Hematological and serum biochemical analytes reflect physiological challenges during gestation and lactation in killer whales (Orcinus orca)

Effects of dietary iron supplementation on reproductive performance of sows and growth performance of piglets

This experiment aimed to investigate the effects of dietary iron supplementation from different sources on the reproductive performance of sows and the growth performance of piglets. A total of 87 sows with similar farrowing time were blocked by body weight at day 85 of gestation, and assigned to one of three dietary treatments (n = 29 per treatment): basal diet, basal diet supplemented with 0.2% ferrous sulfate (FeSO4), and basal diet supplemented with 0.2% iron sucrose, respectively, with 30% iron in both FeSO4 and iron sucrose. Compared with the control (CON) group, iron sucrose supplementation reduced the rate of stillbirth and invalid of neonatal piglets (P < 0.05), and the number of mummified fetuses was 0. Moreover, it also improved the coat color of newborn piglets (P < 0.05). At the same time, the iron sucrose could also achieve 100% estrus rate of sows. Compared with the CON group, FeSO4 and iron sucrose supplementation increased the serum iron content of weaned piglets (P < 0.05). In addition, iron sucrose increased serum transferrin level of weaned piglets (P < 0.05) and the survival rate of piglets (P < 0.05). In general, both iron sucrose and FeSO4 could affect the blood iron status of weaned piglets, while iron sucrose also had a positive effect on the healthy development of newborn and weaned piglets, and was more effective than FeSO4 in improving the performance of sows and piglets.

Serum Protein Concentration and Serum Protein Fractions in Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) under Human Care Using Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

Serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) is the most used and reliable method to determine the percentage of serum protein subfractions. The interpretation of the kinetics of total proteins and albumin and globulin fractions is receiving increased attention in wild animals, as well as in domestic animals, due to the possibility of identifying typical pathologic patterns. However, the interpretation of these data had to be performed in light of an appropriate method-and species- specific reference intervals (RIs). In marine mammals, as well as other non-domestic species, specific attention should also be given to the different environment (free ranging vs. human managed) and the associated different exposure to environmental stimuli. The aim of this report was to establish RIs for the serum protein fractions evaluated using agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) in bottlenose dolphins under human care. Peripheral blood samples were collected from 40 bottlenose dolphins during standard veterinary procedures to evaluate their health status. Total protein concentration was determined using the biuret method while AGE was performed using an automated system. A pooled dolphin's serum sample was used to determine the intra-assay and inter-assay imprecision of AGE. The RIs were calculated using an Excel spreadsheet with the Reference Value Advisor set of macroinstructions. The intra and inter-assay imprecisions were 1.2% and 2.5%, respectively, for albumin; 2.9% and 5.7%, respectively, for α-globulins; 3.8% and 4.0%, respectively, for β-globulins; and 3.4% and 4.8%, respectively, for γ-globulins. The total protein, albumin, α-globulin, β-globulin, and γ-globulin concentrations were 65.5 ± 5.4 g/L, 45.5 ± 4.9 g/L, 8.0 ± 1.0 g/L, 5.0 ± 2.0 g/L, and 7.0 ± 2.0 g/L, respectively. We established the RIs for the total protein and serum protein fractions using AGE in bottlenose dolphins under human care.

Influence of season, age, sex, and time of day on the endocrine profile of the common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

Understanding baseline hormone levels, the magnitude of intra-individual variability, and their variation as a function of life history is difficult in toothed whales (e.g. dolphins and porpoises) because of the effects of capture stress. To determine the endocrine profile of the common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) as a function of season, time of day (TOD), age, sex, and reproductive status, blood corticosteroids, thyroid hormones, and catecholamines were repeatedly measured in a managed-care population exposed to ambient light and water temperatures of San Diego Bay. Additionally, fecal hormone metabolites were assessed for cortisol, aldosterone, and triiodothyronine. Samples were collected at two to four-week intervals over a period of two years, and multiple times within a day at monthly intervals over a year. Samples were collected through the voluntary participation of the dolphins in the blood draws and fecal collections in order to avoid the effects of handling stress. All serum hormones except aldosterone significantly varied with season and all serum hormones except total thyroxine significantly varied as a function of TOD. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites significantly correlated with circulating cortisol levels, and there was a significant seasonal effect on triiodothyronine fecal metabolites. Strong seasonal effects demonstrated complex interactions with age and sex suggesting that contextual information is critical to interpreting differences in endocrine profiles. Strong circadian patterns further suggest that sampling design is important to the interpretation of blood or fecal collections, particularly since diurnal changes in some serum hormone levels are similar to the magnitude of seasonal differences. Despite potential impacts of feeding schedules on diurnal patterns, managed care populations can provide important insights into seasonal and age-related endocrine changes in toothed whales.

