UCP2 Regulates Embryonic Neurogenesis via ROS-Mediated Yap Alternation in the Developing Neocortex

Brain development and bioenergetic changes

Bioenergetics describe the biochemical processes responsible for energy supply in organisms. When these changes become dysregulated in brain development, multiple neurodevelopmental diseases can occur, implicating bioenergetics as key regulators of neural development. Historically, the discovery of disease processes affecting individual stages of brain development has revealed critical roles that bioenergetics play in generating the nervous system. Bioenergetic-dependent neurodevelopmental disorders include neural tube closure defects, microcephaly, intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, epilepsy, mTORopathies, and oncogenic processes. Developmental timing and cell-type specificity of these changes determine the long-term effects of bioenergetic disease mechanisms on brain form and function. Here, we discuss key metabolic regulators of neural progenitor specification, neuronal differentiation (neurogenesis), and gliogenesis. In general, transitions between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation are regulated in early brain development and in oncogenesis, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial maturity play key roles later in differentiation. We also discuss how bioenergetics interface with the developmental regulation of other key neural elements, including the cerebrospinal fluid brain environment. While questions remain about the interplay between bioenergetics and brain development, this review integrates the current state of known key intersections between these processes in health and disease.

Photobiomodulation therapy activates YAP and triggers proliferation and dedifferentiation of Müller glia in mammalian retina

Photobiomodulation therapy has been proposed as a promising therapeutic approach for retinal degenerative diseases. However, its effect on the regenerative capacity in mammalian retina and its intracellular signalling mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we show that photobiomodulation with 670 nm light stimulates Müller glia cell cycle re-entry and dedifferentiation into a progenitor-like state in both the uninjured and injured retina. We also find that 670 nm light treatment inhibits the Hippo pathway, which is activated in Müller glia following NaIO3-induced retinal injury. YAP, a major downstream effector of the Hippo signalling pathway was translocated into the nucleus of Müller glia along with YAP dephosphorylation in retina treated with 670 nm light. Deficiency of YAP attenuated Müller glia cell cycle re-entry and dedifferentiation. Our data reveal that the Hippo-YAP signalling pathway is associated with the photostimulatory effect on regenerative response in mammalian retina, and suggest a potential therapeutic strategy for retinal degenerative diseases. [BMB Reports 2023; 56(9): 502-507].

Photobiomodulation therapy activates YAP and triggers proliferation and dedifferentiation of Müller glia in mammalian retina

Photobiomodulation therapy has been proposed as a promising therapeutic approach for retinal degenerative diseases. However, its effect on the regenerative capacity in mammalian retina and its intracellular signalling mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we show that photobiomodulation with 670 nm light stimulates Müller glia cell cycle re-entry and dedifferentiation into a progenitor-like state in both the uninjured and injured retina. We also find that 670 nm light treatment inhibits the Hippo pathway, which is activated in Müller glia following NaIO3-induced retinal injury. YAP, a major downstream effector of the Hippo signalling pathway was translocated into the nucleus of Müller glia along with YAP dephosphorylation in retina treated with 670 nm light. Deficiency of YAP attenuated Müller glia cell cycle re-entry and dedifferentiation. Our data reveal that the Hippo-YAP signalling pathway is associated with the photostimulatory effect on regenerative response in mammalian retina, and suggest a potential therapeutic strategy for retinal degenerative diseases. [BMB Reports 2023; 56(9): 502-507].

