Carbaryl induces CYP1A1 gene expression in HepG2 and HaCaT cells but is not a ligand of the human hepatic Ah receptor

Nicotine stimulates CYP1A1 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via AP-1, NF-κB, and AhR

Cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) is a member of a subfamily of enzymes involved in the metabolism of both endogenous and exogenous substrates and the chemical activation of xenobiotics to carcinogenic derivatives. Here, the effects of nicotine, a major psychoactive compound present in cigarette smoke, on CYP1A1 expression and human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell proliferation were investigated. Nicotine stimulated CYP1A1 expression via the transcription factors, activator protein 1, nuclear factor-kappa B, and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling pathway. Pharmacological inhibition and mutagenesis studies indicated that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, as well as RelA (or p65), mediated the upregulation of CYP1A1 of nicotine in HepG2 cells. The antioxidant compound, N-acetyl-cysteine, abrogated nicotine-activated production of reactive oxygen species and inhibited CYP1A1 expression by nicotine. Furthermore, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activity was inhibited by diphenyleneiodonium (an NADPH oxidase inhibitor). Thus, these results demonstrated that AhR played an important role in nicotine-induced CYP1A1 expression. Additionally, liver hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells treated with nicotine exhibited markedly enhanced proliferation via CYP1A1 expression and Akt activation.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor and intestinal immunity

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a member of the basic helix-loop-helix-(bHLH) superfamily of transcription factors, which are associated with cellular responses to environmental stimuli, such as xenobiotics and oxygen levels. Unlike other members of bHLH, AhR is the only bHLH transcription factor that is known to be ligand activated. Early AhR studies focused on understanding the role of AhR in mediating the toxicity and carcinogenesis properties of the prototypic ligand 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). In recent years, however, it has become apparent that, in addition to its toxicological involvement, AhR is highly receptive to a wide array of endogenous and exogenous ligands, and that its activation leads to a myriad of key host physiological functions. In this study, we review the current understanding of the functions of AhR in the mucosal immune system with a focus on its role in intestinal barrier function and intestinal immune cells, as well as in intestinal homeostasis.

Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models

Studies on the metabolic fate of medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics and other chemicals intentionally or accidently applied to the human skin have become increasingly important in order to ascertain pharmacological effectiveness and to avoid toxicities. The use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations. Hence information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the experimental systems available for pertinent studies compared with native human skin has become crucial. This review collects available information of which—taken with great caution because of the still very limited data—the most salient points are: in the skin of all animal species and skin-derived in vitro systems considered in this review cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent monooxygenase activities (largely responsible for initiating xenobiotica metabolism in the organ which provides most of the xenobiotica metabolism of the mammalian organism, the liver) are very low to undetectable. Quite likely other oxidative enzymes [e.g. flavin monooxygenase, COX (cooxidation by prostaglandin synthase)] will turn out to be much more important for the oxidative xenobiotic metabolism in the skin. Moreover, conjugating enzyme activities such as glutathione transferases and glucuronosyltransferases are much higher than the oxidative CYP activities. Since these conjugating enzymes are predominantly detoxifying, the skin appears to be predominantly protected against CYP-generated reactive metabolites. The following recommendations for the use of experimental animal species or human skin in vitro models may tentatively be derived from the information available to date: for dermal absorption and for skin irritation esterase activity is of special importance which in pig skin, some human cell lines and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to native human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization reactive-metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the Conclusions section in the end of this review.

Reduction of dioxin-like toxicity in effluents by additional wastewater treatment and related effects in fish

Efficiency of advanced wastewater treatment technologies to reduce micropollutants which mediate dioxin-like toxicity was investigated. Technologies compared included ozonation, powdered activated carbon and granular activated carbon. In addition to chemical analyses in samples of effluents, surface waters, sediments, and fish, (1) dioxin-like potentials were measured in paired samples of effluents, surface waters, and sediments by use of an in vitro biotest (reporter gene assay) and (2) dioxin-like effects were investigated in exposed fish by use of in vivo activity of the mixed-function, monooxygenase enzyme, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) in liver. All advanced technologies studied, based on degradation or adsorption, significantly reduced dioxin-like potentials in samples and resulted in lesser EROD activity in livers of fish. Results of in vitro and in vivo biological responses were not clearly related to quantification of targeted analytes by use of instrumental analyses.