Is Supplementation with Micronutrients Still Necessary during Pregnancy? A Review

INTRODUCTION

Proper nutrition during pregnancy is important to prevent nutritional imbalances that interfere with pregnancy. Micronutrients play critical roles in embryogenesis, fetal growth, and maternal health, as energy, protein, vitamin, and mineral needs can increase during pregnancy. Increased needs can be met by increasing the intake of dietary micronutrients. Severe micronutrient deficiency or excess during pregnancy can have negative effects on fetal growth (intrauterine growth retardation, low birth weight, or congenital malformations) and pregnancy development (pre-eclampsia or gestational diabetes). We investigate whether it is necessary to continue micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy to improve women's health in this stage and whether this supplementation could prevent and control pathologies associated with pregnancy.

AIM

The present review aims to summarize evidence on the effects of nutritional deficiencies on maternal and newborn morbidity.

METHODS

This aim is addressed by critically reviewing results from published studies on supplementation with different nutrients during pregnancy. For this, major scientific databases, scientific texts, and official webpages have been consulted. PubMed searches using the terms "pregnancy" OR "maternal-fetal health" AND "vitamins" OR "minerals" OR "supplementation" AND "requirement" OR "deficiency nutrients" were performed.

RESULTS

There are accepted interventions during pregnancy, such as folic acid supplementation to prevent congenital neural tube defects, potassium iodide supplementation to correct neurodevelopment, and oral iron supplementation during the second half of pregnancy to reduce the risk of maternal anemia and iron deficiency. A number of micronutrients have also been associated with pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, and nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. In general, experimental studies are necessary to demonstrate the benefits of supplementation with different micronutrients and to adjust the recommended daily doses and the recommended periconceptional nutrition for mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Presently, there is evidence of the benefits of micronutrient supplementation in perinatal results, but indiscriminate use is discouraged due to the fact that the side effects of excessive doses are not known. Evidence supports the idea that micronutrient deficiencies negatively affect maternal health and the outcome of pregnancy. No single micronutrient is responsible for the adverse effects; thus, supplementing or correcting one deficiency will not be very effective while other deficiencies exist.

Effects of sex, age, and season on the variation of blood analytes in a clinically healthy ex situ population of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.)

Background

A comprehensive evaluation of the effects of sex, age, and season on blood analytes in a robust population size of ex situ bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.) has not been investigated to date.

Aim

To define the variation in hematological and biochemical analytes of dolphins due to sex, age, and season.

Methods

1,426 blood samples collected from 156 clinically normal dolphins consisting of 59 males and 97 females in which 37 analytes were measured were retrospectively identified. The dolphins were categorized by age, sex, and season, and categories were compared.

Results

About 23 (64%) analytes differed by age. The number of differences between adjacent age groups decreased with advancing age. MPV, glucose, BUN, globulins, GGT and Cl progressively increased with age, whereas Abs lymphs, total protein, ALP, CK and Ca progressively decreased with age. Three (8%) of analytes differed between sex, whereas 16 (44%) analytes differed by season. Female dolphins had higher median iron (33 µmol/L) than male dolphins (25 µmol/L). Female dolphins also had higher Abs lymphs and MCHC, but Abs lymphs and MCHC also differed between age and season, respectively. Sex inconsistently and relatively infrequently influences analytes. Delphinids of advancing age experience immune senescence and decreasing renal perfusion or clearance.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate the importance of considering the influences of sex, age, and season on blood data, provide a baseline for accurate interpretation of clinicopathological analytes of delphinids in managed care, and will be useful for investigations into health, disease, and stressors of wild delphinids.

Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia: Implications and Impact in Pregnancy, Fetal Development, and Early Childhood Parameters

A normal pregnancy consumes 500-800 mg of iron from the mother. Premenopausal women have a high incidence of marginal iron stores or iron deficiency (ID), with or without anemia, particularly in the less developed world. Although pregnancy is associated with a "physiologic" anemia largely related to maternal volume expansion; it is paradoxically associated with an increase in erythrocyte production and erythrocyte mass/kg. ID is a limiting factor for this erythrocyte mass expansion and can contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. This review summarizes erythrocyte and iron balance observed in pregnancy; its implications and impact on mother and child; and provides an overview of approaches to the recognition of ID in pregnancy and its management, including clinically relevant questions for further investigation.

Hematologic profile of Amazon river dolphins Inia geoffrensis and its variation during acute capture stress

Hematological values are of primary importance when investigating the health and physiological status of populations as they reflect the biological equilibrium of aquatic ecosystems. The objectives of this study are to produce baseline values for hematological parameters of the Amazon River dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), as well as to investigate significant variations according to sex, age, reproductive status and stress level. One-hundred-and-ten dolphins from Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (3°3’S, 64°51’W), Central Amazon, Brazil, were live captured and sampled in November 2004 and 2005. Further, the means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values and reference values (90% CI) were calculated. Correlations were performed to assess the relationships among blood values and cardiac rate (CR), respiratory frequency (RF), handling time and level of stress. No significant differences were found between sexes. Also, no differences occurred among pregnant and non-pregnant females, pregnant females and adult males or non-pregnant females and adult males. Calves had a higher white blood cell (WBC) count, and the neutrophil and lymphocyte absolute counts were significantly higher in calves than adults. The level of stress determined by empirical observation positively correlated with the WBC, neutrophil, lymphocyte and monocyte absolute counts and CR and RF. It was found that less stressed animals tend to present lower platelet counts and lower CR. The handling time of the dolphins was positively correlated with hematocrit (Hct), red blood cells (RBC) and Hb level. The hematological and physiological parameters varied according to time of handling and proved to be a good bioindicator of acute stress in Amazon River dolphins. The data provided here can complement long-term monitoring and identify the early warning indicators of health problems at the population level.

Hematologic and Biochemical Reference Interval Development and the Effect of Age, Sex, Season, and Location on Hematologic Analyte Concentrations in Critically Endangered Yangtze Finless Porpoise (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis ssp. asiaeorientalis)

In this study, references intervals for 49 clinicopathological parameters were established for the critically endangered Yangtze finless porpoise (YFP) (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaorientalis). Both from the wild (Poyang Lake) and seminatural (Tian-E-Zhou Oxbow) populations, individual blood samples from 188 animals were collected from 2009 to 2017 and from 2002 to 2015, respectively. For reference interval determination, we used a non-parametric bootstrap-based procedure to determine the 95th percentiles and the associated 90% confidence interval for each analyte. Our results indicated a need to partition the analyte concentrations by sex, age group, or pregnancy; however, we did not find a need to partition results by location. We then used a linear mixed model to determine if evidence existed for mean differences between location with sex and season as covariates and age group as the clustered random variable on mean hematological parameters in the YFP. We found that 88% of the analytes were significantly different between locations. Within the covariates, sex and season showed 31 and 69% significant difference in mean distributions, respectively. Additionally, age group provided a significant source of variation in 25% of the analytes. In summary, our finding suggests that analytes should be grouped according to sex, age, and reproductive status (non-pregnant and non-lactating, pregnant and lactating). Furthermore, we have provided the first set of reference intervals for 49 clinicopathological parameters that could provide guidelines for the initial evaluation of individuals during health assessments.