Olfactory detection of viruses shapes brain immunity and behavior in zebrafish

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are constantly exposed to pathogens, including viruses. However, serious brain infection via the olfactory route rarely occurs. When OSNs detect a virus, they coordinate local antiviral immune responses to stop virus progression to the brain. Despite effective immune control in the olfactory periphery, pathogen-triggered neuronal signals reach the CNS via the olfactory bulb (OB). We hypothesized that neuronal detection of a virus by OSNs initiates neuroimmune responses in the OB that prevent pathogen invasion. Using zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) as a model, we demonstrate viral-specific neuronal activation of OSNs projecting into the OB, indicating that OSNs are electrically activated by viruses. Further, behavioral changes are seen in both adult and larval zebrafish after viral exposure. By profiling the transcription of single cells in the OB after OSNs are exposed to virus, we found that both microglia and neurons enter a protective state. Microglia and macrophage populations in the OB respond within minutes of nasal viral delivery followed decreased expression of neuronal differentiation factors and enrichment of genes in the neuropeptide signaling pathway in neuronal clusters. Pituitary adenylate-cyclase-activating polypeptide ( pacap ), a known antimicrobial, was especially enriched in a neuronal cluster. We confirm that PACAP is antiviral in vitro and that PACAP expression increases in the OB 1 day post-viral treatment. Our work reveals how encounters with viruses in the olfactory periphery shape the vertebrate brain by inducing antimicrobial programs in neurons and by altering host behavior.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in cognitive neurodevelopmental disorders: Cause or effect?

Mitochondria have a crucial role in brain development and neurogenesis, both in embryonic and adult brains. Since the brain is the highest energy consuming organ, it is highly vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction. This has been implicated in a range of brain disorders including, neurodevelopmental conditions, psychiatric illnesses, and neurodegenerative diseases. Genetic variations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and nuclear DNA encoding mitochondrial proteins, have been associated with several cognitive disorders. However, it is not yet clear whether mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary cause of these conditions or a secondary effect. Our review article deals with this topic, and brings out recent advances in mitochondria-oriented therapies. Mitochondrial dysfunction could be involved in the pathogenesis of a subset of disorders involving cognitive impairment. In these patients, mitochondrial dysfunction could be the cause of the condition, rather than the consequence. There are vast areas in this topic that remains to be explored and elucidated.

A lncRNA-encoded mitochondrial micropeptide exacerbates microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury

As a common pathology of many ocular disorders such as diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma, retinal ischemia/reperfusion (IR) triggers inflammation and microglia activation that lead to irreversible retinal damage. The detailed molecular mechanism underlying retinal IR injury, however, remains poorly understood at present. Here we report the bioinformatic identification of a lncRNA 1810058I24Rik (181-Rik) that was shown to encode a mitochondrion-located micropeptide Stmp1. Its deficiency in mice protected retinal ganglion cells from retinal IR injury by attenuating the activation of microglia and the Nlrp3 inflammasome pathway. Moreover, its genetic knockout in mice or knockdown in primary microglia promoted mitochondrial fusion, impaired mitochondrial membrane potential, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, diminished aerobic glycolysis, and ameliorated inflammation. It appears that 181-Rik may trigger the Nlrp3 inflammasome activation by controlling mitochondrial functions through inhibiting expression of the metabolic sensor uncoupling protein 2 (Ucp2) and activating expression of the Ca²⁺ sensors S100a8/a9. Together, our findings shed new light on the molecular pathogenesis of retinal IR injury and may provide a fresh therapeutic target for IR-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Human SERPINA3 induces neocortical folding and improves cognitive ability in mice

Neocortex expansion and folding are related to human intelligence and cognition, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying cortical folding remain poorly understood. Here, we report that the human gene SERPINA3 is linked to gyrification. Specifically, the overexpression of SERPINA3 induced neocortical folding, increased the abundance of neurons, and improved cognitive abilities. Further, SERPINA3 promoted proliferation of the outer radial glia (oRG, also referred to as the basal radial glia) and increased the number of upper-layer neurons. The downstream target Glo1 was determined to be involved in SERPINA3-induced gyrification. Moreover, SERPINA3 increased the proliferation of oRG by binding to the Glo1 promoter. Assessment of behavior performance showed enhanced cognitive abilities in SERPINA3 knock-in mice. Our findings will enrich the understanding of neocortical expansion and gyrification and provide insights into possible treatments for intellectual disability and lissencephaly syndrome.