Effects of currently used pesticides and their mixtures on the function of thyroid hormone and aryl hydrocarbon receptor in cell culture

Evidence suggest that exposure to pesticides can interfere with the endocrine system by multiple mechanisms. The endocrine disrupting potential of currently used pesticides in Denmark was analyzed as single compounds and in an equimolar mixture of 5 selected pesticides. The pesticides were previously analyzed for effects on the function of estrogen and androgen receptors, the aromatase enzyme and steroidogenesis in vitro. In this study, the effect on thyroid hormone (TH) function and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) transactivity was assessed using GH3 cell proliferation assay (T-screen) and AhR responsive luciferase reporter gene bioassay, respectively. Thirteen pesticides were analyzed as follows: 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, terbuthylazine, iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium, mesosulfuron-methyl, metsulfuron-methyl, chlormequat chloride, bitertanol, propiconazole, prothioconazole, mancozeb and its metabolite ethylene thiourea, cypermethrin, tau-fluvalinate, and malathion (currently banned in DK). In the T-screen, prothioconazole, malathion, tau-fluvalinate, cypermethrin, terbuthylazine and mancozeb significantly stimulated and bitertanol and propiconazole slightly reduced the GH3 cell proliferation. In the presence of triiodothyronine (T3), prothioconazole, tau-fluvalinate, propiconazole, cypermethrin and bitertanol significantly antagonized the T3-induced GH3 cell proliferation. Eleven of the tested pesticides agonized the AhR function, and bitertanol and prothioconazole inhibited the basal AhR activity. Bitertanol, propiconazole, prothioconazole and cypermethrin antagonized the TCDD-induced AhR transactivation at the highest tested concentration. The 5-component mixture had inducing effect but the combined effect could not be predicted due to the presence of bitertanol eliciting inhibitory effect. Upon removal of bitertanol from the mixture, the remaining four pesticides acted additively. In conclusion, our data suggest that pesticides currently used in Denmark can interfere with TH signaling and AhR function in vitro and might have the potential to cause endocrine disruption.

Inhibitory effects of biocides on transcription and protein activity of acetylcholinesterase in the intertidal copepod Tigriopus japonicus

Acetlycholinesterase (AChE) is a serine esterase that plays an important role in the hydrolytic degradation of acetylcholine. We investigated the modulatory potential of T. japonicus-AChE (TJ-AChE) for biocide response by cloning, sequencing, and characterizing the full-length genomic DNA of the TJ-AChE1 and TJ-AChE2 genes. The deduced TJ-AChE proteins were highly conserved across species and were distinctively separated into two subtypes, AChE1 and AChE2. Each TJ-AChE protein was closely phylogenetically clustered with invertebrate AChE1 and AChE2 proteins. Transcriptional level of TJ-AChE1 was higher than TJ-AChE2 in all developmental stages. TJ-AChE1 mRNA decreased in response to five biocides (alachlor, chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, endosulfan, lindane,) but not in the molinate-exposed group. TJ-AChE2 decreased significantly only in response to chlorpyrifos and lindane. TJ-AChE enzymatic activity was significantly inhibited when exposed to alachlor, chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, or lindane for 24 h. This study elucidates potential endogenous mechanisms of biocide-induced neurotoxicity in T. japonicas.

Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models

The exposure of the skin to medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics, and other chemicals renders information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the skin highly interesting. Since the use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations, information on XME in models comes in the focus including non-human mammalian species and in vitro skin models. This review attempts to summarize the information available in the open scientific literature on XME in the skin of human, rat, mouse, guinea pig, and pig as well as human primary skin cells, human cell lines, and reconstructed human skin models. The most salient outcome is that much more research on cutaneous XME is needed for solid metabolism-dependent efficacy and safety predictions, and the cutaneous metabolism comparisons have to be viewed with caution. Keeping this fully in mind at least with respect to some cutaneous XME, some models may tentatively be considered to approximate reasonable closeness to human skin. For dermal absorption and for skin irritation among many contributing XME, esterase activity is of special importance, which in pig skin, some human cell lines, and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization, activating XME are not yet judgeable, but reactive metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the “Overview and Conclusions” section in the end of this review.

Fundulus heteroclitus adapted to PAHs are cross-resistant to multiple insecticides

Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) from the Atlantic Wood Superfund site on the Elizabeth River (ER), VA are dramatically resistant to the acute toxicity and teratogenesis caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To understand the consequences of adaptation to chronic PAH pollution, we have attempted to further define the chemical tolerance associated with this resistance. An important component of the PAH adaptation of ER fish is the dramatic down-regulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) pathway, resulting in decreased cytochrome p450 (CYP) 1 activity. Herein, we compared the susceptibility to several insecticides of ER fish to that of reference site (King's Creek; KC) fish; use of these chemicals as probes of the resistance will help to demonstrate if the contaminant adaptation exhibited by ER fish is broad or narrow and AHR-focused. We hypothesized that ER fish would be less susceptible to the organophosphate chlorpyrifos (activated by CYP) and more susceptible to the pyrethroid permethrin (detoxified by CYP). Comparison of acute toxicity in 5-day-old larvae supported this hypothesis for chlorpyrifos. As expected, chemical up-regulation of CYP by co-exposure to β-naphthoflavone (BNF) enhanced the susceptibility of KC but it did not affect ER larvae. Unexpectedly, ER larvae were much less susceptible to permethrin than KC larvae. However, co-exposure to BNF greatly decreased the susceptibility of KC larvae, indicating that metabolism of permethrin by CYP was protective. Additionally, fish from each population were compared for susceptibility to the carbamate carbaryl, an acute neurotoxicant and weak AHR agonist that induces teratogenesis similar to that caused by PAHs. ER embryos and larvae were less susceptible than KC fish. These results suggest that the adaptive phenotype of ER fish is multi-faceted and that aspects other than CYP response are likely to greatly affect their response to contaminants.

Impact of eugenol and isoeugenol on AhR translocation, target gene expression, and proliferation in human HaCaT keratinocytes

The phenolic derivatives eugenol and isoeugenol, which are naturally found in essential oils of different spices, are commonly used as fragrances. Recently data demonstrated that growth suppression produced by these substances occurs in keratinocytes and that the effects may be mediated via aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) interactions. In this study the effects of eugenol and isoeugenol were determined on intracellular localization of AhR, AhR target gene expression, AhR-dependent cell cycle regulation, and proliferation in HaCaT cells. Both compounds produced a rapid and marked translocation of AhR into the nucleus, induced the expression of the AhR target genes cytochrome P-450 1A1 (CYP1A1) and AhR repressor (AhRR), and inhibited proliferation of HaCaT cells. Among the G(1) phase cell cycle-related proteins, levels of the retinoblastoma protein (RB), which is known to interact with AhR, and levels of the cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) 6 were reduced by eugenol and isoeugenol, whereas steady-state levels of CDK2 and CDK4 remained unaffected. Protein levels of CDK inhibitor (CKI) p27(KIP1), known to be modulated in an AhR-dependent manner, were increased after treatment with both substances. In conclusion, data show that the antiproliferative properties of eugenol and isoeugenol in HaCaT cells are mediated through AhR, and thereby the molecular mechanisms of action in these cells were identified for the first time in this study.