Acute Phase Proteins in Marine Mammals: State of Art, Perspectives and Challenges

The term “acute phase response” (APR) is referred to a nonspecific and complex reaction of an organism that occurs shortly after any tissue damage, such as infection, trauma, neoplasia, inflammation, and stress. The APR can be identified and monitored with some laboratory tests, such as the concentration of several plasma proteins, the acute phase proteins (APPs). The APPs are components of the non-specific innate immune response, and their plasma concentration is proportional to the severity and/or the extent of tissue damage. The evaluation of health status of marine mammals is difficult because the classical clinical signs of illness used for human and domestic animals are difficult to recognize and understand. For this reason, in the past years, several efforts were done to identify laboratory markers of disease in these animals. The APPs have demonstrated their role as early markers of inflammation in veterinary medicine, thus several APPs were tested in marine mammals, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), serum amyloid-A (SAA), and Haptoglobin (Hp). However, the difficulty to extrapolate the knowledge about APPs in one species to another, the lack of specie-specific reagents, the absence of data about negative APPs have hampered their extent use in marine mammals. Herein, the state of art of APPs in marine mammals is reviewed, with particular attention to pre-analytical and analytical factors that should be taken into account in validation and interpretation of APPs assays. Moreover, the current application, potential utility and the future developments of APPs in marine mammals is highlighted and discussed.

Effect of age, sex, and season on the variation in blood analytes of a clinically normal ex situ population of killer whales (Orcinus orca)

Background

The effects of sex, age, and season on blood analyte concentrations have not been investigated for the killer whale (Orcinus orca). Defining these changes provides background data for improving the care of managed populations and defines normal changes that could occur in wild counterparts.

Objectives

We aimed to define hematologic and serum biochemical variation by age, sex, and season for an ex situ killer whale population.

Methods

Blood samples collected from killer whales during normal wellness exams were retrospectively identified. Killer whales were categorized by age; calf (0‐2.9 years), juvenile (3‐10.9 years), early adult (11‐20.9 years), adult (21‐30.9 years), and aged (>30.9 years); sex; and season. Standard CBC and biochemistry were collated, and only samples without evidence of disease were used. A mixed effects maximum likelihood regression with animal identification (ID) as the random effects variable was used to compare groups with a significance set at P ≤ 0.01.

Results

All analytes differed by age, while only four differed by sex. Red blood cell parameters and associated renal analytes increased with age, while liver‐associated analytes and glucose decreased. Season affected 59% of the blood analytes.

Conclusions

Aged killer whales showed strong evidence of altered physiology as compared with younger animals. Anemia did not develop with age as was observed in one bottlenose dolphin population. Observed decreases in renal function could be caused by chronic disease or dehydration. Decreases in immune function parameters suggest immune senescence. These results provide background data for evaluating the health of managed and free‐ranging killer whales.

Physiological consequences of biologic state and habitat dynamics on the critically endangered Yangtze finless porpoises (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis ssp. asiaeorientalis) dwelling in the wild and semi-natural environment

The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of habitat and biological state on the physiology of critically endangered wild and semi-natural Yangtze Finless Porpoises (YFPs; Neophocaena asiaeorientalis ssp. asiaeorientalis) by measuring and comparing serum biochemical parameters. A total of 168 YFPs were sampled, 68 living in the semi-natural (Tian-E-Zhou Oxbow) and 98 living in the wild (Poyang Lake, PL) environment. The YFPs in the Tian-E-Zhou Oxbow were sampled from 2002 to 2015 and in the PL from 2009 to 2017. Each population was divided into Juvenile Male, Juvenile Female, Adult Male, Pregnant and Lactating Female life history categories. Overall, with location, 19/33 of the analytes and with season 18/33 of the analytes were significantly different. Similarly, within each location, 15/33 of the analytes changed with time in PL while only 8/33 changed with time in Tian-E-Zhou Oxbow, respectively. Finally, 15/33 of the analytes demonstrated significant differences between the different age and sex groups of animals. In our study, a significant variation, as well as an increasing and decreasing pattern of several parameters in both populations, suggest a worsening ecological environment of both habitats. This study will help in health assessment, improving conservation and management practices, a crucial requisite for biodiversity conservation.