A possible connection between reactive oxygen species and the unfolded protein response in lens development: From insight to foresight

The lens is a relatively special and simple organ. It has become an ideal model to study the common developmental characteristics among different organic systems. Lens development is a complex process influenced by numerous factors, including signals from the intracellular and extracellular environment. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a group of highly reactive and oxygen-containing molecules that can cause endoplasmic reticulum stress in lens cells. As an adaptive response to ER stress, lens cells initiate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to maintain normal protein synthesis by selectively increasing/decreasing protein synthesis and increasing the degradation of misfolded proteins. Generally, the UPR signaling pathways have been well characterized in the context of many pathological conditions. However, recent studies have also confirmed that all three UPR signaling pathways participate in a variety of developmental processes, including those of the lens. In this review, we first briefly summarize the three stages of lens development and present the basic profiles of ROS and the UPR. We then discuss the interconnections between lens development and these two mechanisms. Additionally, the potential adoption of human pluripotent stem-cell-based lentoids in lens development research is proposed to provide a novel perspective on future developmental studies.

LIX1-mediated changes in mitochondrial metabolism control the fate of digestive mesenchyme-derived cells

YAP1 and TAZ are transcriptional co-activator proteins that play fundamental roles in many biological processes, from cell proliferation and cell lineage fate determination to tumorigenesis. We previously demonstrated that Limb Expression 1 (LIX1) regulates YAP1 and TAZ activity and controls digestive mesenchymal progenitor proliferation. However, LIX1 mode of action remains elusive. Here, we found that endogenous LIX1 is localized in mitochondria and is anchored to the outer mitochondrial membrane through S-palmitoylation of cysteine 84, a residue conserved in all LIX1 orthologs. LIX1 downregulation altered the mitochondrial ultrastructure, resulting in a significantly decreased respiration and attenuated production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS). Mechanistically, LIX1 knock-down impaired the stability of the mitochondrial proteins PHB2 and OPA1 that are found in complexes with mitochondrial-specific phospholipids and are required for cristae organization. Supplementation with unsaturated fatty acids counteracted the effects of LIX1 knock-down on mitochondrial morphology and ultrastructure and restored YAP1/TAZ signaling. Collectively, our data demonstrate that LIX1 is a key regulator of cristae organization, modulating mtROS level and subsequently regulating the signaling cascades that control fate commitment of digestive mesenchyme-derived cells.

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LIX1 is tightly anchored to the outer membrane of mitochondria.

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LIX1 mitochondrial localization is mediated by S-palmitoylation on cysteine 84.

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LIX1 knock-down reduces the stability of the mitochondrial proteins PHB2 and OPA1 and impairs cristae organization.

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Redox signaling modulations regulate YAP1/TAZ activity and control fate commitment of digestive mesenchyme-derived cells.

Sestrin2 attenuates renal damage by regulating Hippo pathway in diabetic nephropathy

Glomerular mesangial cell proliferation and extracellular matrix accumulation contribute to the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). As a conserved stress-inducible protein, sestrin2 (Sesn2) plays critical role in the regulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, autophagy, metabolism, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. In this study, we investigated the role of Sesn2 on renal damage in diabetic kidney using transgenic mice overexpressing Sesn2 and the effect of Sesn2 on mesangial cell proliferation and extracellular matrix accumulation in diabetic conditions and the possible molecular mechanisms involved. Sesn2 overexpression improved renal function and decreased glomerular hypertrophy, albuminuria, mesangial expansion, extracellular matrix accumulation, and TGF-β1 expression, as well as oxidative stress in diabetic mice. In vitro experiments, using human mesangial cells (HMCs), revealed that Sesn2 overexpression inhibited high glucose (HG)-induced proliferation, fibronectin and collagen IV production, and ROS generation. Meanwhile, Sesn2 overexpression restored phosphorylation levels of Lats1 and YAP and inhibited TEAD1 expression. Inhibition of Lats1 accelerated HG-induced proliferation and expression of fibronectin and collagen IV. Verteporfin, an inhibitor of YAP, suppressed HG-induced proliferation and expression of fibronectin and collagen IV. However, Sesn2 overexpression reversed Lats1 deficiency-induced Lats1 and YAP phosphorylation, nuclear expression levels of YAP and TEAD1, and proliferation and fibronectin and collagen IV expressions in HMCs exposed to HG. In addition, antioxidant NAC or tempol treatment promoted phosphorylation of Lats1 and YAP and inhibited TEAD1 expression, proliferation, and fibronectin and collagen IV accumulation in HG-treated HMCs. Taken together, Sesn2 overexpression inhibited mesangial cell proliferation and fibrosis via regulating Hippo pathway in diabetic nephropathy. Induction of Sesn2 may be a potential therapeutic target in diabetic nephropathy.