Induction of cytochromes P450 1A1 and 1A2 by tanshinones in human HepG2 hepatoma cell line

Diterpenoid tanshinones including tanshinone IIA (TIIA), cryptotanshinone (CTS), tanshinone I (TI) and dihydrotanshinone I (DHTI) are the major bioactive components from Danshen. The major aim of our present study was to investigate the induction potential of these four main components of tanshinones (TIIA, CTS, TI, and DHTI) on the expression of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 in HepG2 cells. Our results showed that all of these four tanshinones caused a significant time- and concentration-dependent increase in the amount of CYP1A1/2 expression in HepG2 cells. These induction effects were further characterized through transcriptional regulation: the induction of CYP1A1/2 mRNA level by tanshinones was completely blocked by the transcription inhibitor actinomycin D; the expression of CYP1A1/2 heterogeneous nuclear RNA was induced by tanshinone treatment; and CYP1A1 mRNA stability was not influenced by these tanshinones. Interestingly, tanshinones plus B[a]P produced additive/synergistic effect on CYP1A1/2 induction. In addition, the tanshinone-induced CYP1A1/2 expression was abolished by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist resveratrol, suggesting an AhR dependent transcription mechanism. In the reporter gene assay, while TI and DHTI significantly induced AhR-dependent luciferase activity, TIIA and CTS failed to induce this activity. Collectively, the tanshinones could induce CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 expression through transcriptional activation mechanism and exert differential effects on activating AhR in HepG2 cells. Our findings suggest that rational administration of tanshinones should be considered with respect to their effect on AhR and CYP1A1/2 expression.

In vitro screening for aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonistic activity in 200 pesticides using a highly sensitive reporter cell line, DR-EcoScreen cells, and in vivo mouse liver cytochrome P450-1A induction by propanil, diuron and linuron

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that regulates genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, cellular proliferation and differentiation. In this study, we have developed a highly sensitive AhR-mediated reporter cell line, DR-EcoScreen cells, which are mouse hepatoma Hepa1c1c7 cells stably transfected with a reporter plasmid containing seven copies of dioxin-responsive element. Using these DR-EcoScreen cells, we performed the reporter gene assay and characterized the AhR agonistic activities of 200 pesticides (29 organochlorines, 11 diphenyl ethers, 56 organophosphorus pesticides, 12 pyrethroids, 22 carbamates, 12 acid amides, 7 triazines, 6 ureas, and 45 others). Eleven of the 200 pesticides (acifluorfen-methyl, bifenox, chlorpyrifos, isoxathion, quinalphos, chlorpropham, diethofencarb, propanil, diuron, linuron, and prochloraz) showed AhR-mediated transcriptional activity. In particular, three herbicides (propanil, diuron, and linuron) have a common chemical structure and showed more potent agonistic activity than other pesticides. To investigate the in vivo effects, we examined the gene expression of AhR-inducible cytochrome P450 1As (CYP1As) in the liver of female C57BL/6 mice intraperitoneally injected with these three herbicides (300 mg kg(-1)) by quantitative RT-PCR, resulting in induction of significant high levels of CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mRNAs. This indicates that propanil, diuron and linuron possess AhR-mediated transactivation effect in vivo as well as in vitro. Through the present study, we demonstrated that DR-EcoScreen cells are useful for sensitive, rapid and simple identification of AhR agonists among a large number of environmental chemicals.

Drug-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of man, rat, and pig

The mammalian skin has long been considered to be poor in drug metabolism. However, many reports clearly show that most drug metabolizing enzymes also occur in the mammalian skin albeit at relatively low specific activities. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on drug metabolizing enzymes in the skin of human, rat, and pig, the latter, because it is often taken as a model for human skin on grounds of anatomical similarities. However only little is known about drug metabolizing enzymes in pig skin. Interestingly, some cytochromes P450 (CYP) have been observed in the rat skin which are not expressed in the rat liver, such as CYP 2B12 and CYP2D4. As far as investigated most drug metabolizing enzymes occur in the suprabasal (i.e. differentiating) layers of the epidermis, but the rat CYP1A1 rather in the basal layer and human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase rather in the stratum corneum. The pattern of drug metabolizing enzymes and their localization will impact not only the beneficial as well as detrimental properties of drugs for the skin but also dictate whether a drug reaches the blood flow unchanged or as activated or inactivated metabolite(s).

