improved targeted immune therapies. Targeted delivery of therapeutic agents using NPs specifically to the disease-affected cells, distinguishing them from other host cells, offers the major advantage of concentrating the therapeutic effect and reducing systemic side effects. Furthermore, the properties of NPs, including size, shape, surface charge, and surface modifications, influence their interactions with the targeted biological components. This review aims to provide insights into these diverse emerging and innovative approaches that are being developed and utilized for modulating the immune system using NPs. We reviewed various types of NPs composed of different materials and their specific application for modulating the immune system. Furthermore, we focused on the mechanistic effects of these therapeutic NPs on primary immune components, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and complement systems. Additionally, a recent overview of clinically approved immunomodulatory nanomedicines and potential future perspectives, offering new paradigms of this field, is also highlighted.

Dual drug-loaded metal-phenolic networks for targeted magnetic resonance imaging and synergistic chemo-chemodynamic therapy of breast cancer

The development of nanomedicines with simplified compositions and synergistic theranostic functionalities remains a great challenge. Herein, we develop a simple method to integrate both atovaquone (ATO, a mitochondrial inhibitor) and cisplatin within tannic acid (TA)-iron (Fe) networks coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) for targeted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging-guided chemo-chemodynamic synergistic therapy. The formed TFP@ATO-HA displayed good colloidal stability with a mean size of 95.5 nm, which could accumulate at tumor sites after circulation and be specifically taken up by metastatic 4T1 cells overexpressing CD44 receptors. In the tumor microenvironment, TFP@ATO-HA could release ATO/cisplatin and Fe3+ in a pH-responsive manner, deplete glutathione, and generate reactive oxygen species with endogenous H2O2 for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Additionally, ATO could enhance chemotherapeutic efficacy by inhibiting mitochondrial respiration, relieving hypoxia, and amplifying the CDT effect by decreasing intracellular pH and elevating Fenton reaction efficiency. In vivo experiments demonstrated that TFP@ATO-HA could effectively inhibit tumor growth and suppress lung metastases without obvious systemic toxicity. Furthermore, TFP@ATO-HA exhibited a r1 relaxivity of 2.6 mM-1 s-1 and targeted MR imaging of 4T1 tumors. Dual drug-loaded metal-phenolic networks can be easily prepared and act as effective theranostic nanoplatforms for targeted MR imaging and synergistic chemo-chemodynamic therapy.

Platelet Membrane-Camouflaged Silver Metal-Organic Framework Biomimetic Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by high malignancy and limited treatment options. Given the pressing need for more effective treatments for TNBC, this study aimed to develop platelet membrane (PM)-camouflaged silver metal-organic framework nanoparticles (PM@MOF-Ag NPs), a biomimetic nanodrug. PM@MOF-Ag NP construction involved the utilization of 2-methylimidazole and silver nitrate to prepare silver metal-organic framework (MOF-Ag) NPs. The PM@MOF-Ag NPs, due to their camouflage, possess excellent blood compatibility, immune escape ability, and a strong affinity for 4T1 tumor cells. This enhances their circulation time in vivo and promotes the aggregation of PM@MOF-Ag NPs at the 4T1 tumor site. Importantly, PM@MOF-Ag NPs demonstrated promising antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. We further revealed that PM@MOF-Ag NPs induced tumor cell death by overproducing reactive oxygen species and promoting cell apoptosis. Moreover, PM@MOF-Ag NPs enhanced apoptosis by upregulating the ratios of Bax/Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase3/pro-caspase3. Notably, PM@MOF-Ag NPs exhibited no significant organ toxicity, whereas the administration of MOF-Ag NPs resulted in liver inflammation compared to the control group.

Ferroptosis in Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms, Small Molecule Inducers, and Novel Approaches

Ferroptosis, a unique form of programmed cell death, is initiated by an excess of iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation-induced damage. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that ferroptosis plays a critical role in the advancement of tumors. The increased metabolic activity and higher iron levels in tumor cells make them particularly vulnerable to ferroptosis. As a result, the targeted induction of ferroptosis is becoming an increasingly promising approach for cancer treatment. This review offers an overview of the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis, delves into the mechanism of action of traditional small molecule ferroptosis inducers and their effects on various tumors. In addition, the latest progress in inducing ferroptosis using new means such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), photodynamic therapy (PDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT) and nanomaterials is summarized. Finally, this review discusses the challenges and opportunities in the development of ferroptosis-inducing agents, focusing on discovering new targets, improving selectivity, and reducing toxic and side effects.

Ferroptosis resistance in cancer cells: nanoparticles for combination therapy as a solution

Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death (RCD) characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis is currently proposed as one of the most promising means of combating tumor resistance. Nevertheless, the problem of ferroptosis resistance in certain cancer cells has been identified. This review first, investigates the mechanisms of ferroptosis induction in cancer cells. Next, the problem of cancer cell resistance to ferroptosis, as well as the underlying mechanisms is discussed. Recently discovered ferroptosis-suppressing biomarkers have been described. The various types of nanoparticles that can induce ferroptosis are also discussed. Given the ability of nanoparticles to combine multiple agents, this review proposes nanoparticle-based ferroptosis cell death as a viable method of circumventing this resistance. This review suggests combining ferroptosis with other forms of cell death, such as apoptosis, cuproptosis and autophagy. It also suggests combining ferroptosis with immunotherapy.

Engineered biological nanoparticles as nanotherapeutics for tumor immunomodulation

Biological nanoparticles, or bionanoparticles, are small molecules manufactured in living systems with complex production and assembly machinery. The products of the assembly systems can be further engineered to generate functionalities for specific purposes. These bionanoparticles have demonstrated advantages such as immune system evasion, minimal toxicity, biocompatibility, and biological clearance. Hence, bionanoparticles are considered the new paradigm in nanoscience research for fabricating safe and effective nanoformulations for therapeutic purposes. Harnessing the power of the immune system to recognize and eradicate malignancies is a viable strategy to achieve better therapeutic outcomes with long-term protection from disease recurrence. However, cancerous tissues have evolved to become invisible to immune recognition and to transform the tumor microenvironment into an immunosuppressive dwelling, thwarting the immune defense systems and creating a hospitable atmosphere for cancer growth and progression. Thus, it is pertinent that efforts in fabricating nanoformulations for immunomodulation are mindful of the tumor-induced immune aberrations that could render cancer nanotherapy inoperable. This review systematically categorizes the immunosuppression mechanisms, the regulatory immunosuppressive cellular players, and critical suppressive molecules currently targeted as breakthrough therapies in the clinic. Finally, this review will summarize the engineering strategies for affording immune moderating functions to bionanoparticles that tip the tumor microenvironment (TME) balance toward cancer elimination, a field still in the nascent stage.