Revealing the Impact of Mitochondrial Fitness During Early Neural Development Using Human Brain Organoids

Mitochondrial homeostasis -including function, morphology, and inter-organelle communication- provides guidance to the intrinsic developmental programs of corticogenesis, while also being responsive to environmental and intercellular signals. Two- and three-dimensional platforms have become useful tools to interrogate the capacity of cells to generate neuronal and glia progeny in a background of metabolic dysregulation, but the mechanistic underpinnings underlying the role of mitochondria during human neurogenesis remain unexplored. Here we provide a concise overview of cortical development and the use of pluripotent stem cell models that have contributed to our understanding of mitochondrial and metabolic regulation of early human brain development. We finally discuss the effects of mitochondrial fitness dysregulation seen under stress conditions such as metabolic dysregulation, absence of developmental apoptosis, and hypoxia; and the avenues of research that can be explored with the use of brain organoids.

Mitochondria in Early Forebrain Development: From Neurulation to Mid-Corticogenesis

Function of the mature central nervous system (CNS) requires a substantial proportion of the body’s energy consumption. During development, the CNS anlage must maintain its structure and perform stage-specific functions as it proceeds through discrete developmental stages. While key extrinsic signals and internal transcriptional controls over these processes are well appreciated, metabolic and mitochondrial states are also critical to appropriate forebrain development. Specifically, metabolic state, mitochondrial function, and mitochondrial dynamics/localization play critical roles in neurulation and CNS progenitor specification, progenitor proliferation and survival, neurogenesis, neural migration, and neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis. With the goal of integrating neurodevelopmental biologists and mitochondrial specialists, this review synthesizes data from disparate models and processes to compile and highlight key roles of mitochondria in the early development of the CNS with specific focus on forebrain development and corticogenesis.

Naringin Supplementation during Pregnancy Induces Sex and Region-Specific Alterations in the Offspring's Brain Redox Status

Research has shown the beneficial effects of naringin supplementation to adult rodents, which can ameliorate oxidative stress in disease models. However, evidence has demonstrated that polyphenol supplementation induced detrimental effects when consumed during sensitive periods of development, such as pregnancy. Therefore, we investigated the effect of maternal naringin supplementation during pregnancy on the offspring’s cerebral redox status. Pregnant Wistar rats were divided into control and naringin groups and supplemented from gestational day 15 to gestational day 21. On postnatal days 1, 7, and 21, offspring were euthanized, and the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and cerebellum dissected. On postnatal day 1, maternal naringin supplementation positively modulated the pups’ brain redox status. On postnatal day 7, a pro-oxidative milieu was observed in the offspring’s striatum and cerebellum in a sex-dependent manner, even though the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus were not negatively affected. Besides, the alterations observed on postnatal day 7 did not persist up to weaning. Our findings demonstrated that the effect induced by naringin supplementation in the brain redox status differed according to the period of development in which naringin was consumed since the beneficial effects usually found in the adult rodents became detrimental when the supplementation was applied during pregnancy.