The search for endogenous activators of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

The primary design of this perspective is to describe the major ligand classes of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). A grander objective is to provide models that may help define the physiological activator or "endogenous ligand" of the AHR. We present evidence supporting a developmental role for the AHR and propose mechanisms by which an endogenous ligand and consequent AHR activation might be important during normal physiology and development. From this vista, we survey the known xenobiotic, endogenous, dietary, and "unconventional" activators of the AHR, including, when possible, information about their induction potency, receptor binding affinity, and potential for exposure. In light of the essential function of the AHR in embryonic development, we discuss the candidacy of each of these compounds as physiologically important activators.

Endosulfan decreases cell growth and apoptosis in human HaCaT keratinocytes: partial ROS-dependent ERK1/2 mechanism

Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide described as a potential carcinogen in humans. This insecticide was recently reported to alter the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathways and is suspected to affect cell growth and differentiation in human keratinocytes. This study was designed to assess the mitogenic, apoptogenic, and genotoxic effects of endosulfan on the HaCaT cell line. We first found that 25 microM endosulfan led to persistent extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 phosphorylation with an accumulation of the phosphorylated form in the nucleus, probably caused by MAP kinase phosphatase (MKP) inhibition. As previously described under sustained ERK1/2 activation, cell growth was decreased: delayed confluency and 35% decrease of BrdU incorporation was demonstrated in endosulfan-treated keratinocytes. In addition, endosulfan has been shown to generate transient reactive oxygen species (ROS), and blocking this oxidative stress by N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) strongly prevented both persistent nuclear ERK1/2 phosphorylation and cell growth decrease. Additional experiments demonstrated that unchanged endosulfan rather than its metabolites has mutagenic effects (Ames positive without S9) and increased DNA strand breaks (Comet assay) in HaCaT cells, via a ROS-dependent mechanism. Therefore, to assess the putative pro-apoptotic response of damaged cells, caspases 3/7 activity and poly(ADP-ribose)-polymerase (PARP) cleavage were measured. The results clearly indicated that endosulfan inhibited both spontaneous and staurosporine-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these findings strongly support that endosulfan induces ROS generation leading to sustained ERK1/2 phosphorylation and decrease in cell growth. Moreover, endosulfan was found to inhibit apoptosis and this could contribute to mutant cell survival and therefore have possible carcinogenic effects.

Comparative study of aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligand activities of six chemicals in vitro and in vivo

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand activities of six known AhR ligands were compared in vivo and in vitro. The in vivo ligand activity was estimated in terms of induction of cytochrome P450 1A1/2 activities, i.e., ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (EROD) and methoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (MROD) activities, and in vitro ligand activity was evaluated with a recombinant yeast reporter gene assay. The test chemicals were 3-methylcholanthrene (MC), beta-naphthoflavone (beta-NF), indirubin, indigo, 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) and diphenyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPPD). The first four showed potent AhR ligand activity in vitro, comparable with that of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, while DIM and DPPD showed weaker activity. Administration of MC and beta-NF to mice caused significant induction of EROD and MROD activities, while indirubin, indigo and DIM also induced these activities, but less potently. DPPD also induced the activities, but was toxic at higher doses. These enhancing effects were lost or greatly reduced in Ahr-null mice (Ahr (-/-)). Our results suggest that EROD and MROD activity assays are useful for evaluating the AhR ligand activity of chemicals in vivo, where the biodynamics of the chemicals plays an important role.