Engineering Platelet Membrane-Coated Bimetallic MOFs as Biodegradable Nanozymes for Efficient Antibacterial Therapy

Nanocatalytic-based wound therapeutics present a promising strategy for generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) to antipathogen to promote wound healing. However, the full clinical potential of these nanocatalysts is limited by their low reactivity, limited targeting ability, and poor biodegradability in the wound microenvironment. Herein, a bio-organic nanozyme is developed by encapsulating a FeZn-based bimetallic organic framework (MOF) (MIL-88B-Fe/Zn) in platelet membranes (PM@MIL-88B-Fe/Zn) for antimicrobial activity during wound healing. The introduction of Zn in MIL-88B-Fe/Zn modulates the electronic structure of Fe thus accelerating the catalytic kinetics of its peroxidase-like activity to catalytically generate powerful ROS. The platelet membrane coating of MOF innovatively enhanced the interaction between nanoparticles and the biological environment, further developing bacterial-targeted therapy with excellent antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, this nanozyme markedly suppressed the levels of inflammatory cytokines and promoted angiogenesis in vivo to effectively treat skin surface wounds and accelerate wound healing. PM@MIL-88B-Fe/Zn exhibited superior biodegradability, favourable metabolism and non-toxic accumulation, eliminating concerns regarding side effects from long-term exposure. The high catalytic reactivity, excellent targeting features, and biodegradability of these nanoenzymes developed in this study provide useful insights into the design and synthesis of nanocatalysts/nanozymes for practical biomedical applications.

Regulation of ferroptosis by nanotechnology for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

This review explores the innovative intersection of ferroptosis, a form of iron-dependent cell death, with cancer immunotherapy. Traditional cancer treatments face limitations in efficacy and specificity. Ferroptosis as a new paradigm in cancer biology, targets metabolic peculiarities of cancer cells and may potentially overcome such limitations, enhancing immunotherapy.

AREA COVERED

This review centers on the regulation of ferroptosis by nanotechnology to augment immunotherapy. It explores how nanoparticle-modulated ferroptotic cancer cells impact the TME and immune responses. The dual role of nanoparticles in modulating immune response through ferroptosis are also discussed. Additionally, it investigates how nanoparticles can be integrated with various immunotherapeutic strategies, to optimize ferroptosis induction and cancer treatment efficacy. The literature search was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar, covering articles published up to March 2024.

EXPERT OPINION

The manuscript underscores the promising yet intricate landscape of ferroptosis in immunotherapy. It emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of ferroptosis' impact on immune cells and the TME to develop more effective cancer treatments, highlighting the potential of nanoparticles in enhancing the efficacy of ferroptosis and immunotherapy. It calls for deeper exploration into the molecular mechanisms and clinical potential of ferroptosis to fully harness its therapeutic benefits in immunotherapy.

Oxygen Self-Supplied Perfluorocarbon-Modified Micelles for Enhanced Cancer Photodynamic Therapy and Ferroptosis

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and ferroptosis show significant potential in tumor treatment. However, their therapeutic efficacy is often hindered by the oxygen-deficient tumor microenvironment and the challenges associated with efficient intracellular drug delivery into tumor cells. Toward this end, this work synthesized perfluorocarbon (PFC)-modified Pluronic F127 (PFC-F127), and then exploits it as a carrier for codelivery of photosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6) and the ferroptosis promoter sorafenib (Sor), yielding an oxygen self-supplying nanoplatform denoted as Ce6-Sor@PFC-F127. The PFCs on the surface of the micelle play a crucial role in efficiently solubilizing and delivering oxygen as well as increasing the hydrophobicity of the micelle surface, giving rise to enhanced endocytosis by cancer cells. The incorporation of an oxygen-carrying moiety into the micelles enhances the therapeutic impact of PDT and ferroptosis, leading to amplified endocytosis and cytotoxicity of tumor cells. Hypotonic saline technology was developed to enhance the cargo encapsulation efficiency. Notably, in a murine tumor model, Ce6-Sor@PFC-F127 effectively inhibited tumor growth through the combined use of oxygen-enhanced PDT and ferroptosis. Taken together, this work underscores the promising potential of Ce6-Sor@PFC-F127 as a multifunctional therapeutic nanoplatform for the codelivery of multiple cargos such as oxygen, photosensitizers, and ferroptosis inducers.

Immunotherapy of M2 macrophage derived from exosome-based nanoparticles for spinal cord injury

Developing biomimetic nanoparticles without off-target side-effects remains a major challenge in spinal cord injury (SCI) immunotherapy. In this paper, we have conducted a drug carrier which is biocompatible macrophages-exocytosed exosome-biomimetic manganese (Mn)-iron prussian blue analogues (MPBs) for SCI immunotherapy. Exosome-sheathed MPBs (E-MPBs) exhibit promoted microglia accumulation, alleviation from H2O2-induced microenvironment and inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation in vitro. In addition, E-MPBs possessed significant tissue repair and neuroprotection in vivo. These properties endowed E-MPBs with great improvement in vivo in function recovery, resulting in anti-neuroinflammation activity and excellent biocompatibility in mice SCI model. As a promising treatment for efficient SCI immunotherapy, these results demonstrate the use of exosome-sheathed biomimetic nanoparticles exocytosed by anti-inflammation cells is feasible.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles as a biomimetic drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a burgeoning modality for cancer treatment, operates by activating the autoimmune system to impede the growth of malignant cells. Although numerous immunotherapy strategies have been employed in clinical cancer therapy, the resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapeutic medications and other apprehensions impede the attainment of sustained advantages for most patients. Recent advancements in nanotechnology for drug delivery hold promise in augmenting the efficacy of immunotherapy. However, the efficacy is currently constrained by the inadequate specificity of delivery, low rate of response, and the intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this context, the investigation of cell membrane coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) has revealed their ability to perform targeted delivery, immune evasion, controlled release, and immunomodulation. By combining the advantageous features of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles, CMNPs have demonstrated their unique potential in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. This review aims to emphasize recent research progress and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of CMNPs as an innovative drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the current immunotherapeutic strategies involving different cell membrane types of CMNPs, with the intention of further exploration and optimization.