Comparative transcriptomics implicate mitochondrial and neurodevelopmental impairments in larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to two selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products are emerging contaminants that are increasingly detected in the environment worldwide. Certain classes of pharmaceuticals, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are a major environmental concern due to their widespread use and the fact that these compounds are designed to have biological effects at low doses. A complication in predicting toxic effects of SSRIs in nontarget organisms is that their mechanism of action is not fully understood. To better understand the potential toxic effects of SSRIs, we employed an ultra-low input RNA-sequencing method to identify potential pathways that are affected by early exposure to two SSRIs (fluoxetine and paroxetine). We exposed wildtype zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos to 100 μg/L of either fluoxetine or paroxetine for 6 days before extracting and sequencing mRNA from individual larval brains. Differential gene expression analysis identified 1550 genes that were significantly affected by SSRI exposure with a core set of 138 genes altered by both SSRIs. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified 7 modules of genes whose expression patterns were significantly correlated with SSRI exposure. Functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes as well as network module genes repeatedly identified various terms associated with mitochondrial and neuronal structures, mitochondrial respiration, and neurodevelopmental processes. The enrichment of these terms indicates that toxic effects of SSRI exposure are likely caused by mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequent neurodevelopmental effects. To our knowledge, this is the first effort to study the tissue-specific transcriptomic effects of SSRIs in developing zebrafish, providing specific, high resolution molecular data regarding the sublethal effects of SSRI exposure.

Deletion of Mitochondrial Uncoupling Protein 2 Exacerbates Mitochondrial Damage in Mice Subjected to Cerebral Ischemia and Reperfusion Injury under both Normo- and Hyperglycemic Conditions

Deletion of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) has been shown to aggravate ischemic damage in the brain. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. The objective of this study is to explore the impact of homozygous UCP2 deletion (UCP2^-/-) on mitochondrial fission and fusion dynamic balance in ischemic mice under normo- and hyperglycemic conditions. UCP2^-/- and wildtype mice were subjected to a 60 min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and allowed reperfusion for 6h, 24h and 72h. Our results demonstrated that deletion of UCP2 enlarged infarct volumes and increased numbers of cell death in both normo- and hyperglycemic ischemic mice compared with their wildtype counterparts subjected to the same duration of ischemia and reperfusion. The detrimental effects of UCP deletion were associated with increased ROS production, elevated mitochondrial fission markers Drp1 and Fis1 and suppressed fusion markers Opa1 and Mfn2 in UCP2^-/- mice. Electron microscopic study demonstrated a marked mitochondrial swolling after 6h of reperfusion in UCP2^-/- mice, contrasting to a mild mitochondrial swolling in wildtype ischemic animals. It is concluded that the exacerbating effects of UCP2^-/- on ischemic outcome in both normo- and hyperglycemic animals are associated with increased ROS production, disturbed mitochondrial dynamic balance towards fission and early damage to mitochondrial ultrastructure.

Role of YAP/TAZ in Cell Lineage Fate Determination and Related Signaling Pathways

The penultimate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathways YAP and TAZ, are transcriptional co-activator proteins that play key roles in many diverse biological processes, ranging from cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, mechanosensing and cell lineage fate determination, to wound healing and regeneration. In this review, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms by which YAP/TAZ control stem/progenitor cell differentiation into the various major lineages that are of interest to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Of particular interest is the key role of YAP/TAZ in maintaining the delicate balance between quiescence, self-renewal, proliferation and differentiation of endogenous adult stem cells within various tissues/organs during early development, normal homeostasis and regeneration/healing. Finally, we will consider how increasing knowledge of YAP/TAZ signaling might influence the trajectory of future progress in regenerative medicine.