Longitudinal profiles of relaxin and progestagens during pregnancy, pregnancy loss and false pregnancy in the killer whale (Orcinus orca)

The circulating pattern of immunoreactive relaxin and progestagens based on monthly and gestational stage (early, mid, late) profiles were determined during pregnancies that resulted in live calves (LIVE, n = 30), stillbirths (STILLB, n = 3), abortions (ABORT, n = 5) and presumptive false pregnancies (FALSE, n = 8), and during the follicular (n = 34) and luteal phase (n = 58). Monthly LIVE relaxin concentrations steadily increased during gestation, but values did not significantly exceed those of the luteal phase until 9 months prior to parturition, peaking during the final month at 2356 ng/ml. Relaxin surged (P < 0.05) during the final week of gestation (36,397 ng/ml), undergoing a 3 and 9-fold increase compared with concentrations in the preceding two weeks, respectively. Monthly relaxin production did not differ among each reproductive state with the exception of months-13-16 where concentrations were higher (P < 0.001) for STILLB than LIVE. Relaxin concentration was reduced (P < 0.0001) by 849% in placental versus maternal serum collected within 1 day of labor. Mid- and late-pregnancy progestagen concentrations were lower for FALSE (P < 0.001) compared with STILLB and LIVE. Late pregnancy progestagen concentrations were reduced for FALSE (P < 0.05) and ABORT (P < 0.02) compared with LIVE and STILLB. Monthly progestagen production in ABORT tended to be lower than LIVE across a range of gestational months (Months 2, 7, 8, 11) but this difference only became significant during months 14 and 15. Results indicate that relaxin is primarily produced by the CL during pregnancy, and that concentrations could not be used to differentiate from non-pregnant females until the final 6 months of gestation. In addition, as would be expected from a primarily CL product, relaxin cannot be used to detect abnormal pregnancies. Conversely, progestagens, which are produced by both the placenta and CL can be used to differentiate FALSE from normal pregnancy and may be useful indicators of fetal health in the killer whale.

Characterization and longitudinal monitoring of serum androgens and glucocorticoids during normal pregnancy in the killer whale (Orcinus orca)

The secretory patterns of testosterone (T), androstenedione (A4), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), cortisol (C), and corticosterone (Co) were characterized throughout 28 normal pregnancies until two-months post-partum in eleven killer whales. Effects of fetal sex, dam parity or age, and season were evaluated across either day post-conception (DPC), stage of pregnancy (PRE, EARLY, MID, LATE, POST) or indexed month post-conception (IMPC) using a mixed model linear regression with animal ID and pregnancy number as the random variables. Across DPC, DHEA, A4 and T concentrations were affected (P<0.05) by season, with highest concentrations during spring (DHEA, A4, & T) and summer (A4) as compared to the fall. A significant effect of parity on androgen production was observed only for DHEA, with multiparous females having higher (P=0.01) concentrations than nulliparous females. All three androgens significantly increased with each successive pregnancy stage and IMPC with peak concentrations occurring during IMPC 10 (DHEA), 13 (A4) and 14 (T), respectively. Cortisol was affected by season (P=0.03) with highest concentrations being detected during the months of fall, while Co was only affected by parity (P=0.003) with significant increases observed for primiparous females as compared to nulliparous females. Cortisol and Co concentrations peaked (P<0.05) during IMPC 17 (i.e., the month prior to parturition). The C to Co ratio during pregnancy was 7.4 to 1, indicating that cortisol is the major circulating glucocorticoid studied to date in pregnant killer whales. The significant increase in concentrations of maternal androgens throughout pregnancy, which were unrelated to fetal sex, indicates that they play an important role during killer whale fetal development.

Characterization and longitudinal monitoring of serum progestagens and estrogens during normal pregnancy in the killer whale (Orcinus orca)

The secretory patterns of progestagens and estrogens were characterized throughout 28 normal pregnancies until two month post-partum in eleven killer whales. HPLC analysis of serum from different reproductive stages (luteal phase, EARLY, MID, and LATE pregnancy) identified three major immunoreactive progestagen peaks; progesterone (P4), 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione (5α-DHP) and pregnanediol, with 5α-DHP approximately half of that for P4 in the luteal phase, and EARLY, but approximately 2/3 of P4 during MID and LATE pregnancy. At birth, 5α-DHP was the only significant (>10% immunoreactivity) immunoreactive progestagen detected in placental (umbilical cord) serum. Maternal recognition of pregnancy appears to occur between day 21 and 28 post-ovulation when a significant deviation in progestagen concentrations between conceptive and non-conceptive cycles was detected. Progestagen concentrations during pregnancy displayed a bimodal pattern with significant peaks (P<0.05) in EARLY (indexed month post-conception [IMPC] 2, 3, 4) and MID (IMPC 9, 10) before decreasing (P<0.05) over an 11day interval to luteal phase concentrations on the day of parturition. Among estrogens, estriol was secreted in the highest concentrations but only estrone (free and conjugated) and estradiol increased (P<0.001) during pregnancy, with peaks observed during the final month of gestation, and an influence (P<0.05) of fetal sex on estradiol production was detected. Collective findings indicate that P4 derived from the corpus luteum is the major biologically active progestagen during the luteal phase and pregnancy, and that 5α-DHP production, possibly from both luteal and placental sources, increases during the second half of pregnancy.

