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Carreto-Binaghi LE, Sztein MB, Booth JS. Role of cellular effectors in the induction and maintenance of IgA responses leading to protective immunity against enteric bacterial pathogens. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1446072. [PMID: 39324143 PMCID: PMC11422102 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1446072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The mucosal immune system is a critical first line of defense to infectious diseases, as many pathogens enter the body through mucosal surfaces, disrupting the balanced interactions between mucosal cells, secretory molecules, and microbiota in this challenging microenvironment. The mucosal immune system comprises of a complex and integrated network that includes the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT). One of its primary responses to microbes is the secretion of IgA, whose role in the mucosa is vital for preventing pathogen colonization, invasion and spread. The mechanisms involved in these key responses include neutralization of pathogens, immune exclusion, immune modulation, and cross-protection. The generation and maintenance of high affinity IgA responses require a delicate balance of multiple components, including B and T cell interactions, innate cells, the cytokine milieu (e.g., IL-21, IL-10, TGF-β), and other factors essential for intestinal homeostasis, including the gut microbiota. In this review, we will discuss the main cellular components (e.g., T cells, innate lymphoid cells, dendritic cells) in the gut microenvironment as mediators of important effector responses and as critical players in supporting B cells in eliciting and maintaining IgA production, particularly in the context of enteric infections and vaccination in humans. Understanding the mechanisms of humoral and cellular components in protection could guide and accelerate the development of more effective mucosal vaccines and therapeutic interventions to efficiently combat mucosal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Carreto-Binaghi
- Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiologia de la Tuberculosis, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Marcelo B Sztein
- Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy Program, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jayaum S Booth
- Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
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2
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Bos A, van Egmond M, Mebius R. The role of retinoic acid in the production of immunoglobulin A. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:562-572. [PMID: 35418672 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00509-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin A and its derivative retinoic acid (RA) play important roles in the regulation of mucosal immunity. The effect of vitamin A metabolism on T lymphocyte immunity has been well documented, but its role in mucosal B lymphocyte regulation is less well described. Intestinal immunoglobulin A (IgA) is key in orchestrating a balanced gut microbiota composition. Here, we describe the contribution of RA to IgA class switching in tissues including the lamina propria, mesenteric lymph nodes, Peyer's patches and isolated lymphoid follicles. RA can either indirectly skew T cells or directly affect B cell differentiation. IgA levels in healthy individuals are under the control of the metabolism of vitamin A, providing a steady supply of RA. However, IgA levels are altered in inflammatory bowel disease patients, making control of the metabolism of vitamin A a potential therapeutic target. Thus, dietary vitamin A is a key player in regulating IgA production within the intestine, acting via multiple immunological pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Bos
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein van Egmond
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam UMC, Department of Surgery, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Reina Mebius
- Amsterdam UMC, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Research Institute of Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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3
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Tezuka H, Ohteki T. Regulation of IgA Production by Intestinal Dendritic Cells and Related Cells. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1891. [PMID: 31456802 PMCID: PMC6700333 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The intestinal mucosa is a physiological barrier for most microbes, including both commensal bacteria and invading pathogens. Under homeostatic conditions, immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the major immunoglobulin isotype in the intestinal mucosa. Microbes stimulate the production of IgA, which controls bacterial translocation and neutralizes bacterial toxins at the intestinal mucosal surface. In the intestinal mucosa, dendritic cells (DCs), specialized antigen-presenting cells, regulate both T-cell-dependent (TD) and -independent (TI) immune responses. The intestinal DCs are a heterogeneous population that includes unique subsets that induce IgA synthesis in B cells. The characteristics of intestinal DCs are strongly influenced by the microenvironment, including the presence of commensal bacterial metabolites and epithelial cell-derived soluble factors. In this review, we summarize the ontogeny, classification, and function of intestinal DCs and how the intestinal microenvironment conditions DCs and their precursors to become the mucosal phenotype, in particular to regulate IgA production, after they arrive at the intestine. Understanding the mechanism of IgA synthesis could provide insights for designing effective mucosal vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Tezuka
- Department of Cellular Function Analysis, Research Promotion and Support Headquarters, Fujita Health University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Ohteki
- Department of Biodefense Research, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
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4
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Gut-associated IgA + immune cells regulate obesity-related insulin resistance. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3650. [PMID: 31409776 PMCID: PMC6692361 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11370-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestinal immune system is emerging as an important contributor to obesity-related insulin resistance, but the role of intestinal B cells in this context is unclear. Here, we show that high fat diet (HFD) feeding alters intestinal IgA+ immune cells and that IgA is a critical immune regulator of glucose homeostasis. Obese mice have fewer IgA+ immune cells and less secretory IgA and IgA-promoting immune mediators. HFD-fed IgA-deficient mice have dysfunctional glucose metabolism, a phenotype that can be recapitulated by adoptive transfer of intestinal-associated pan-B cells. Mechanistically, IgA is a crucial link that controls intestinal and adipose tissue inflammation, intestinal permeability, microbial encroachment and the composition of the intestinal microbiome during HFD. Current glucose-lowering therapies, including metformin, affect intestinal-related IgA+ B cell populations in mice, while bariatric surgery regimen alters the level of fecal secretory IgA in humans. These findings identify intestinal IgA+ immune cells as mucosal mediators of whole-body glucose regulation in diet-induced metabolic disease. The effect of diet-induced obesity on intestinal B cell populations is not well understood despite emerging evidence of a critical role for the intestinal immune system in contributing to insulin resistance. Here, the authors show important functions of IgA in regulating metabolic disease and for intestinal immunity in modulating systemic glucose metabolism.
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5
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Conserva MR, Anelli L, Zagaria A, Specchia G, Albano F. The Pleiotropic Role of Retinoic Acid/Retinoic Acid Receptors Signaling: From Vitamin A Metabolism to Gene Rearrangements in Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20122921. [PMID: 31207999 PMCID: PMC6627493 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20122921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The family of retinoic acid receptors (RARs: RARα, -β, and -γ) has remarkable pleiotropy characteristics, since the retinoic acid/RARs pathway is involved in numerous biological processes not only during embryonic development, but also in the postnatal phase and during adulthood. In this review, we trace the roles of RA/RARs signaling in the immune system (where this pathway has both an immunosuppressive role or is involved in the inflammatory response), in hematopoiesis (enhancing hematopoietic stem cell self-renewal, progenitor cells differentiation or maintaining the bone marrow microenvironment homeostasis), and in bone remodeling (where this pathway seems to have controversial effects on bone formation or osteoclast activation). Moreover, in this review is shown the involvement of RAR genes in multiple chromosomal rearrangements generating different fusion genes in hematological neoplasms, with a particular focus on acute promyelocytic leukemia and its variant subtypes. The effect of different RARs fusion proteins on leukemic transformation, on patients’ outcome, and on therapy response is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosa Conserva
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), Hematology Section, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy.
| | - Luisa Anelli
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), Hematology Section, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy.
| | - Antonella Zagaria
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), Hematology Section, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy.
| | - Giorgina Specchia
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), Hematology Section, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy.
| | - Francesco Albano
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), Hematology Section, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy.