Blood-Brain Barrier-Penetrating and Lesion-Targeting Nanoplatforms Inspired by the Pathophysiological Features for Synergistic Ischemic Stroke Therapy

Ischemic stroke is a dreadful vascular disorder that poses enormous threats to the public health. Due to its complicated pathophysiological features, current treatment options after ischemic stroke attack remains unsatisfactory. Insufficient drug delivery to ischemic lesions impeded by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) largely limits the therapeutic efficacy of most anti-stroke agents. Herein, inspired by the rapid BBB penetrability of 4T1 tumor cells upon their brain metastasis and natural roles of platelet in targeting injured vasculatures, a bio-derived nanojacket is developed by fusing 4T1 tumor cell membrane with platelet membrane, which further clothes on the surface of paeonol and polymetformin-loaded liposome to obtain biomimetic nanoplatforms (PP@PCL) for ischemic stroke treatment. The designed PP@PCL could remarkably alleviate ischemia-reperfusion injury by efficiently targeting ischemic lesion, preventing neuroinflammation, scavenging excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), reprogramming microglia phenotypes, and promoting angiogenesis due to the synergistic therapeutic mechanisms that anchor the pathophysiological characteristics of ischemic stroke. As a result, PP@PCL exerts desirable therapeutic efficacy in injured PC12 neuronal cells and rat model of ischemic stroke, which significantly attenuates neuronal apoptosis, reduces infarct volume, and recovers neurological functions, bringing new insights into exploiting promising treatment strategies for cerebral ischemic stroke management.

Dendritic Polylysine with Paclitaxel and Triptolide Codelivery for Enhanced Cancer Ferroptosis through the Accumulation of ROS

Recently, paclitaxel (PTX) was reported to increase intracellular lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, triggering cancer cell ferroptosis. Based on this, some efforts had been made to improve PTX treatment for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Our previous studies demonstrated that triptolide (TPL) could improve the antitumor effect of PTX. Nevertheless, the poor solubility and side effects often limit the application of chemotherapy drugs. In this paper, we constructed a novel nanodrug delivery system (NDDS) chemosynthesis by PEGylated generation 3 (G3) dendritic polylysine coloaded with PTX and TPL (PTX-TPL-PEG-PLL, PTPP), which was endowed with the ability of tumor targeting and favorable solubility. In addition, we demonstrated that TPL could induce ROS generation by regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway to enhance the ferroptosis-induced effect of PTX. Besides, ferroptosis induced by PTPP could improve chemoresistance through inhibiting the level of P-gp, GPX4, and SLC7A11. Furthermore, we determined that ferroptosis may strengthen the immune response by increasing the expression of CD8+ T cells and IFN-γ+ cells while decreasing Treg cells. In general, PTPP may be a potential system for NSCLC treatment.

Nanoparticles in tumor microenvironment remodeling and cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development have significantly improved the fight against cancers. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in the clinical delivery of immunomodulatory compounds. The tumor microenvironment (TME), comprising macrophages, fibroblasts, and immune cells, plays a crucial role in immune response modulation. Nanoparticles, engineered to reshape the TME, have shown promising results in enhancing immunotherapy by facilitating targeted delivery and immune modulation. These nanoparticles can suppress fibroblast activation, promote M1 macrophage polarization, aid dendritic cell maturation, and encourage T cell infiltration. Biomimetic nanoparticles further enhance immunotherapy by increasing the internalization of immunomodulatory agents in immune cells such as dendritic cells. Moreover, exosomes, whether naturally secreted by cells in the body or bioengineered, have been explored to regulate the TME and immune-related cells to affect cancer immunotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, activated by pH, redox, and light conditions, exhibit the potential to accelerate immunotherapy. The co-application of nanoparticles with immune checkpoint inhibitors is an emerging strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity. With their ability to induce long-term immunity, nanoarchitectures are promising structures in vaccine development. This review underscores the critical role of nanoparticles in overcoming current challenges and driving the advancement of cancer immunotherapy and TME modification.

Non-apoptotic regulated cell death mediates reprogramming of the tumour immune microenvironment by macrophages

Tumour immune microenvironment (TIME) plays an indispensable role in tumour progression, and tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant immune cells in TIME. Non-apoptotic regulated cell death (RCD) can avoid the influence of tumour apoptosis resistance on anti-tumour immune response. Specifically, autophagy, ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis mediate the crosstalk between TAMs and tumour cells in TIME, thus reprogram TIME and affect the progress of tumour. In addition, although some achievements have been made in immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), there is still defect that ICIs are only effective for some people because non-apoptotic RCD can bypass the apoptosis resistance of tumour. As a result, ICIs combined with targeting non-apoptotic RCD may be a promising solution. In this paper, the basic molecular mechanism of non-apoptotic RCD, the way in which non-apoptotic RCD mediates crosstalk between TAMs and tumour cells to reprogram TIME, and the latest research progress in targeting non-apoptotic RCD and ICIs are reviewed.

Ferroptosis: a potential target for the treatment of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS), the main contributor to acute cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke, is characterized by necrotic core formation and plaque instability induced by cell death. The mechanisms of cell death in AS have recently been identified and elucidated. Ferroptosis, a novel iron-dependent form of cell death, has been proven to participate in atherosclerotic progression by increasing endothelial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, accumulated intracellular iron activates various signaling pathways or risk factors for AS, such as abnormal lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation, which can eventually lead to the disordered function of macrophages, vascular smooth muscle cells, and vascular endothelial cells. However, the molecular pathways through which ferroptosis affects AS development and progression are not entirely understood. This review systematically summarizes the interactions between AS and ferroptosis and provides a feasible approach for inhibiting AS progression from the perspective of ferroptosis.

Harnessing ferroptosis for enhanced sarcoma treatment: mechanisms, progress and prospects

Sarcoma is a malignant tumor that originates from mesenchymal tissue. The common treatment for sarcoma is surgery supplemented with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, patients have a 5-year survival rate of only approximately 60%, and sarcoma cells are highly resistant to chemotherapy. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent nonapoptotic type of regulated programmed cell death that is closely related to the pathophysiological processes underlying tumorigenesis, neurological diseases and other conditions. Moreover, ferroptosis is mediated via multiple regulatory pathways that may be targets for disease therapy. Recent studies have shown that the induction of ferroptosis is an effective way to kill sarcoma cells and reduce their resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs. Moreover, ferroptosis-related genes are related to the immune system, and their expression can be used to predict sarcoma prognosis. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanism underlying ferroptosis in detail, systematically summarize recent research progress with respect to ferroptosis application as a sarcoma treatment in various contexts, and point out gaps in the theoretical research on ferroptosis, challenges to its clinical application, potential resolutions of these challenges to promote ferroptosis as an efficient, reliable and novel method of clinical sarcoma treatment.