Hematology of dugongs (Dugong dugon) in southern Queensland

BACKGROUND

Little is known of the hematology of the dugong (Dugong dugon), a secretive and endangered coastal marine mammal.

OBJECTIVES

This paper reports hematologic reference intervals (RI) for dugongs and characterizes morphologic, cytochemical, and ultrastructural features of dugong leukocytes.

METHODS

Blood was collected from live, apparently healthy dugongs and analyzed using Cell-Dyn 3700 or Sysmex XT-2000iV hematology analyzers. Blood films were subjected to a series of cytochemical stains, and leukocyte structure was examined using transmission electron microscopy.

RESULTS

Reference intervals were established for 14 hematologic variables, total solids, and fibrinogen for 92 dugongs. Significant differences in some variables were found for animal size class, sex, and pregnancy status, and between analyzers. Subadults had higher leukocyte and lymphocyte counts than adults. Males had higher total solids and fibrinogen than females. Pregnant females had higher HCT, MCV, and circulating nucleated RBC, and lower platelet counts than nonpregnant females. Lymphocytes were usually the predominant circulating leukocyte. Heterophil cytoplasmic granules were abundant, fine, round to ovoid, and intensely eosinophilic, and round to ovoid or rod-shaped, and variably electron dense in electron microscopy. Eosinophils contained larger round eosinophilic to orange cytoplasmic granules, which ultrastructurally were bicompartmental with a round eccentric electron-dense core. Cytochemical staining of dugong heterophils suggests biochemical similarity to those of manatees and elephants, and for eosinophils, similarity to those of elephants, ruminants, and equids.

CONCLUSIONS

Generation of hematologic RI and characterization of leukocyte morphology improves evaluation of dugong health across this population and serves as a reference for other populations outside southern Queensland.

Comparisons of life-history parameters between free-ranging and captive killer whale (Orcinus orca) populations for application toward species management

Data collected on life-history parameters of known-age animals from the northern (NR) and southern resident (SR) killer whales (Orcinus orca) of the eastern North Pacific were compared with life-history traits of killer whales located at SeaWorld (SEA) facilities. For captive-born SEA animals, mean age and body length at 1st estrus was 7.5 years and 483.7cm, respectively. Estimated mean age at 1st conception was different (P < 0.001) for the combined data from both northern and southern resident (NSR) free-ranging populations (12.1 years) compared to SEA (9.8 years), as was the estimated mean age at 1st observed calf (SEA: 11.1 years, NSR: 14.2 years, P < 0.001). Average calf survival rate to 2 years of age for SEA animals (0.966) was significantly greater (P = 0.04) than that for SR (0.799). Annual survival rate (ASR) for SEA increased over approximately 15-year increments with rates in the most recent period (2000-2015 ASR: 0.976) improved (P < 0.05) over the first 2 periods of captivity (1965-1985: 0.906; 1985-2000: 0.941). The SR (0.966) and NR ASR (0.977) were higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that of SEA until 2000, after which there were no inter-population differences. Based on ASR, median and average life expectancy were 28.8 and 41.6 years (SEA: 2000-2015), 20.1 and 29.0 years (SR), and 29.3 and 42.3 years (NR), respectively. The ASR for animals born at SEA (0.979) was higher (P = 0.02) than that of wild-caught SEA animals (0.944) with a median and average life expectancy of 33.1 and 47.7 years, respectively. These data present evidence for similar life-history parameters of free-ranging and captive killer whale populations and the reproductive potential and survivorship patterns established herein have application for use in future research concerning the overall health of both populations.