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6
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Wallace CH, Wu BX, Salem M, Ansa-Addo EA, Metelli A, Sun S, Gilkeson G, Shlomchik MJ, Liu B, Li Z. B lymphocytes confer immune tolerance via cell surface GARP-TGF-β complex. JCI Insight 2018; 3:99863. [PMID: 29618665 PMCID: PMC5928869 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.99863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
GARP, a cell surface docking receptor for binding and activating latent TGF-β, is highly expressed by platelets and activated Tregs. While GARP is implicated in immune invasion in cancer, the roles of the GARP-TGF-β axis in systemic autoimmune diseases are unknown. Although B cells do not express GARP at baseline, we found that the GARP-TGF-β complex is induced on activated human and mouse B cells by ligands for multiple TLRs, including TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9. GARP overexpression on B cells inhibited their proliferation, induced IgA class-switching, and dampened T cell-independent antibody production. In contrast, B cell-specific deletion of GARP-encoding gene Lrrc32 in mice led to development of systemic autoimmune diseases spontaneously as well as worsening of pristane-induced lupus-like disease. Canonical TGF-β signaling more readily upregulates GARP in Peyer patch B cells than in splenic B cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that B cells are required for the induction of oral tolerance of T cell-dependent antigens via GARP. Our studies reveal for the first time to our knowledge that cell surface GARP-TGF-β is an important checkpoint for regulating B cell peripheral tolerance, highlighting a mechanism of autoimmune disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bill X. Wu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
| | | | | | | | - Shaoli Sun
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, and
| | - Gary Gilkeson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Mark J. Shlomchik
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Bei Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Zihai Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
- First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University School of Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
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7
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The molecular mechanism for activating IgA production by Pediococcus acidilactici K15 and the clinical impact in a randomized trial. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5065. [PMID: 29567956 PMCID: PMC5864838 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23404-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
IgA secretion at mucosal sites is important for host defence against pathogens as well as maintaining the symbiosis with microorganisms present in the small intestine that affect IgA production. In the present study, we tested the ability of 5 strains of lactic acid bacteria stimulating IgA production, being Pediococcus acidilactici K15 selected as the most effective on inducing this protective immunoglobulin. We found that this response was mainly induced via IL-10, as efficiently as IL-6, secreted by K15-stimulated dendritic cells. Furthermore, bacterial RNA was largely responsible for the induction of these cytokines; double-stranded RNA was a major causative molecule for IL-6 production whereas single-stranded RNA was critical factor for IL-10 production. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, ingestion of K15 significantly increased the secretory IgA (sIgA) concentration in saliva compared with the basal level observed before this intervention. These results indicate that functional lactic acid bacteria induce IL-6 and IL-10 production by dendritic cells, which contribute to upregulating the sIgA concentration at mucosal sites in humans.
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8
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Kim CH. Control of Innate and Adaptive Lymphocytes by the RAR-Retinoic Acid Axis. Immune Netw 2018; 18:e1. [PMID: 29503736 PMCID: PMC5833116 DOI: 10.4110/in.2018.18.e1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphocytes, such as T cells, B cells, and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), play central roles in regulating immune responses. Retinoic acids (RAs) are vitamin A metabolites, produced and metabolized by certain tissue cells and myeloid cells in a tissue-specific manner. It has been established that RAs induce gut-homing receptors on T cells, B cells, and ILCs. A mounting body of evidence indicates that RAs exert far-reaching effects on functional differentiation and fate of these lymphocytes. For example, RAs promote effector T cell maintenance, generation of induced gut-homing regulatory and effector T cell subsets, antibody production by B cells, and functional maturation of ILCs. Key functions of RAs in regulating major groups of innate and adaptive lymphocytes are highlighted in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang H Kim
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Mary H. Weiser Food Allergy Center, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.,Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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9
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Larange A, Cheroutre H. Retinoic Acid and Retinoic Acid Receptors as Pleiotropic Modulators of the Immune System. Annu Rev Immunol 2017; 34:369-94. [PMID: 27168242 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-041015-055427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin A is a multifunctional vitamin implicated in a wide range of biological processes. Its control over the immune system and functions are perhaps the most pleiotropic not only for development but also for the functional fate of almost every cell involved in protective or regulatory adaptive or innate immunity. This is especially key at the intestinal border, where dietary vitamin A is first absorbed. Most effects of vitamin A are exerted by its metabolite, retinoic acid (RA), which through ligation of nuclear receptors controls transcriptional expression of RA target genes. In addition to this canonical function, RA and RA receptors (RARs), either as ligand-receptor or separately, play extranuclear, nongenomic roles that greatly expand the multiple mechanisms employed for their numerous and paradoxical functions that ultimately link environmental sensing with immune cell fate. This review discusses RA and RARs and their complex roles in innate and adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Larange
- Division of Developmental Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy & Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037; ,
| | - Hilde Cheroutre
- Division of Developmental Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy & Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037; ,
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10
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The dual nature of retinoic acid in pemphigus and its therapeutic potential: Special focus on all-trans Retinoic Acid. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 36:180-186. [PMID: 27156125 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2016.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 04/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The efficient treatment of pemphigus with no certain side effect remained a controversial issue. Although there are various options for controlling disease severity, the majority of them may cause serious side effects. Retinoic acid (RA), an active metabolite converted from vitamin A, plays an active role in immune functions. Effects of RA, especially all-trans-Retinoic Acid (ATRA) on different types of cells involved in immune responses were analyzed in vitro and in vivo. RAs could affect the differentiation of T helper (Th) cells, B cells responses, stabilization of both natural regulatory T cells (nTregs) and regulatory B cells (Bregs) populations, and regulating the expression of critical genes in immune responses. The role of RA, based on major immune cells involved in pemphigus has not been addressed so far. In this study, we sought to determine the possible effects of RA, with a special focus on ATRA in pemphigus. All the evidences of ATRA effects on the immune system were collected and their association with the pemphigus was analyzed. According to the previous results, ATRA causes a decline in Th17 populations; increase in CD4+ induced regulatory T cells (iTregs), stabilization of nTregs, and promotion of suppressive B cells, which are critical in the improvement of pemphigus. Nevertheless, it also causes shifting of the Th1:Th2 balance toward Th2 cells, which is not favorable for pemphigus patients. In conclusion, ATRA acts via different ways in pemphigus. Due to increase in the suppressive function via iTregs, nTregs, and Bregs, it is suggested that patients with pemphigus may benefit from systemic ATRA therapy. To clarify this issue, further studies, such as clinical trials are needed.