The application of nanoparticles-based ferroptosis, pyroptosis and autophagy in cancer immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs) have been applied for cancer therapy and achieved great success in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Nevertheless, the broad application of ICBs is limited by the low response rate. To address this issue, increasing studies have found that the induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells is becoming an emerging therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment, not only straightly killing tumor cells but also enhancing dying cells immunogenicity and activating antitumor immunity. ICD is a generic term representing different cell death modes containing ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy and apoptosis. Traditional chemotherapeutic agents usually inhibit tumor growth based on the apoptotic ICD, but most tumor cells are resistant to the apoptosis. Thus, the induction of non-apoptotic ICD is considered to be a more efficient approach for cancer therapy. In addition, due to the ineffective localization of ICD inducers, various types of nanomaterials have been being developed to achieve targeted delivery of therapeutic agents and improved immunotherapeutic efficiency. In this review, we briefly outline molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis, pyroptosis and autophagy, as well as their reciprocal interactions with antitumor immunity, and then summarize the current progress of ICD-induced nanoparticles based on different strategies and illustrate their applications in the cancer therapy.

Biomimetic Nanoarchitectonics with Chitosan Nanogels for Collaborative Induction of Ferroptosis and Anticancer Immunity for Cancer Therapy

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) shows promising therapeutic potential for tumor regression. However, the low sensitivity and immunosuppressive state of current cell death manners seriously impede tumor immunogenicity. Ferroptosis characterized by excessive lipid peroxidation, has emerged as a potential strategy to induce ICD and activate antitumor immune responses. However, the effectiveness of ferroptosis is limited by antioxidant regulatory networks, including the glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1) pathways, presenting challenges for its induction. Herein, they propose a novel approach that involves utilizing functionalized chitosan-ferrocene-sodium alginate (CFA) crosslinked nanogels, which are modified to pravastatin (PRV) and M1 macrophage membrane (MM) (designing as CFA/PRV@MM). Specifically, ferrocene boots intracellular reactive oxygen species levels for efficient glutathione (GSH) depletion through Fenton reaction, thus disrupting the GPX4/GSH axis, while PRV intervenes in the mevalonate pathway to inhibit the FSP1/CoQ10 antioxidant axis, thereby synergistically causing pronounced ferroptotic damage and promoting ICD. The CFA/PRV@MM nanogels demonstrate superior therapeutic efficacy in a mouse breast model, resulting in effective tumor ablation and immune response with minimal side effects. RNA transcription analysis reveals that nanogels can significantly affect metabolic progress, as well as immune activation. This research provides valuable insights into the design of ferroptosis induction for cancer immunotherapy.

DNA Adjuvant Hydrogel-Optimized Enzymatic Cascade Reaction for Tumor Chemodynamic-Immunotherapy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) shows immense potential in cancer treatment as it not only directly kills tumor cells but also induces anti-tumor immune responses. However, the efficacy of CDT is hampered by challenges in targeting CDT catalysts specifically to tumors using nanomaterials, along with the limitations of low H2 O2 levels and short catalyst duration within the tumor microenvironment. In this study, DNA adjuvant hydrogel to arrange a glucose oxidase-ferrocene cascade for continuously generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) from glucose in situ for tumor CDT combined with immunotherapy is employed. By precisely tuning the catalyst spacing with DNA double helix, ROS production efficiency is elevated by up to nine times compared to free catalysts, resulting in stronger immunogenetic cell death. Upon intratumoral injection, the DNA hydrogel system elicited potent anti-tumor immune responses, thereby effectively inhibiting established tumors and rejecting re-challenged tumors. This work offers a novel platform for integrated CDT and immunotherapy in cancer treatment.

Cell-nanocarrier drug delivery system: a promising strategy for cancer therapy

Tumor targeting has been a great challenge for drug delivery systems. A number of nanotechnology-derived drug carriers have been developed for cancer treatment to improve efficacy and biocompatibility. Among them, the emergence of cell-nanocarriers has attracted great attention, which simulates cell function and has good biocompatibility. They can also escape the clearance of reticuloendothelial system, showing a long-cycle effect. The inherent tumor migration and tumor homing ability of cells increase their significance as tumor-targeting vectors. In this review, we focus on the combination of stem cells, immune cells, red blood cells, and cell membranes to nanocarriers, which enable chemotherapy agents to efficiently target lesion sites and improve drug distribution while being low toxic and safe. In addition, we discuss the pros and cons of these nanoparticles as well as the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. Although research to address these limitations is still ongoing, this promising tumor-targeted drug delivery system will provide a safe and effective platform against cancer.

Inhibition of growth of hepatocellular carcinoma by co-delivery of anti-PD-1 antibody and sorafenib using biomimetic nano-platelets

BACKGROUND

Traditional nanodrug delivery systems have some limitations, such as eliciting immune responses and inaccuracy in targeting tumor microenvironments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Targeted drugs (Sorafenib, Sora) nanometers (hollow mesoporous silicon, HMSN) were designed, and then coated with platelet membranes to form aPD-1-PLTM-HMSNs@Sora to enhance the precision of drug delivery systems to the tumor microenvironment, so that more effective immunotherapy was achieved.

RESULTS

These biomimetic nanoparticles were validated to have the same abilities as platelet membranes (PLTM), including evading the immune system. The successful coating of HMSNs@Sora with PLTM was corroborated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), western blot and confocal laser microscopy. The affinity of aPD-1-PLTM-HMSNs@Sora to tumor cells was stronger than that of HMSNs@Sora. After drug-loaded particles were intravenously injected into hepatocellular carcinoma model mice, they were demonstrated to not only directly activate toxic T cells, but also increase the triggering release of Sora. The combination of targeted therapy and immunotherapy was found to be of gratifying antineoplastic function on inhibiting primary tumor growth.