Sestrin2 inhibits YAP activation and negatively regulates corneal epithelial cell proliferation

Corneal wound healing is essential for the maintenance of corneal integrity and transparency and involves a series of physiological processes that depend on the proliferation of epithelial cells. However, the molecular mechanisms that control corneal epithelial cell proliferation are poorly understood. Here, we show that Sestrin2, a stress-inducible protein, is downregulated in the corneal epithelium during wound healing and that the proliferation of epithelial basal cells is enhanced in Sestrin2-deficient mice. We also show that YAP, a major downstream effector of the Hippo signaling pathway, regulates cell proliferation during corneal epithelial wound repair and that Sestrin2 suppresses its activity. Moreover, increased levels of reactive oxygen species in the Sestrin2-deficient corneal epithelium promote the nuclear localization and dephosphorylation of YAP, activating it to enhance the proliferation of corneal epithelial cells. These results reveal that Sestrin2 is a negative regulator of YAP, which regulates the proliferative capacity of basal epithelial cells, and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for corneal epithelial damage.

Uncoupling protein 2 prevents ischaemia reperfusion injury through the regulation ROS/NF-κB signalling in mice

Background and objective: Renal ischaemia reperfusion injury (IRI), characterized by excessive cell apoptosis and inflammation, remains a clinical challenge. Mitochondrial membrane potential is related to apoptosis and inflammation of IRI. Previous studies have indicated that uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) and its receptors play an important role in inflammation, apoptosis and injuries, especially in oxidative stress injury. However, the underlying mechanisms of UCP2 in IRI are still not fully understood.Methods and results: In the present study, male C57 mice were randomly divided into three groups:sham, IR, and UCP2^-/-+IR. The IRI model was established by removing the right kidney and clamping the left kidney for 45 min followed by reperfusion. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine were higher in UCP2^-/-+IR mouse serum than in IR mouse serum. In addition, relative to the IR group, UCP2^-/-+IR mouse renal cells had increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, aggravating tissue damage. We examined changes in the NFκB pathway and found that after UCP2 knockdown, IκB and IKK phosphorylation increased, and nuclear NFκB increased, which stimulated inflammation. Moreover, there was an increase in apoptosis in the UCP2^-/-+IR group.Conclusion: UCP2 can prevent IRI in C57 mice. Mechanistically, UCP2 may decrease ROS expression, NFκB activation and caspase-3 cleavage, rendering UCP2 a potential therapeutic target against IRI.

Inhibition of Uncoupling Protein 2 Enhances the Radiosensitivity of Cervical Cancer Cells by Promoting the Production of Reactive Oxygen Species

Objective

The mechanism of enhanced radiosensitivity induced by mitochondrial uncoupling protein UCP2 was investigated in HeLa cells to provide a theoretical basis as a novel target for cervical cancer treatment.

Methods

HeLa cells were irradiated with 4 Gy X-radiation at 1.0 Gy/min. The expression of UCP2 mRNA and protein was assayed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. UCP2 siRNA and negative control siRNA fragments were constructed and transfected into HeLa cells 24 h after irradiation. The effect of UCP2 silencing and irradiation on HeLa cells was determined by colony formation, CCK-8 cell viability, γH2AX immunofluorescence assay of DNA damage, Annexin V-FITC/PI apoptosis assay, and propidium iodide cell cycle assay. The effects on mitochondrial structure and function were investigated with fluorescent probes including dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay of reactive oxygen species (ROS), rhodamine 123, and MitoTracker Green assay of mitochondrial structure and function.

Results

Irradiation upregulated UCP2 expression, and UCP2 knockdown decreased the survival of irradiated HeLa cells. UCP2 silencing sensitized HeLa cells to irradiation-induced DNA damage and led to increased apoptosis, cell cycle arrest in G2/M, and increased mitochondrial ROS. Increased radiosensitivity was associated with an activation of P53, decreased Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, cyclin B, CDC2, Ku70, and Rad51 expression, and increased Apaf-1, cytochrome c, caspase-3, and caspase-9 expression.

Conclusions

UCP2 inhibition augmented the radiosensitivity of cervical cancer cells, and it may be a potential target of radiotherapy of advanced cervical cancer.