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11
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Kang SH, Jin BR, Kim HJ, Seo GY, Jang YS, Kim SJ, An SJ, Park SR, Kim WS, Kim PH. Lactoferrin Combined with Retinoic Acid Stimulates B1 Cells to Express IgA Isotype and Gut-homing Molecules. Immune Netw 2015; 15:37-43. [PMID: 25713507 PMCID: PMC4338266 DOI: 10.4110/in.2015.15.1.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that TGF-β1 and retinoic acid (RA) cause IgA isotype switching in mice. We recently found that lactoferrin (LF) also has an activity of IgA isotype switching in spleen B cells. The present study explored the effect of LF on the Ig production by mouse peritoneal B cells. LF, like TGF-β1, substantially increased IgA production in peritoneal B1 cells but little in peritoneal B2 cells. In contrast, LF increased IgG2b production in peritoneal B2 cells much more strongly than in peritoneal B1 cells. LF in combination with RA further enhanced the IgA production and, interestingly, this enhancement was restricted to IgA isotype and B1 cells. Similarly, the combination of the two molecules also led to expression of gut homing molecules α4β7 and CCR9 on peritoneal B1 cells, but not on peritoneal B2 cells. Thus, these results indicate that LF and RA can contribute to gut IgA response through stimulating IgA isotype switching and expression of gut-homing molecules in peritoneal B1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Ho Kang
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Bo-Ra Jin
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Hyeon-Jin Kim
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Goo-Young Seo
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Young-Saeng Jang
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Sun-Jin Kim
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Sun-Jin An
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
| | - Seok-Rae Park
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon 302-718, Korea
| | - Woan-Sub Kim
- Department of Animal Life and Environmental Science, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Hankyong National University, Anseong 456-749, Korea
| | - Pyeung-Hyeun Kim
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
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12
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Gutzeit C, Magri G, Cerutti A. Intestinal IgA production and its role in host-microbe interaction. Immunol Rev 2015; 260:76-85. [PMID: 24942683 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Complex and diverse communities of bacteria establish mutualistic and symbiotic relationships with the gut after birth. The intestinal immune system responds to bacterial colonization by acquiring a state of hypo-responsiveness against commensals and active readiness against pathogens. The resulting homeostatic balance involves a continuous dialog between the microbiota and lymphocytes with the intermediation of epithelial and dendritic cells. This dialog causes massive production of immunoglobulin A (IgA), a non-inflammatory antibody specialized in mucosal protection. Here, we discuss recent advances on the regulation of intestinal IgA responses and their role in host-microbe interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Gutzeit
- Immunology Institute, Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Immunology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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13
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Chorny A, Cerutti A. Regulation and Function of Mucosal IgA and IgD. Mucosal Immunol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-415847-4.00032-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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14
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Sato A, Watanabe K, Kaneko K, Murakami Y, Ishido M, Miyasaka N, Nanki T. The effect of synthetic retinoid, Am80, on T helper cell development and antibody production in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Mod Rheumatol 2014. [DOI: 10.3109/s10165-009-0265-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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15
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Kandasamy S, Chattha KS, Vlasova AN, Saif LJ. Prenatal vitamin A deficiency impairs adaptive immune responses to pentavalent rotavirus vaccine (RotaTeq®) in a neonatal gnotobiotic pig model. Vaccine 2013; 32:816-24. [PMID: 24380684 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Revised: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is associated with increased childhood mortality and morbidity in impoverished Asian and African countries, but the impact of VAD on rotavirus (RV) vaccine or infection is poorly understood. We assessed effects of gestational and dietary induced pre- and post-natal VAD and vitamin A supplementation on immune responses to a pentavalent rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq(®) in a neonatal gnotobiotic pig model. Vaccine efficacy was assessed against virulent G1P[8] human rotavirus (HRV) challenge. VAD and vitamin A sufficient (VAS) piglets were derived from dietary VAD and VAS sows, respectively. VAD piglets had significantly lower levels of hepatic vitamin A compared to that of VAS piglets. RotaTeq(®)-vaccinated VAD piglets had 350-fold higher fecal virus shedding titers compared to vaccinated VAS piglets post-challenge. Only 25% of vaccinated non-vitamin A supplemented VAD piglets were protected against diarrhea compared with 100% protection rate in vaccinated non-supplemented VAS piglets post-challenge. Intestinal HRV specific immune responses were compromised in VAD piglets. Vaccinated VAD piglets had significantly lower ileal HRV IgG antibody secreting cell (ASC) responses (pre-challenge) and duodenal HRV IgA ASC responses (post-challenge) compared to vaccinated VAS piglets. Also, intestinal HRV IgA antibody titers were 11-fold lower in vaccinated VAD compared to vaccinated VAS piglets post-challenge. Persistently elevated levels of IL-8, a pro-inflammatory mediator, and lower IL-10 responses (anti-inflammatory) in vaccinated VAD compared to VAS piglets suggest more severe inflammatory responses in VAD piglets post-challenge. Moreover higher IFN-γ responses pre-challenge were observed in VAD compared to VAS piglets. The impaired vaccine-specific intestinal antibody responses and decreased immunoregulatory cytokine responses coincided with reduced protective efficacy of the RV vaccine against virulent HRV challenge in VAD piglets. In conclusion, VAD impaired antibody responses to RotaTeq(®) and vaccine efficacy. Oral supplementation of 100,000 IU vitamin A concurrent with RV vaccine failed to increase the vaccine efficacy in VAD piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukumar Kandasamy
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691-4096, USA.
| | - Kuldeep S Chattha
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691-4096, USA.
| | - Anastasia N Vlasova
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691-4096, USA.
| | - Linda J Saif
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691-4096, USA.