CONCLUSIONS

The aPD-1-PLTM-HMSNs@Sora nanocarriers that co-delivery of aPD-1 and Sorafenib integrates unique biomimetic properties and excellent targeting performance, and provides a neoteric idea for drug delivery of personalized therapy for primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Insights into the time-course cellular effects triggered by iron oxide nanoparticles by combining proteomics with the traditional pharmacology strategy

In recent years, a number of initially approved magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP)-based nano-medicines have been withdrawn due to the obscure nano-bio effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study the cellular effects triggered by IONPs on cells. In this study, we investigate the time-course cellular effects on the response of RAW 264.7 cells caused by Si-IONPs via pharmacological and mass spectrometry-based proteomics techniques. Our results revealed that Si-IONPs were internalized by clathrin-mediated endocytosis within 1 hour, and gradually degraded in endolysosomes over time, which might influence autophagy, oxidative stress, innate immune response, and inflammatory response after 12 hours. Our research provides a necessary assessment of Si-IONPs for further clinical treatment.

Nanoenabled Intracellular Metal Ion Homeostasis Regulation for Tumor Therapy

Endogenous essential metal ions play an important role in many life processes, especially in tumor development and immune response. The approval of various metallodrugs for tumor therapy brings more attention to the antitumor effect of metal ions. With the deepening understanding of the regulation mechanisms of metal ion homeostasis in vivo, breaking intracellular metal ion homeostasis becomes a new means to inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells and activate antitumor immune response. Diverse nanomedicines with the loading of small molecular ion regulators or metal ions have been developed to disrupt metal ion homeostasis in tumor cells, with higher safety and efficiency than free small molecular ion regulators or metal compounds. This comprehensive review focuses on the latest progress of various intracellular metal ion homeostasis regulation-based nanomedicines in tumor therapy including calcium ion (Ca2+ ), ferrous ion (Fe2+ ), cuprous ion (Cu+ ), managanese ion (Mn2+ ), and zinc ion (Zn2+ ). The physiological functions and homeostasis regulation processes of ions are summarized to guide the design of metal ion regulation-based nanomedicines. Then the antitumor mechanisms of various ions-based nanomedicines and some efficient synergistic therapies are highlighted. Finally, the challenges and future developments of ion regulation-based antitumor therapy are also discussed, hoping to provide a reference for finding more effective metal ions and synergistic therapies.

Boosting chemotherapy of bladder cancer cells by ferroptosis using intelligent magnetic targeting nanoparticles

A versatile nano-delivery platform was reported to enhance the tumor suppression effect of chemotherapy by augmenting tumor cells' ferroptosis. The platform consists of pomegranate-like magnetic nanoparticles (rPAE@SPIONs) fabricated by encapsulating superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) within a reduced poly(β-amino ester)s-PEG amphiphilic copolymer (rPAE). The resulting platform exhibits several functionalities. Firstly, it promotes the doxorubicin (DOX) release by leveraging the mild hyperthermia generated by NIR irradiation. Secondly, it triggers ferroptosis in tumor cells, inducing their demise. Thirdly, it induces polarization of macrophages towards an anti-tumor M1 phenotype, contributing to ferroptosis of tumor cells and enhanced tumor cell suppression. This study effectively capitalizes on the versatility of SPIONs and offers a simple yet powerful strategy for developing a new nanosized ferroptosis-inducing agent, ultimately improving the inhibition of bladder cancer cells.

Magnetic nanoparticles for ferroptosis cancer therapy with diagnostic imaging

Ferroptosis offers a novel method for overcoming therapeutic resistance of cancers to conventional cancer treatment regimens. Its effective use as a cancer therapy requires a precisely targeted approach, which can be facilitated by using nanoparticles and nanomedicine, and their use to enhance ferroptosis is indeed a growing area of research. While a few review papers have been published on iron-dependent mechanism and inducers of ferroptosis cancer therapy that partly covers ferroptosis nanoparticles, there is a need for a comprehensive review focusing on the design of magnetic nanoparticles that can typically supply iron ions to promote ferroptosis and simultaneously enable targeted ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Furthermore, magnetic nanoparticles can locally induce ferroptosis and combinational ferroptosis with diagnostic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The use of remotely controllable magnetic nanocarriers can offer highly effective localized image-guided ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Here, recent developments in magnetically manipulable nanocarriers for ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine with medical imaging are summarized. This review also highlights the advantages of current state-of-the-art image-guided ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Finally, image guided combinational ferroptosis cancer therapy with conventional apoptosis-based therapy that enables synergistic tumor therapy is discussed for clinical translations.

Enhanced photodynamic therapy through multienzyme-like MOF for cancer treatment

Overcoming resistance to apoptosis is a major challenge in cancer therapy. Recent research has shown that manipulating mitochondria, the organelles critical for energy metabolism in tumor cells, can increase the effectiveness of photodynamic therapy and trigger apoptosis in tumor cells. However, there is currently insufficient research and effective methods to exploit mitochondrial damage to induce apoptosis in tumor cells and improve the effectiveness of photodynamic therapy. In this study, we present a novel nanomedicine delivery and therapeutic system called PyroFPSH, which utilizes a nanozymes-modified metal-organic framework as a carrier. PyroFPSH exhibits remarkable multienzyme-like activities, including glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) mimicry, allowing it to overcome apoptosis resistance, reduce endogenous glutathione levels, and continuously generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, PyroFPSH can serve as a carrier for the targeted delivery of sulfasalazine, a drug that can induce mitochondrial depolarization in tumor cells, thereby reducing oxygen consumption and energy supply in the mitochondria of tumor cells and weakening resistance to other synergistic treatment approaches. Our experimental results highlight the potential of PyroFPSH as a versatile nanoplatform in cancer treatment. This study expands the biomedical applications of nanomaterials as platforms and enables the integration of various novel therapeutic strategies to synergistically improve tumor therapy. It deepens our understanding of multienzyme-mimicking active nanocarriers and mitochondrial damage through photodynamic therapy. Future research can further explore the potential of PyroFPSH in clinical cancer treatment and improve its drug loading capacity, biocompatibility and targeting specificity. In summary, PyroFPSH represents a promising therapeutic approach that can provide new insights and possibilities for cancer treatment.

Biomimetic Nano-Drug Delivery System: An Emerging Platform for Promoting Tumor Treatment

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown broad prospects as drug delivery vehicles. However, they exhibit certain limitations, including low biocompatibility, poor physiological stability, rapid clearance from the body, and nonspecific targeting, which have hampered their clinical application. Therefore, the development of novel drug delivery systems with improved biocompatibility and high target specificity remains a major challenge. In recent years, biofilm mediated biomimetic nano-drug delivery system (BNDDS) has become a research hotspot focus in the field of life sciences. This new biomimetic platform uses bio-nanotechnology to encapsulate synthetic NPswithin biomimetic membrane, organically integrating the low immunogenicity, low toxicity, high tumor targeting, good biocompatibility of the biofilm with the adjustability and versatility of the nanocarrier, and shows promising applications in the field of precision tumor therapy. In this review, we systematically summarize the new progress in BNDDS used for optimizing drug delivery, providing a theoretical reference for optimizing drug delivery and designing safe and efficient treatment strategies to improve tumor treatment outcomes.