UCP2 gene polymorphisms in obesity and diabetes, and the role of UCP2 in cancer

Mitochondria are the primary sites for ATP synthesis and free radical generation in organisms. Abnormal mitochondrial metabolism contributes to many diseases, including obesity, diabetes and cancer. UCP2 is an ion/anion transporter located in mitochondrial inner membrane, and has a crucial role in regulating oxidative stress, cellular metabolism, cell proliferation and cell death. Polymorphisms of the UCP2 gene have been associated with diabetes and obesity because UCP2 is involved in energy expenditure and insulin secretion. Moreover, UCP2 gene expression is often amplified in cancers, and increased UCP2 expression contributes to cancer growth, cancer metabolism, anti-apoptosis and drug resistance. The present review summarizes the latest findings of UCP2 with respect to obesity, diabetes and cancer.

Brain-specific deletion of histone variant H2A.z results in cortical neurogenesis defects and neurodevelopmental disorder

Defects in neurogenesis alter brain circuit formations and may lead to neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Histone H2A.z, a variant of histone H2A, plays critical roles in chromatin structure and epigenetic regulation, but its function and mechanism in brain development remain largely unknown. Here, we find that the deletion of H2A.z results in enhanced proliferation of neural progenitors but reduced neuronal differentiation. In addition, neurons in H2A.z knockout mice exhibit abnormal dendrites during brain development. Furthermore, H2A.z^cKO mice exhibit serial behavioral deficits, such as decreased exploratory activity and impaired learning and memory. Mechanistically, H2A.z regulates embryonic neurogenesis by targeting Nkx2–4 through interaction with Setd2, thereby promoting H3K36me3 modification to activate the transcription of Nkx2–4. Furthermore, enforced expression of Nkx2–4 can rescue the defective neurogenesis in the H2A.z-knockdown embryonic brain. Together, our findings implicate the epigenetic regulation by H2A.z in embryonic neurogenesis and provide a framework for understanding how disruption in the H2A.z gene may contribute to neurological disorders.

Mitochondrial Uncoupling Proteins: Subtle Regulators of Cellular Redox Signaling

SIGNIFICANCE

Mitochondria are the energetic, metabolic, redox, and information signaling centers of the cell. Substrate pressure, mitochondrial network dynamics, and cristae morphology state are integrated by the protonmotive force Δp or its potential component, ΔΨ, which are attenuated by proton backflux into the matrix, termed uncoupling. The mitochondrial uncoupling proteins (UCP1-5) play an eminent role in the regulation of each of the mentioned aspects, being involved in numerous physiological events including redox signaling. Recent Advances: UCP2 structure, including purine nucleotide and fatty acid (FA) binding sites, strongly support the FA cycling mechanism: UCP2 expels FA anions, whereas uncoupling is achieved by the membrane backflux of protonated FA. Nascent FAs, cleaved by phospholipases, are preferential. The resulting Δp dissipation decreases superoxide formation dependent on Δp. UCP-mediated antioxidant protection and its impairment are expected to play a major role in cell physiology and pathology. Moreover, UCP2-mediated aspartate, oxaloacetate, and malate antiport with phosphate is expected to alter metabolism of cancer cells.

CRITICAL ISSUES

A wide range of UCP antioxidant effects and participations in redox signaling have been reported; however, mechanisms of UCP activation are still debated. Switching off/on the UCP2 protonophoretic function might serve as redox signaling either by employing/releasing the extra capacity of cell antioxidant systems or by directly increasing/decreasing mitochondrial superoxide sources. Rapid UCP2 degradation, FA levels, elevation of purine nucleotides, decreased Mg²⁺, or increased pyruvate accumulation may initiate UCP-mediated redox signaling.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Issues such as UCP2 participation in glucose sensing, neuronal (synaptic) function, and immune cell activation should be elucidated. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 667-714.