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16
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den Hartog G, van Altena C, Savelkoul HFJ, van Neerven RJJ. The mucosal factors retinoic acid and TGF-β1 induce phenotypically and functionally distinct dendritic cell types. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2013; 162:225-36. [PMID: 24022014 DOI: 10.1159/000353243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-inflammatory dendritic cell (DC) subsets play an essential role in preventing massive inflammation in mucosal tissues. We investigated whether mucosa-related factors, namely retinoic acid (RA) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β1), can induce such DC types. DCs were differentiated from monocytes in the absence or presence TGF-β1 and RA. The phenotype as well as responsiveness to bacterial ligands was studied in detail. Compared to monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), the expression of co-stimulatory molecule CD86 and DC maturation marker CD83 were strongly reduced by RA and TGF-β1. In addition, both RA- and TGF-β1-induced DCs showed strongly decreased responsiveness to stimulation with the bacterial ligands lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan, and produced significantly lower levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12 and TNF-α compared to moDCs, whilst IL-10 production was not significantly reduced. DCs differentiated under the influence of RA uniquely expressed markers related to intestinal homing (CD103 and integrin β7). In addition, CCR7, which mediates homing to lymph nodes, was expressed by DCs differentiated in the presence of RA, and also to a lesser extent by the other DC types. Furthermore, whereas moDCs and TGF-β1-derived moDCs expressed high levels of CD32, RA-derived DCs lacked CD32 expression but expressed high levels of CD64, suggesting that RA-DCs may primarily respond to soluble proteins and moDCs, and TGF-β DCs to immune complexes. The data presented here support the hypothesis that the mucosal factors TGF-β1 and RA, which can also be provided through dietary intake of dairy products, result in functionally and phenotypically distinct DC types with non-inflammatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerco den Hartog
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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17
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Seo GY, Jang YS, Kim HA, Lee MR, Park MH, Park SR, Lee JM, Choe J, Kim PH. Retinoic acid, acting as a highly specific IgA isotype switch factor, cooperates with TGF-β1 to enhance the overall IgA response. J Leukoc Biol 2013; 94:325-35. [PMID: 23744644 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0313128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study demonstrates that RA has activity of an IgA switch factor and is more specific than TGF-β1. RA independently caused only IgA switching, whereas TGF-β1 caused IgA and IgG2b switching. We found that RA increased IgA production and that this was a result of its ability to increase the frequency of IgA-secreting B cell clones. Increased IgA production was accompanied by an increase of GLTα. RA activity was abrogated by an antagonist of the RAR. Additionally, RA affected intestinal IgA production in mice. Surprisingly, RA, in combination with TGF-β1, notably enhanced not only IgA production and GLTα expression but also CCR9 and α4β7 expression on B cells. These results suggest that RA selectively induces IgA isotype switching through RAR and that RA and TGF-β have important effects on the overall gut IgA antibody response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goo-Young Seo
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
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Vitamin D receptor agonists target CXCL10: new therapeutic tools for resolution of inflammation. Mediators Inflamm 2013; 2013:876319. [PMID: 23690671 PMCID: PMC3652186 DOI: 10.1155/2013/876319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the many biological extraskeletal actions of vitamin D has increased in the past decades. Indeed, vitamin D and analogue molecules, besides the classical actions on bone metabolism, exert several beneficial effects on metabolic homeostasis, heart-cardiovascular, brain, and muscle physiological functions, throughout the interaction with the specific vitamin D receptor (VDR). In particular, VDR agonists powerfully control innate and adaptive immune system with favorable effects on human health. VDR ligands act as immunomodulators that are potent enough to retain anti-inflammatory effects, even though the mechanism underlying those effects is not yet fully elucidated. VDR agonists exert a significant suppression of inflammatory processes switching the immune response from T helper 1 (Th1) to T helper 2 (Th2) dominance and counteracting the self-enhancing inflammatory loop between immune and resident cells, especially by cytokine release impairment. Those molecules are able, indeed, to reduce the release of the interferon (IFN)γ-induced 10 kDa protein IP-10/CXCL10, a powerful chemokine driving Th1-mediated inflammation. Based on their features, VDR ligands show the potentiality to be included in immunosuppressive regimens, aimed to control auto- and alloimmune Th1-driven overreactivity, occurring, for example, in autoimmune disease or graft rejection.
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Surman SL, Rudraraju R, Sealy R, Jones B, Hurwitz JL. Vitamin A deficiency disrupts vaccine-induced antibody-forming cells and the balance of IgA/IgG isotypes in the upper and lower respiratory tract. Viral Immunol 2012; 25:341-4. [PMID: 22813425 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2012.0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccination by intranasal (IN) inoculation with a replication-competent virus forms the basis of licensed and novel candidate respiratory viral vaccines (e.g., the cold-adapted influenza virus vaccine). A positive global impact of vaccination depends on vaccine efficacy in developing countries where dietary deficiencies are commonplace. The current study was designed using Sendai virus (SeV) as a model respiratory viral vaccine to test antibody-forming cell (AFC) residence and isotype expression in the context of a vitamin A deficiency (VAD). Samples were taken 1 mo after vaccination when AFCs generally reach their peak in healthy animals. In control animals on a healthy diet, SeV induced an antibody response with a relative bias toward IgA in the upper respiratory tract (URT, as sampled by nasal wash), and IgG in the lower respiratory tract (LRT, as sampled by bronchoalveolar lavage [BAL]). In the context of VAD, the SeV-specific IgA antibodies in the nasal wash were significantly reduced in favor of enhanced IgG antibodies in the BAL. When AFCs were examined in diffuse nasal-associated lymphoid tissues (d-NALT), lungs, cervical lymph nodes (CLN), and mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN), a similar pattern emerged. AFCs were most frequent in the d-NALT and most expressed IgA in control mice. In the context of VAD, these IgA-producing AFCs were significantly reduced in number, skewing the natural balance of IgA and IgG. Taken together, the results show that the VAD diet, which is well known for its association with immune defects in the gut, significantly alters AFC induction and isotype expression in the respiratory tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherri L Surman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
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Ucher AJ, Linehan EK, Teebor GW, Schrader CE, Stavnezer J. The DNA glycosylases Ogg1 and Nth1 do not contribute to Ig class switching in activated mouse splenic B cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36061. [PMID: 22536455 PMCID: PMC3334981 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During activation of B cells to undergo class switching, B cell metabolism is increased, and levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are increased. ROS can oxidize DNA bases resulting in substrates for the DNA glycosylases Ogg1 and Nth1. Ogg1 and Nth1 excise oxidized bases, and nick the resulting abasic sites, forming single-strand DNA breaks (SSBs) as intermediates during the repair process. In this study, we asked whether splenic B cells from mice deficient in these two enzymes would show altered class switching and decreased DNA breaks in comparison with wild-type mice. As the c-myc gene frequently recombines with the IgH S region in B cells induced to undergo class switching, we also analyzed the effect of deletion of these two glycosylases on DSBs in the c-myc gene. We did not detect a reduction in S region or c-myc DSBs or in class switching in splenic B cells from Ogg1- or Nth1-deficient mice or from mice deficient in both enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna J. Ucher