Persistent binding of ligands to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that mediates many of the biological and toxic effects of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other structurally diverse ligands. While HAHs are several orders of magnitude more potent in producing AhR-dependent biochemical effects than PAHs or other AhR agonists, only the HAHs have been observed to produce AhR-dependent toxicity in vivo. Here we have characterized the dissociation of a prototypical HAH ligand ([(3)H] 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin [TCDD]) and PAH-like ligand ([(3)H] beta-naphthoflavone [betaNF]) from the guinea pig, hamster, mouse, and rat hepatic cytosolic AhR in order to elucidate the relationship between the apparent ligand-binding affinities and the divergent potency of these chemicals. Both compounds dissociated very slowly from the AhR with the amount of specific binding remaining at 96 h ranging from 53% to 70% for [(3)H]TCDD and 26% to 85% for [(3)H] betaNF, depending upon the species examined. The rate of ligand dissociation was unaffected by protein concentration or incubation temperature. Preincubation of cytosol with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran, carbaryl, or primaquine, prior to the addition of [(3)H]TCDD, shifted the apparent IC(50) of these compounds as competitive AhR ligands by approximately 10- to 50-fold. Our results support the need for reassessment of previous AhR ligand-binding affinity calculations and competitive binding analysis since these measurements are not carried out at equilibrium binding conditions. Our studies suggest that AhR binding affinity/occupancy has little effect on the observed differences in the persistence of gene expression by HAHs and PAHs.

Modulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor transactivation by carbaryl, a nonconventional ligand

Carbaryl (1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate), a widely used carbamate insecticide, induces cytochrome P450 1A gene expression in mammalian cells. This activity is usually mediated by the interaction of the compound with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. However, it has been proposed that this mechanism does not apply to carbaryl because its structure differs from that of typical aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands. We show here that carbaryl promotes activation of target genes in a yeast-based bioassay expressing both aryl hydrocarbon receptor and aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator. By contrast, carbaryl acted as a competitive inhibitor, rather than as an agonist, in a simplified yeast system, in which aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator function is bypassed by fusing aryl hydrocarbon receptor to a heterologous DNA binding domain. This dual action of carbaryl, agonist and partial antagonist, was also observed by comparing carbaryl response in two vertebrate cell lines. A yeast two-hybrid assay showed that the mammalian coactivator cAMP response element-binding protein readily interacts with aryl hydrocarbon receptor bound to its canonical ligand beta-naphthoflavone, but not with the carbaryl-aryl hydrocarbon receptor complex. We propose that carbaryl interacts with aryl hydrocarbon receptor, but that its peculiar structure imposes a substandard configuration on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligand-binding domain that prevents interaction with key coactivators and activates transcription without the need for aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator. This effect may be relevant in explaining its physiological effects in exposed animals, and may help to predict its effects, and that of similar compounds, in humans. Our data also identify the aryl hydrocarbon receptor/cAMP response element-binding protein interaction as a molecular target for the identification and development of new aryl hydrocarbon receptor antagonists.

Induction of Cyp1a1 Is a Nonspecific Biomarker of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation: Results of Large Scale Screening of Pharmaceuticals and Toxicants in Vivo and in Vitro

Expression of Cyp1a1 and its related enzyme activity have long been used as a biomarker for aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation and a warning of dioxin-like toxicity. As a result, induction of Cyp1a1 by pharmaceutical drug candidates or environmental contaminants raises significant concern in risk assessment. The current study evaluates the specificity of Cyp1a1 induction as a marker for AhR affinity and activation and provides context to assess the relevancy of AhR activation to risk assessment. In vivo experiments examined the expression of Cyp1a1 and other AhR-regulated genes in liver, kidney, and heart in response to 596 compounds. From this data set, a subset of 147 compounds was then evaluated for their ability to activate or bind to the AhR using a combination of gel shift, reporter gene, and competitive receptor binding assays. Whereas in vivo Cyp1a1 mRNA expression is a sensitive marker for AhR activation, it lacks specificity, because 81 (59%) of 137 compounds were found to significantly induce Cyp1a1 in vivo but were not verified to bind or activate the AhR in vitro. Combining in vivo and in vitro findings, we identified nine AhR agonists, six of which are marketed therapeutics and have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, including leflunomide, flutamide, and nimodipine. These drugs do not produce dioxin-like toxicity in rats or in humans. These data demonstrate that induction of Cyp1a1 is a nonspecific biomarker of direct AhR affinity and activation and lend further support to the hypothesis that Cyp1a1 induction and/or AhR activation is not synonymous with dioxin-like toxicity.