TME-Related Biomimetic Strategies Against Cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in various stages of tumor generation, metastasis, and evasion of immune monitoring and treatment. TME targeted therapy is based on TME components, related pathways or active molecules as therapeutic targets. Therefore, TME targeted therapy based on environmental differences between TME and normal cells has been widely studied. Biomimetic nanocarriers with low clearance, low immunogenicity, and high targeting have enormous potential in tumor treatment. This review introduces the composition and characteristics of TME, including cancer‑associated fibroblasts (CAFs), extracellular matrix (ECM), tumor blood vessels, non-tumor cells, and the latest research progress of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) based on TME. It also discusses the opportunities and challenges of clinical transformation of biomimetic nanoparticles.

Intracellular self-aggregation of biomimetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles for enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer

Nanomedicines based on ferroptosis may be effective strategies for cancer therapy due to their unique inducing mechanism. However, the challenges, including non-target distribution, poor accumulation and retention of nanomedicine, have a profound impact on the effectiveness of drug delivery. Here, we developed cancer cell membrane (CCM)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) modified with supramolecular precursors and loaded with sulfasalazine (SAS) for breast cancer therapy. Benefiting from the coating of the CCM, these NPs can be specifically recognized and internalized by tumor cells rapidly after being administered and form aggregates via the host-guest interaction between adamantane (ADA) and cyclodextrins (CD), which in turn effectively reduces the exocytosis of tumor cells and prolongs the retention time. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that Fe3O4 NPs possessed effective cellular uptake and precise specific accumulation in tumor cells and tissues through CCM-targeted supramolecular in situ aggregation, demonstrating enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer. Overall, this work provided a supramolecular biomimetic platform to achieve targeted delivery of Fe3O4 NPs with high efficiency and precise self-assembly for improved cancer therapy.

Nanomedicine targeting ferroptosis to overcome anticancer therapeutic resistance

A potential reason for the failure of tumor therapies is treatment resistance. Resistance to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy continues to be a major obstacle in clinic, resulting in tumor recurrence and metastasis. The major mechanisms of therapy resistance are inhibitions of cell deaths, like apoptosis and necrosis, through drug inactivation and excretion, repair of DNA damage, tumor heterogeneity, or changes in tumor microenvironment, etc. Recent studies have shown that ferroptosis play a major role in therapies resistance by inducing phospholipid peroxidation and iron-dependent cell death. Some ferroptosis inducers in combination with clinical treatment techniques have been used to enhance the effect in tumor therapy. Notably, versatile ferroptosis nanoinducers exhibit an extensive range of functions in reversing therapy resistance, including directly triggering ferroptosis and feedback regulation. Herein, we provide a detailed description of the design, mechanism, and therapeutic application of ferroptosis-mediated synergistic tumor therapeutics. We also discuss the prospect and challenge of nanomedicine in tumor therapy resistance by regulating ferroptosis and combination therapy.

Engineering Platelet Membrane Imitating Nanoparticles for Targeted Therapeutic Delivery

Platelet Membrane Imitating Nanoparticles (PMINs) is a novel drug delivery system that imitates the structure and functionality of platelet membranes. PMINs imitate surface markers of platelets to target specific cells and transport therapeutic cargo. PMINs are engineered by incorporating the drug into the platelet membrane and encapsulating it in a nanoparticle scaffold. This allows PMINs to circulate in the bloodstream and bind to target cells with high specificity, reducing off-target effects and improving therapeutic efficacy. The engineering of PMINs entails several stages, including the separation and purification of platelet membranes, the integration of therapeutic cargo into the membrane, and the encapsulation of the membrane in a nanoparticle scaffold. In addition to being involved in a few pathological conditions including cancer, atherosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis, platelets are crucial to the body's physiological processes. This study includes the preparation and characterization of platelet membrane-like nanoparticles and focuses on their most recent advancements in targeted therapy for conditions, including cancer, immunological disorders, atherosclerosis, phototherapy, etc. PMINs are a potential drug delivery system that combines the advantages of platelet membranes with nanoparticles. The capacity to create PMMNs with particular therapeutic cargo and surface markers provides new possibilities for targeted medication administration and might completely change the way that medicine is practiced. Despite the need for more studies to optimize the engineering process and evaluate the effectiveness and safety of PMINs in clinical trials, this technology has a lot of potential.

Cell Death Pathway Regulation by Functional Nanomedicines for Robust Antitumor Immunity

Cancer immunotherapy has become a mainstream cancer treatment over traditional therapeutic modes. Cancer cells can undergo programmed cell death including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, apoptosis and cuproptosis which are find to have intrinsic relationships with host antitumor immune response. However, direct use of cell death inducers or regulators may bring about severe side effects that can also be rapidly excreted and degraded with low therapeutic efficacy. Nanomaterials are able to carry them for long circulation time, high tumor accumulation and controlled release to achieve satisfactory therapeutic effect. Nowadays, a large number of studies have focused on nanomedicines-based strategies through modulating cell death modalities to potentiate antitumor immunity. Herein, immune cell types and their function are first summarized, and state-of-the-art research progresses in nanomedicines mediated cell death pathways (e.g., ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, apoptosis and cuproptosis) with immune response provocation are highlighted. Subsequently, the conclusion and outlook of potential research focus are discussed.

Nanotechnology Utilizing Ferroptosis Inducers in Cancer Treatment

Current cancer treatment options have presented numerous challenges in terms of reaching high efficacy. As a result, an immediate step must be taken to create novel therapies that can achieve more than satisfying outcomes in the fight against tumors. Ferroptosis, an emerging form of regulated cell death (RCD) that is reliant on iron and reactive oxygen species, has garnered significant attention in the field of cancer therapy. Ferroptosis has been reported to be induced by a variety of small molecule compounds known as ferroptosis inducers (FINs), as well as several licensed chemotherapy medicines. These compounds' low solubility, systemic toxicity, and limited capacity to target tumors are some of the significant limitations that have hindered their clinical effectiveness. A novel cancer therapy paradigm has been created by the hypothesis that ferroptosis induced by nanoparticles has superior preclinical properties to that induced by small drugs and can overcome apoptosis resistance. Knowing the different ideas behind the preparation of nanomaterials that target ferroptosis can be very helpful in generating new ideas. Simultaneously, more improvement in nanomaterial design is needed to make them appropriate for therapeutic treatment. This paper first discusses the fundamentals of nanomedicine-based ferroptosis to highlight the potential and characteristics of ferroptosis in the context of cancer treatment. The latest study on nanomedicine applications for ferroptosis-based anticancer therapy is then highlighted.