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, Medical School, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Erin K. Linehan
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, Medical School, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - George W. Teebor
- Department of Pathology, Kaplan Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Carol E. Schrader
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, Medical School, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Janet Stavnezer
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, Medical School, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Cassani B, Villablanca EJ, De Calisto J, Wang S, Mora JR. Vitamin A and immune regulation: role of retinoic acid in gut-associated dendritic cell education, immune protection and tolerance. Mol Aspects Med 2011; 33:63-76. [PMID: 22120429 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2011.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2011] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The vitamin A (VA) metabolite all-trans retinoic acid (RA) plays a key role in mucosal immune responses. RA is produced by gut-associated dendritic cells (DC) and is required for generating gut-tropic lymphocytes and IgA-antibody-secreting cells (IgA-ASC). Moreover, RA modulates Foxp3(+) regulatory T cell (T(REG)) and Th17 effector T cell differentiation. Thus, although RA could be used as an effective "mucosal adjuvant" in vaccines, it also appears to be required for establishing intestinal immune tolerance. Here we discuss the roles proposed for RA in shaping intestinal immune responses and tolerance at the gut mucosal interface. We also focus on recent data exploring the mechanisms by which gut-associated DC acquire RA-producing capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Cassani
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Chang JH, Cha HR, Chang SY, Ko HJ, Seo SU, Kweon MN. IFN-gamma secreted by CD103+ dendritic cells leads to IgG generation in the mesenteric lymph node in the absence of vitamin A. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:6999-7005. [PMID: 21572021 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Although the induction mechanism of secretory IgA has been well studied, that of IgG in the mucosal compartments is not well understood. In this study, vitamin A deficiency was convincingly shown to be associated with increased IgG in serum and intestinal fluid. We found increased numbers of IgG-secreting B cells in the lamina propria of the small intestine and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) of vitamin A-deficient (VAD) mice. Of note, IFN-γ secreted by MLN dendritic cells (DCs) was significantly augmented in VAD mice, unlike control mice, and CD103(+) DCs were the main subsets to secrete IFN-γ. The aberrant increase of IgG in VAD mice can be ascribable to IFN-γ, because IFN-γ(-/-) VAD mice have normal IgG levels and the addition of rIFN-γ increased IgG production by B cells cocultured with MLN DCs from IFN-γ(-/-) VAD mice. Oral feeding of antibiotics resulted in significant reduction of IgG in VAD mice, indicating a critical role for altered commensal bacteria for IgG class-switching recombination in the absence of vitamin A. Collectively, vitamin A deficiency provokes the generation of IFN-γ-secreting CD103(+) DCs, which may be a critical regulator for IgG generation in the MLN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Hoon Chang
- Mucosal Immunology Section, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea 151-818
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23
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Retinoic acid induces expression of Ig germ line α transcript, an IgA isotype switching indicative, through retinoic acid receptor. Genes Genomics 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-010-0168-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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24
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Abstract
Vitamin A (also called retinol), absorbed in the intestine and stored mainly in the liver and fat, is normally maintained at significant concentrations in the human blood plasma. Vitamin A is constitutively metabolized at high levels in certain tissues such as the small intestine and eyes. Retinoic acid (RA) produced at high levels in the intestine plays important roles in mucosal immunity and immune tolerance. RA at basal levels is required for immune cell survival and activation. During immune responses, enzymes metabolizing vitamin A are induced in certain types of immune cells such as dendritic cells (DCs) and tissue cells for induced production of RA. As a result, induced gradients of RA are formed during immune responses in the body. RA regulates gene expression, differentiation, and function of diverse immune cells. The cells under the influence of RA in terms of differentiation include myeloid cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, and DCs. Also included are lymphoid cells such as effector T cells, regulatory T cells, and B cells. Our current understanding of the function of RA in regulation of these immune cells is reviewed in this chapter.
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Iwata M, Yokota A. Retinoic acid production by intestinal dendritic cells. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2011; 86:127-52. [PMID: 21419270 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-386960-9.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Subpopulations of dendritic cells (DCs) in the small intestine and its related lymphoid organs can produce retinoic acid (RA) from vitamin A (retinol). Through the RA production, these DCs play a pivotal role in imprinting lymphocytes with gut-homing specificity, and contribute to the development of immune tolerance by enhancing the differentiation of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells and inhibiting that of inflammatory Th17 cells. The RA-producing capacity in these DCs mostly depends on the expression of retinal dehydrogenase 2 (RALDH2, ALDH1A2). It is likely that the RALDH2 expression is induced in DCs by the microenvironmental factors in the small intestine and its related lymphoid organs. The major factor responsible for the RALDH2 expression appears to be GM-CSF. RA itself is essential for the GM-CSF-induced RALDH2 expression. IL-4 and IL-13 also enhance RALDH2 expression, but are dispensable. Toll-like receptor-mediated signals can also enhance the GM-CSF-induced RALDH2 expression in immature DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Iwata
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences at Kagawa Campus, Tokushima Bunri University, Sanuki-shi, Kagawa, Japan
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Watanabe K, Sugai M, Nambu Y, Osato M, Hayashi T, Kawaguchi M, Komori T, Ito Y, Shimizu A. Requirement for Runx proteins in IgA class switching acting downstream of TGF-beta 1 and retinoic acid signaling. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:2785-92. [PMID: 20142360 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
IgA is a specific isotype required for mucosal immunity and is the most abundant Ab produced in vivo. Recently, several inductive signals for IgA class switch recombination have been identified; however, the molecular details of the action of these signals and the specific factors acting in B cells remain elusive. In this study, we show that combination of retinoic acid (RA) and TGF-beta1 with other factors induced a much higher frequency of IgA-switched cells than reported previously. In addition, IgA production is severely impaired in Runx2-Runx3 double-deficient mice. In Runx2-Runx3-deficient B cells, both RA- and TGF-beta1-dependent inductions of alpha germline transcription are completely blocked. These data suggest that Runx proteins play an essential role in IgA class switching acting downstream of RA and TGF-beta1 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kakeru Watanabe
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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27