Carbaryl exposure and incident cancer in the Agricultural Health Study

Carbaryl is a carbamate insecticide with a broad spectrum of uses in agricultural, commercial and household settings. It has previously been linked with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) but studies of cancer risk in humans are limited. We examined occupational carbaryl use and risk of all cancers in the Agricultural Health Study, a prospective study of a cohort of pesticide applicators in North Carolina and Iowa. This analysis included 21,416 subjects (1,291 cases) enrolled from 1993-1997 and followed for cancer incidence through 2003. Pesticide exposure and other data were collected using self-administered questionnaires. Poisson regression was used to calculate rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) while controlling for potential confounders. Carbaryl was not associated with cancer risk overall. Relative to subjects who never used carbaryl, melanoma risk was elevated with >175 lifetime exposure-days (RR = 4.11; 95%CI, 1.33-12.75; p-trend = 0.07), >10 years of use (RR = 3.19; 95%CI, 1.28-7.92; p-trend = 0.04), or >or=10 days of use per year (RR = 5.50; 95%CI, 2.19-13.84; p-trend < 0.001). Risk remained after adjusting for sunlight exposure. Although not significant, there appeared to be a trend of decreasing prostate cancer risk with increasing level of exposure. A small increase in NHL risk was observed using some, but not all, exposure measures. No associations were observed with other examined cancer sites. Because the observed results were not hypothesized a priori and because of limited study of their biological plausibility, they should be interpreted with caution.

Fipronil induces CYP isoforms and cytotoxicity in human hepatocytes

Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of pesticides to either inhibit or induce xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in humans. Exposure of human hepatocytes to doses of fipronil (5-amino-1-[2,6-dichloro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4-[(trifluoromethyl) sulfinyl]-1H-pyrazole-3-carbonitrile) ranging from 0.1 to 25 microM resulted in a dose dependent increase in CYP1A1 mRNA expression (3.5 to approximately 55-fold) as measured by the branched DNA assay. In a similar manner, CYP3A4 mRNA expression was also induced (10-30-fold), although at the higher doses induction returned to near control levels. CYP2B6 and 3A5 were also induced by fipronil, although at lower levels (2-3-fold). Confirmation of bDNA results were sought through western blotting and/or enzyme activity assays. Western blots using CYP3A4 antibody demonstrated a dose responsive increase from 0.5 to 1 microM followed by decreasing responses at higher concentrations. Similar increases and decreases were observed in CYP3A4-specific activity levels as measured using 6beta-hydroxytestosterone formation following incubation with testosterone. Likewise, activity levels for a CYP1A1-specific substrate, luciferin CEE, demonstrated that CYP1A1 enzyme activities were maximally induced by 1 microM fipronil followed by dramatically declining activity measurements at 10 and 25 microM. Cytotoxic effects of fipronil and fipronil sulfone were examined using the adenylate kinase and the trypan blue exclusion assays in HepG2 cells and human hepatocytes. The results indicate both that HepG2 cells and primary human hepatocytes are sensitive to the cytotoxic effects of fipronil. The maximum induction of adenylate kinase was ca. 3-fold greater than the respective controls in HepG2 and 6-10-fold in the case of primary hepatocytes. A significant time- and dose-dependent induction of adenylate kinase activity in HepG2 cells was noted from 0.1 to 12.5 microM fipronil followed by decreasing activities at 25 and 50 microM. For fipronil sulfone, cytotoxic effects increased throughout the dose range. The trypan blue assay indicated that cytotoxic effects contributing to an increase of greater than 10% of control values was indicated at doses above 12.5 microM. However, fipronil sulfone induced cytotoxic effects at lower doses. The possibility that cytotoxic effects were due to apoptosis was indicated by significant time- and dose-dependent induction of caspase-3/7 activity in both HepG2 cells and human hepatocytes. Fipronil mediated activation of caspase-3/7 in concurrence with compromised ATP production and viability are attributed to apoptotic cell death.