Advanced Generation Therapeutics: Biomimetic Nanodelivery System for Tumor Immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy is a safe and effective strategy for precision medicine. However, immunotherapy for most cancer cases still ends in failure, with the root causes of the immunosuppressive and extraordinary heterogeneity of the solid tumors microenvironment. The emerging biomimetic nanodelivery system provides a promising tactic to improve the immunotherapy effect while reducing the adverse reactions on nontarget cells. Herein, we summarize the relationship between tumor occurrence and tumor immune microenvironment, mechanism of tumor immune escape, immunotherapy classification (including adoptive cellular therapy, cytokines, cancer vaccines, and immune checkpoint inhibitors) and recommend target cells for immunotherapy first, and then emphatically introduce the recent advances and applications of the latest biomimetic nanodelivery systems (e.g., immune cells, erythrocytes, tumor cells, platelets, bacteria) in tumor immunotherapy. Meanwhile, we separately summarize the application of tumor vaccines. Finally, the predictable challenges and perspectives in a forward exploration of biomimetic nanodelivery systems for tumor immunotherapy are also discussed.

Cellular-Membrane-Derived Vesicles for Cancer Immunotherapy

The medical community is constantly searching for new and innovative ways to treat cancer, and cellular-membrane-derived artificial vesicles are emerging as a promising avenue for cancer immunotherapy. These vesicles, which are derived from mammal and bacteria cell membranes, offer a range of benefits, including compatibility with living organisms, minimal immune response, and prolonged circulation. By modifying their surface, manipulating their genes, combining them with other substances, stimulating them externally, and even enclosing drugs within them, cellular vesicles have the potential to be a powerful tool in fighting cancer. The ability to merge drugs with diverse compositions and functionalities in a localized area is particularly exciting, as it offers a way to combine different immunotherapy treatments for maximum impact. This review contains information on the various sources of these vesicles and discusses some recent developments in cancer immunotherapy using this promising technology. While there are still obstacles to overcome, the possibilities for cellular vesicles in cancer treatment are truly exciting.

Engineering M1-derived nanovesicles loading with docosahexaenoic acid synergizes ferroptosis and immune activation for treating hepatocellular carcinoma

Ferroptosis represents an innovative strategy to overcome the resistance of traditional cancer therapeutic through lethal lipid peroxidation leading to immunogenic cell death. However, the inefficiency of ferroptosis inducers and mild immunogenicity restrict the further clinical applications. Herein, engineering exosome-mimic M1 nanovesicles (MNV) were prepared by serial extrusion of M1 macrophage and served as an efficient vehicle for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) delivery. MNV loaded with DHA (MNV@DHA) could promote more DHA accumulation in tumor cells, depletion glutathione and reduction of lipid antioxidant glutathione peroxidase-4 facilitating the occurrence of ferroptosis. Furthermore, MNV were able to induce the polarization of M1 and repolarize M2 macrophages to activate tumor immune microenvironments. The activated immune cells would further trigger the ferroptosis of tumor cells. In a murine orthotopic hepatocellular carcinoma model, MNV@DHA could significantly target tumor tissues, increase the proportion of M1 macrophages and CD8+ T cells and lessen the infiltration of M2 macrophages. Accordingly, MNV@DHA characterized with positive feedback regulation between ferroptosis and immune activation exhibited the strongest in vivo therapeutic effect. The synergism of ferroptosis and immunomodulation based on the dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and engineered exosome-mimic nanovesicles may serve as a promising modality to efficiently complement pharmacological approaches for cancer management.

Supramolecularly Engineered Conjugate of Bacteria and Cell Membrane-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles for Enhanced Ferroptosis and Immunotherapy of Tumors

Although various ferroptosis inducers including magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 ) and iron-organic frameworks have been applied in cancer treatment, the mild immunogenicity, low targeting efficiency to the tumor, and poor tissue penetration have limited the therapeutic efficacy. Herein, a supramolecularly engineered conjugate between living bacteria (facultative anaerobic Salmonella typhimurium VNP20009, VNP) and cancer cell membranes-coated Fe3 O4 nanoparticles is developed for improving targeted delivery of Fe3 O4 nanoparticles into the tumor tissue and for synergistic ferroptosis and immunotherapy of tumor. The enhanced ferroptosis induced by both Fe3 O4 nanoparticles and the loaded ferroptosis inducing agent (sulfasalazine (SAS)) effectively inhibits tumor growth and generates immune response via immunogenic cell death (ICD). The colonization of VNP in tumors also induces adaptive immune responses and further promotes ferroptosis. Fundamentally, the supramolecular conjugate of VNP and cell membranes-coated Fe3 O4 can potentiate the therapeutic capability of each other through mutually magnifying the ferroptosis and immunotherapy, resulting in significantly enhanced antitumor effects.

Carbon-Encapsulated Magnetite Nanodoughnut as a NIR-II Responsive Nanozyme for Synergistic Chemodynamic-Photothermal Therapy

Magnetite-based nanozymes have attracted great interest for catalytic cancer therapy enabled by catalyzing hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) to produce highly toxic hydroxyl radicals (•OH) to kill tumor cells. However, their therapeutic efficacies remain low due to insufficient •OH. Here, a light-responsive carbon-encapsulated magnetite nanodoughnuts (CEMNDs) with dual-catalytic activities for photothermal-enhanced chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is reported. The CEMNDs can accumulate in tumor and get into tumor cells and effectively act as peroxidase to convert H2 O2 to •OH that causes tumor cell death. The CEMNDs also possess intrinsic glutathione oxidase-like activity that which catalyzes the oxidation of reduced glutathione and produce lipid peroxidase for enhanced catalytic therapy. Furthermore, the CEMNDs can absorb 1064 nm light to elevate local temperature and increase release of Fe ions for photothermal therapy and enhanced CDT respectively. The in vivo experiments in an aggressive and drug-resistant metastatic mouse model of triple negative breast cancer model demonstrate excellent synergistic anti-tumor function and no measurable systemic toxicity of CEMNDs.