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Abstract
The past 20 years have seen a growing interest over the control of adaptive immune responses by the innate immune system. In particular, considerable attention has been paid to the mechanisms by which antigen-primed dendritic cells orchestrate the differentiation of T cells. Additional studies have elucidated the pathways followed by T cells to initiate immunoglobulin responses in B cells. In this review, we discuss recent advances on the mechanisms by which intestinal bacteria, epithelial cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages cross talk with intestinal T cells and B cells to induce frontline immunoglobulin A class switching and production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejo Chorny
- Department of Medicine, The Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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Sato A, Watanabe K, Kaneko K, Murakami Y, Ishido M, Miyasaka N, Nanki T. The effect of synthetic retinoid, Am80, on T helper cell development and antibody production in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Mod Rheumatol 2009; 20:244-51. [PMID: 20039185 DOI: 10.1007/s10165-009-0265-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Retinoids are known to promote T helper (Th)2 and regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation, and suppress Th1 and Th17 in vitro. Am80, a synthetic retinoid, is reported to ameliorate collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). The aims of this study are to determine the effects of Am80 on CIA in detail, and on Th development and antibody (Ab) production in vivo. Murine CIA was induced by immunization with bovine type II collagen (CII) at days 1 and 22. Treatment with Am80 from day 1 to 35 significantly lowered clinical arthritis score, suppressed cellular infiltration and bone destruction in the joint, decreased interleukin (IL)-17 and increased interferon (IFN)-gamma production by CII-stimulated splenocytes, and decreased proportion of Foxp3(+) splenic CD4 T cells and serum anti-CII Ab levels. Thus, Am80 inhibited Th17 and Treg and enhanced Th1 differentiation in vivo. In contrast, Am80 applied from day 15 to 35 did not alter arthritis score, IL-17 or IFN-gamma production by CII-stimulated splenocytes, but decreased the proportion of Foxp3(+) splenic CD4 T cells and serum anti-CII Ab levels. Am80 exhibits inhibitory effects on CIA and might regulate both Th development and Ab production in vivo. Decreased Th17 by treatment with Am80 might be responsible for the attenuation of arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Sato
- Department of Medicine and Rheumatology, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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Ohyanagi N, Ishido M, Suzuki F, Kaneko K, Kubota T, Miyasaka N, Nanki T. Retinoid ameliorates experimental autoimmune myositis, with modulation of Th cell differentiation and antibody production in vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 60:3118-27. [PMID: 19790078 DOI: 10.1002/art.24930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Polymyositis and dermatomyositis are chronic inflammatory muscle diseases. Retinoids are compounds that bind to the retinoic acid binding site of retinoic acid receptors and have biologic activities similar to those of vitamin A. Recent studies indicate that retinoids promote Th2 differentiation and suppress Th1 and Th17 differentiation in vitro. The present study was undertaken to examine the effects of a synthetic retinoid, Am80, on experimental autoimmune myositis as well as on Th phenotype development and antibody production. METHODS Experimental autoimmune myositis was induced in SJL/J mice by immunization with rabbit myosin. Am80 was administered orally once daily. Its effects were evaluated by measurement of the numbers of infiltrating inflammatory cells, production of inflammatory cytokines in muscle, production of Th-specific cytokines by myosin-stimulated splenic T cells, and production of antimyosin antibodies in serum. RESULTS In mice with experimental autoimmune myositis, orally administered Am80 significantly reduced the number of infiltrating inflammatory cells and the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) in muscle. Moreover, Am80 increased production of interferon-gamma, IL-4, and IL-10, but not IL-17, by myosin-stimulated splenic T cells of mice with experimental autoimmune myositis, suggesting that it could enhance differentiation into Th1 and Th2, but not Th17, in vivo. Am80 also decreased serum levels of IgG2a and IgG2b antimyosin antibodies, but did not affect levels of IgG1 antimyosin antibodies. In addition, it suppressed chemokine expression and activator protein 1 activity in myoblasts in vitro. CONCLUSION The synthetic retinoid Am80 has an inhibitory effect on experimental autoimmune myositis. It might regulate the development of Th phenotype and antibody production in vivo, in addition to its effects on cytokine and chemokine production.
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Localized Th1-, Th2-, T regulatory cell-, and inflammation-associated hepatic and pulmonary immune responses in Ascaris suum-infected swine are increased by retinoic acid. Infect Immun 2009; 77:2576-87. [PMID: 19332534 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00827-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Pigs infected with Ascaris suum or controls were given 100 microg (low-dose) or 1,000 microg (high-dose) all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)/kg body weight in corn oil or corn oil alone per os on days after inoculation (DAI) -1, +1, and +3 with infective eggs. Treatment with ATRA increased interleukin 4 (IL4) and IL12p70 in plasma of infected pigs at 7 DAI and augmented bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) eosinophilia observed at 7 and 14 DAI. To explore potential molecular mechanisms underlying these observations, a quantitative real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR array was used to examine mRNA expression in tissue. Ascaris-infected pigs had increased levels of liver mRNA for T-helper-2 (Th2)-associated cytokines, mast cell markers, and T regulatory (Treg) cells, while infected pigs given ATRA had higher IL4, IL13, CCL11, CCL26, CCL17, CCL22, and TPSB1 expression. Gene expression for Th1-associated markers (IFNG, IL12B, and TBX21), the CXCR3 ligand (CXCL9), IL1B, and the putative Treg marker TNFRSF18 was also increased. Expression of IL4, IL13, IL1B, IL6, CCL11, and CCL26 was increased in the lungs of infected pigs treated with ATRA. To determine a putative cellular source of eosinophil chemoattractants, alveolar macrophages were treated with IL4 and/or ATRA in vitro. IL4 induced CCL11, CCL17, CCL22, and CCL26 mRNA, and ATRA increased the basal and IL4-stimulated expression of CCL17 and CCL22. Thus, ATRA augments a diverse Th1-, Th2-, Treg-, and inflammation-associated response in swine infected with A. suum, and the increased BAL eosinophilia may be related to enhanced induction of eosinophil chemokine activity by alveolar macrophages.
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31
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Stavnezer J, Kang J. The surprising discovery that TGF beta specifically induces the IgA class switch. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:5-7. [PMID: 19109126 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.1.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janet Stavnezer
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
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32
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Abstract
Vitamins are essential constituents of our diet that have long been known to influence the immune system. Vitamins A and D have received particular attention in recent years as these vitamins have been shown to have an unexpected and crucial effect on the immune response. We present and discuss our current understanding of the essential roles of vitamins in modulating a broad range of immune processes, such as lymphocyte activation and proliferation, T-helper-cell differentiation, tissue-specific lymphocyte homing, the production of specific antibody isotypes and regulation of the immune response. Finally, we discuss the clinical potential of vitamin A and D metabolites for modulating tissue-specific immune responses and for preventing and/or treating inflammation and autoimmunity.
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Ertesvåg Å, Naderi S, Blomhoff HK. Regulation of B cell proliferation and differentiation by retinoic acid. Semin Immunol 2009; 21:36-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2008.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2008] [Revised: 06/25/2008] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Pérez-Cano FJ, Ramírez-Santana C, Molero-Luís M, Castell M, Rivero M, Castellote C, Franch À. Mucosal IgA increase in rats by continuous CLA feeding during suckling and early infancy. J Lipid Res 2008; 50:467-476. [PMID: 18824724 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m800356-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to establish the effect of the cis9,trans11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomer on mucosal immunity during early life in rats, a period when mucosal immunoglobulin production is poorly developed, as is also the case in humans. CLA supplementation was performed during three life periods: gestation, suckling, and early infancy. The immune status of supplemented animals was evaluated at two time points: at the end of the suckling period (21-day-old rats) and 1 week after weaning (28-day-old rats). Secretory IgA was quantified in intestinal washes from 28-day-old rats by ELISA technique. IgA, TGFbeta, and PPARgamma mRNA expression was measured in small intestine and colon by real time PCR, using Taqman specific probes and primers. IgA mucosal production was enhanced in animals supplemented with CLA during suckling and early infancy: in 28-day-old rats, IgA mRNA expression was increased in small intestine and colon by approximately 6- and 4-fold, respectively, and intestinal IgA protein by approximately 2-fold. TGFbeta gene expression was independent of age and type of tissue considered, and was not modified by dietary CLA. Gene expression of PPARgamma, a possible mediator of CLA's effects was also upregulated in animals receiving CLA during early life. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with CLA during suckling and extended to early infancy enhances development of the intestinal immune response in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Pérez-Cano
- F. J. Pérez-Cano and C. Ramírez-Santana contributed equally to this work; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Carolina Ramírez-Santana
- F. J. Pérez-Cano and C. Ramírez-Santana contributed equally to this work; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Molero-Luís
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Margarida Castell
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Montserrat Rivero
- Ordesa Group, Research Department, Scientific Park of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain
| | - Cristina Castellote
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Àngels Franch
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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35
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Augmentation of antibody responses by retinoic acid and costimulatory molecules. Semin Immunol 2008; 21:42-50. [PMID: 18819820 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2008.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2008] [Revised: 08/13/2008] [Accepted: 08/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Antibody production is crucial for a successful vaccine response. Beyond the ability of vitamin A (VA) and its active metabolite, all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) to restore growth in VA-deficient animals, supplementation with VA and/or treatment with RA can augment antibody responses in both VA-deficient and VA-adequate animals. RA alone, and in combination with stimuli that are ligands for the Toll-like receptor family, can augment the adaptive immune response leading to a heightened primary antibody response, and a stronger recall response upon restimulation. Mechanisms may include regulation of cell populations, type 1/type 2 cytokines, and B cell-related transcription factors, leading to accelerated B cell maturation.
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Mora JR, von Andrian UH. Role of retinoic acid in the imprinting of gut-homing IgA-secreting cells. Semin Immunol 2008; 21:28-35. [PMID: 18804386 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2008.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2008] [Revised: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 08/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) lodging in the mucosa of the small intestine are derived from activated B cells that are thought to arise in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT). Upon leaving the GALT, B cells return to the blood where they must express the gut-homing receptors alpha4beta7 and CCR9 in order to emigrate into the small bowel. Recent evidence indicates that gut-associated dendritic cells (DCs) in GALT induce gut-homing receptors on B cells via a mechanism that depends on the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid (RA). In addition, although ASC associated with other mucosal tissues secrete IgA in an RA-independent fashion, the presence of high levels of RA in intestine and GALT can promote B cell class switching to IgA and thus, boost the production of IgA in the intestinal mucosa. Here, we discuss the role of RA in the imprinting of gut-homing ASC and the evidence linking RA with the generation of intestinal IgA-ASCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rodrigo Mora
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, GRJ-815, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Abstract
Most antibody-secreting cells (ASCs) in mucosal tissues produce immunoglobulin A (IgA), the most abundant immunoglobulin in the body and the main class of antibody found in secretions. IgA-ASCs differentiate in the mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues and are usually considered as a homogeneous population of cells. However, IgA-ASCs that travel to the small intestine have unique characteristics in terms of their migratory requirements. These IgA-ASCs require the homing molecules alpha4beta7 and CCR9 to interact with their ligands, mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 and CCL25, which are constitutively expressed in the small intestine. Indeed, recent work has shown that IgA-ASCs specific for the small bowel are generated under different conditions as compared with IgA-ASCs in other mucosal compartments. Moreover, the mechanisms inducing IgA class switching may also vary according to the tissue where IgA-ASCs differentiate. Here we describe the mechanisms involved in the differentiation of IgA-ASCs in mucosal compartments, in particular those involved in the generation of gut-homing IgA-ASCs.
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Mora JR. Homing imprinting and immunomodulation in the gut: role of dendritic cells and retinoids. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008; 14:275-89. [PMID: 17924560 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.20280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte migration is at the heart of chronic inflammatory ailments, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Whereas naïve lymphocytes migrate to all secondary lymphoid organs, they are mostly excluded from nonlymphoid peripheral tissues. Upon activation, lymphocytes change their pattern of adhesion receptors and acquire the capacity to migrate to extralymphoid tissues. Antigen-experienced T cells are subdivided into different subsets based on their expression of homing receptors that favor their accumulation in specific tissues, such as the skin and the gut mucosa. B cells and antibody-secreting cells (ASC) also show tissue-tropism, which is somewhat correlated with the class of immunoglobulin that they produce. In fact, IgA-ASC are located in mucosal tissues, where they produce IgA, the main class of antibodies found in secretions. Although IgA-ASC are usually considered as a homogeneous pool of cells, those located in the small bowel have some unique migratory characteristics, suggesting that they are generated under different conditions as compared to IgA-ASC in other mucosal compartments. Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (T(REG)) can also exhibit tissue-specific migratory potential and recent evidence suggests that T(REG) can be imprinted with gut-specific homing. Moreover, foxp3(+) T(REG) are enriched in the small bowel lamina propria, where they can be generated locally. The present review addresses our current understanding of how tissue-specific homing is acquired and modulated on T cells, B cells, and ASC, with a special emphasis on the intestinal mucosa. Harnessing these mechanisms could offer novel, effective, and more specific therapeutic strategies in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rodrigo Mora