Fluoropolymer Coated DNA Nanoclews for Volumetric Visualization of Oligonucleotides Delivery and Near Infrared Light Activated Anti-Angiogenic Oncotherapy

The potential of microRNA regulation in oncotherapy is limited by the lack of delivery vehicles. Herein, it is shown that fluoropolymer coated DNA nanoclews (FNCs) provide outstanding ability to deliver oligonucleotide through circulation and realize near infrared (NIR) light activated angiogenesis suppression to abrogate tumors. Oligonucleotides are loaded in DNA nanoclews through sequence specific bindings and then a fluorinated zwitterionic polymer is coated onto the surface of nanoclews. Further incorporating quantum dots in the polymer coating endows the vectors with NIR-IIb (1500-1700 nm) fluorescence and NIR light triggered release ability. The FNC vector can deliver oligonucleotides to cancer cells systemically and realize on-demand cytosolic release of the cargo with high transfection efficiency. Taking advantage of the NIR-IIb emission, the whole delivery process of FNCs is visualized volumetrically in vivo with a NIR light sheet microscope. Loaded by FNCs, an oligonucleotide can effectively silence the target miRNA when activated with NIR light, and inhibit angiogenesis inside tumor, leading to complete ablation of cancer. These findings suggest FNCs can be used as an efficient oligonucleotide delivery platform to modulate the expression of endogenous microRNA in gene therapy of cancer.

Crosstalk between ferroptosis and macrophages: potential value for targeted treatment in diseases

Ferroptosis is a newly identified form of programmed cell death that is connected to iron-dependent lipid peroxidization. It involves a variety of physiological processes involving iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and biosynthesis of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, glutathione, and coenzyme Q10. So far, it has been discovered to contribute to the pathological process of many diseases, such as myocardial infarction, acute kidney injury, atherosclerosis, and so on. Macrophages are innate immune system cells that regulate metabolism, phagocytize pathogens and dead cells, mediate inflammatory reactions, promote tissue repair, etc. Emerging evidence shows strong associations between macrophages and ferroptosis, which can provide us with a deeper comprehension of the pathological process of diseases and new targets for the treatments. In this review, we summarized the crosstalk between macrophages and ferroptosis and anatomized the application of this association in disease treatments, both non-neoplastic and neoplastic diseases. In addition, we have also addressed problems that remain to be investigated, in the hope of inspiring novel therapeutic strategies for diseases.

Recent Advances in Biomimetic Nanocarrier-Based Photothermal Therapy for Cancer Treatment

Nanomedicine presents innovative solutions for cancer treatment, including photothermal therapy (PTT). PTT centers on the design of photoactivatable nanoparticles capable of absorbing non-toxic near-infrared light, generating heat within target cells to induce cell death. The successful transition from benchside to bedside application of PTT critically depends on the core properties of nanoparticles responsible for converting light into heat and the surface properties for precise cell-specific targeting. Precisely targeting the intended cells remains a primary challenge in PTT. In recent years, a groundbreaking approach has emerged to address this challenge by functionalizing nanocarriers and enhancing cell targeting. This strategy involves the creation of biomimetic nanoparticles that combine desired biocompatibility properties with the immune evasion mechanisms of natural materials. This review comprehensively outlines various strategies for designing biomimetic photoactivatable nanocarriers for PTT, with a primary focus on its application in cancer therapy. Additionally, we shed light on the hurdles involved in translating PTT from research to clinical practice, along with an overview of current clinical applications.

Photodynamic Therapy Combined with Ferroptosis Is a Synergistic Antitumor Therapy Strategy

Ferroptosis is a programmed death mode that regulates redox homeostasis in cells, and recent studies suggest that it is a promising mode of tumor cell death. Ferroptosis is regulated by iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and intracellular reducing substances, which is the mechanism basis of its combination with photodynamic therapy (PDT). PDT generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and 1O2 through type I and type II photochemical reactions, and subsequently induces ferroptosis through the Fenton reaction and the peroxidation of cell membrane lipids. PDT kills tumor cells by generating excessive cytotoxic ROS. Due to the limited laser depth and photosensitizer enrichment, the systemic treatment effect of PDT is not good. Combining PDT with ferroptosis can compensate for these shortcomings. Nanoparticles constructed by photosensitizers and ferroptosis agonists are widely used in the field of combination therapy, and their targeting and biological safety can be improved through modification. These nanoparticles not only directly kill tumor cells but also further exert the synergistic effect of PDT and ferroptosis by activating antitumor immunity, improving the hypoxia microenvironment, and inhibiting the tumor angiogenesis. Ferroptosis-agonist-induced chemotherapy and PDT-induced ablation also have good clinical application prospects. In this review, we summarize the current research progress on PDT and ferroptosis and how PDT and ferroptosis promote each other.

Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

The use of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the detection and treatment of cancer. Developments in protein engineering and materials science have led to the emergence of new nanoscale targeting techniques, which offer renewed hope for cancer patients. While several nanocarriers for medicinal purposes have been approved for human trials, only a few have been authorized for clinical use in targeting cancer cells. In this review, we analyze some of the authorized formulations and discuss the challenges of translating findings from the lab to the clinic. This study highlights the various nanocarriers and compounds that can be used for selective tumor targeting and the inherent difficulties in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for improving cancer detection and treatment in the future, but further research is needed to overcome the current limitations in clinical translation.

Colorectal cancer cell membrane biomimetic ferroferric oxide nanomaterials for homologous bio-imaging and chemotherapy application

The research of nanomaterials for bio-imaging and theranostic are very active nowadays with unprecedented advantages in nanomedicine. Homologous targeting and bio-imaging greatly improve the ability of targeted drug delivery and enhance active targeting and treatment ability of nanomedicine for the tumor. In this work, lycorine hydrochloride (LH) and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles coated with a colorectal cancer (CRC) cell membrane (LH-Fe3O4@M) were prepared, for homologous targeting, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and chemotherapy. Results showed that the LH-Fe3O4@M and Fe3O4@M intensity at HT29 tumor was significantly higher than that Fe3O4@PEG, proving the superior selectivity of cancer cell membrane-camouflaged nanomedicine for homologous tumors and the MRI effect of darkening contrast enhancement were remarkable at HT29 tumor. The LH-Fe3O4@M exhibited excellent chemotherapy effect in CRC models as well as LH alone and achieved a high tumor ablation rate but no damage to normal tissues and cells. Therefore, our biomimetic system achieved a homologous targeting, bio-imaging, and efficient therapeutic effect of CRC.