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Borsutzky S, Cazac BB, Roes J, Guzmán CA. TGF-beta receptor signaling is critical for mucosal IgA responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:3305-9. [PMID: 15322193 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.5.3305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
TGF-beta receptor (TbetaR) signaling is important for systemic IgA production; however, its contribution to IgA secretion at mucosal sites remained uncertain. This important question was addressed using mice lacking the TbetaR in B cells (TbetaRII-B). Although reduced, IgA-secreting cells and IgA were still present in the systemic and mucosal compartments. The adaptive immune response was investigated after oral or nasal immunization using adjuvants acting on different molecular targets, namely, the cholera toxin B subunit and the macrophage-activating lipopeptide-2. Efficient Ag-specific cellular and humoral responses were triggered both in controls and TbetaRII-B mice. However, a significant reduction in Ag-specific IgG2b and increased levels of IgG3 were observed in sera from TbetaRII-B mice. Furthermore, Ag-specific IgA-secreting cells, serum IgA, and secretory IgA were undetectable in TbetaRII-B mice. These results demonstrate the critical role played by TbetaR in Ag-driven stimulation of secretory IgA responses in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Borsutzky
- Vaccine Research Group, Division of Microbiology, Gesellschaft für Biotechnologische Forschung-German Research Centre for Biotechnology, Braunschweig, Germany
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Abstract
In populations where vitamin A availability from food is low, infectious diseases can precipitate vitamin A deficiency by decreasing intake, decreasing absorption, and increasing excretion. Infectious diseases that induce the acute-phase response also impair the assessment of vitamin A status by transiently depressing serum retinol concentrations. Vitamin A deficiency impairs innate immunity by impeding normal regeneration of mucosal barriers damaged by infection, and by diminishing the function of neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. Vitamin A is also required for adaptive immunity and plays a role in the development of T both-helper (Th) cells and B-cells. In particular, vitamin A deficiency diminishes antibody-mediated responses directed by Th2 cells, although some aspects of Th1-mediated immunity are also diminished. These changes in mucosal epithelial regeneration and immune function presumably account for the increased mortality seen in vitamin A-deficient infants, young children, and pregnant women in many areas of the world today.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Stephensen
- USDA Western Human Nutrition Research Center and Nutrition Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
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Tokuyama H, Tokuyama Y. Class switch recombination signals induce lymphocyte-derived Spo11 expression and Spo11 antisense oligonucleotide inhibits class switching. Cell Immunol 2001; 211:123-30. [PMID: 11591116 DOI: 10.1006/cimm.2001.1830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we showed that mouse Spo11 is induced in normal mu(+) B cells by class switch recombination (CSR) stimuli, by RT-PCR using primers based on the reported cDNA sequence of testis-derived Spo11 (test-Spo11) cDNA. In the present study, we first determined the cDNA sequence of lymphocyte-derived Spo11 (lym-Spo11). The 5' upstream portion had an as yet unreported sequence but the remaining part from exons 2 to 12 and the subsequent 3'UTR was completely identical to that of test-Spo11. RT-PCR analysis indicated that lymphocytes express lym-Spo11 but not test-Spo11. Second, we showed that lym-Spo11 is strongly induced (above eightfold) in the IgA CSR system of LPS-stimulated mu(+)B cells in the presence of all-trans retinoic acid and IL-4. Finally, we examined whether lym-Spo11 antisense S-oligonucleotide (AS) can inhibit CSR reactions in three in vitro CSR systems, IgA,IgG1, and IgE. Lym-Spo11 AS or the sense oligonucleotide was added to the cultures at the start, and total RNA was extracted after 4 days. IgA, IgG1, and IgE mRNAs (J(H)C(H)) and mature germline C(H) transcripts (I(H)C(H)) were quantitatively assayed by RT-PCR. AS inhibited J(H)C(H) expression dose-dependently. In all three systems, the maximum inhibition by 20 microM AS was in the range of 60 to 90%. Interestingly, I(H)C(H) was also inhibited by AS to a similar extent as J(H)C(H). These results suggested that lym-Spo11 plays an important role in the initiation step of CSR.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tokuyama
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa University, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa-ken, 920-0934, Japan
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Nikawa T, Ikemoto M, Kano M, Tokuoka K, Hirasaka K, Uehara S, Takatsu K, Rokutan K, Kishi K. Impaired vitamin A-mediated mucosal IgA response in IL-5 receptor-knockout mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 285:546-9. [PMID: 11444878 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.5138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To clarify actions of vitamin A on mucosal immunity associated with interleukin-5 (IL-5), we examined effects of vitamin A on mucosal IgA level in IL-5 receptor alpha-chain-knockout (IL-5Ralpha(-/-)) mice. Daily supplementation of retinyl acetate (1 mg/mouse) increased Th2 cytokine levels and a number of their positive cells in the small intestinal mucosa of IL-5Ralpha(-/-) mice, as observed in wild-type or IL-5Ralpha(+/-) mice. Wild-type and heterozygous mice increased the IgA level and a number of IgA-containing cells in the mucosa in response to the vitamin A treatment, but not in IL-5Ralpha(-/-) mice. Retinyl acetate increased anti-cholera toxin (CT) IgA level in the mucosa of wild-type mice, improving their survival rate after an exposure to 0.4 mg of CT. However, retinyl acetate failed to induce resistance to CT toxicity in IL-5Ralpha(-/-) mice. Our results suggest that IL-5 may play an important role in an action of vitamin A on mucosal IgA system.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Crosses, Genetic
- Cytokines/immunology
- Diterpenes
- Heterozygote
- Immunity, Mucosal/drug effects
- Immunoglobulin A, Secretory/biosynthesis
- Intestinal Mucosa/immunology
- Intestine, Small/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Knockout
- Protein Subunits
- Receptors, Interleukin/deficiency
- Receptors, Interleukin/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin/physiology
- Receptors, Interleukin-5
- Retinyl Esters
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Vitamin A/analogs & derivatives
- Vitamin A/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nikawa
- Department of Nutrition, School of Medicine, University of Tokushima, 3-18-15 Kuramoto-cho, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan.
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Tokuyama H, Tokuyama Y. Mouse homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae spo11 is induced in normal mu(+)B-cells by stimuli that cause germline C(H) transcription and subsequent class switch recombination. Cell Immunol 2000; 202:1-5. [PMID: 10873300 DOI: 10.1006/cimm.2000.1647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The first step of Ig heavy chain class switch recombination (CSR) is considered to be DNA double strand break (DSB) formation in the two switch (S) regions (S(mu) and downstream S(H)), although the underlying mechanism is unknown. Recently, it has been demonstrated that at least Spo11, a homolog of the novel type II topoisomerase (topo VI) that catalyzes DSB formation, is involved in the initiation of meiotic recombination of Saccaromyces cerevisiae. In the present study, we examined whether the mouse homolog of Spo11 is induced in normal mouse mu(+)B-cells by stimuli that cause an early step of CSR, germline C(H) transcription, and subsequent CSR. Two CSR systems were used: IgA CSR induced by all-trans retinoic acid, IL-5, and LPS, and IgG1 CSR induced by IL-4 and LPS. Germline transcript and mouse Spo11 expression were analyzed by RT-PCR. In both systems, first germline transcripts were clearly detected on day 2 and then Spo11 was detected on day 3, increasing thereafter with time. The time course of changes in Spo11 expression coincided with that of CSR. Spo11 seems to be induced by CSR-inducing stimuli, regardless of the direction of CSR. These results suggested that mouse Spo11 might participate in the initiation step of CSR.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tokuyama
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa University, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa-ken, 920-0934, Japan
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