Comparative effects of acute and chronic carbofuran exposure on oxidative stress and drug-metabolizing enzymes in liver

The current study has been designed to examine the comparative effects of acute and chronic carbofuran exposure on lipid peroxidation, glutathione levels, and drug-metabolizing enzymes in rat liver. Activity of acetylcholinesterase, a bona fide marker of carbofuran exposure, was markedly inhibited after acute carbofuran exposure, whereas the extent of inhibition was much less after chronic exposure. Lipid peroxidation was accentuated after chronic carbofuran exposure. However, acute exposure resulted in relatively less increase in lipid peroxidation levels than with chronic exposure. Glutathione levels were significantly increased in liver of animals chronically exposed to carbofuran; on the contrary, there was a drastic reduction in glutathione levels after acute exposure. Cytochrome P450 was significantly induced in liver of animals treated with acute as well as chronic carbofuran. The activity of glutathione-S-transferase was induced after both acute and chronic carbofuran exposure; the increase was much higher in chronically exposed animals as compared with animals exposed acutely. Based on the results, it is clear that acute and chronic carbofuran exposure have differential effects on oxidative stress and drug-metabolizing enzymes in liver.

Allium cepa derived EROD as a potential biomarker for the presence of certain pesticides in water

Allium cepa root length inhibition test is a well recommended bioassay for the evaluation of the toxicity of various polluted waters. The utility of EROD (7-ethoxy resorufin O-deethylase) as a potential biomarker of pesticide pollution was investigated using the Allium cepa system. Onion bulbs exposed to model water samples containing any of the six pesticides viz. 2,4-D, HCB, malathion, carbaryl, DDT and endosulphan were analyzed for EROD activity. The pesticide treatment resulted in the enhanced activity of the enzyme, with carbaryl and HCB causing 63- and 53-fold induction respectively with respect to the control at a dose of 1.2 ppb. The industrial wastewater samples from Ghaziabad city of Northern India resulted in about a 68-fold rise in the EROD activity, whereas the Aligarh samples did not exhibit any change within the statistical limit. These results suggest the presence of the test pesticides in the Ghaziabad sample and their absence in the Aligarh sample. Pesticide analysis in the test water samples by HPLC supported this to a large extent. Presence of cycloheximide in the test system brought down the EROD activity, equal to that of control, suggesting the de novo synthesis of the enzyme following the exposure of Allium cepa to pesticides. These studies suggest that the Allium cepa derived EROD can act as a potential biomarker of certain pesticides since even 1ppb of total/individual pesticides brought about >10-fold induction of EROD. We recommend the assay of EROD in the Allium cepa system as a presumptive test for the detection of these pesticides before using analytical techniques like HPLC.

Induction of cytochrome P450-1A by the equine estrogen equilenin, a new endogenous aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligand

Equilenin is one of 10 kinds of estrogens that are found in pregnant mares' urine. It has been used extensively for estrogen replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Typical inducers of the cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1), such as TCDD, benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P) and 3-methylcholanthrene, have a planar molecular structure in common and bind to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The structure of equilenin differs from classic estrogens by the presence of two additional double bonds in ring B of the steroid nucleus, and it is planar. This structural similarity of equilenin to the typical AhR agonist prompted us to investigate the capability of equilenin to induce CYP1A1 expression. Administration of equilenin to two mouse strains (C57BL and DBA) that exhibit different degrees of responsiveness to an Ah-receptor agonist and showed that equilenin was capable of dose-dependently increasing both the ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activity and CYP1a proteins in both strains of mice. Equilenin also induced CYP1A1 mRNA in treated HepG2 cell lines and transcriptional activity in an XRE-directed luciferase reporter gene. Competitive binding studies using C57BL AhR indicated equilenin weakly displaced (3)H-B(a)P from AhR. Together, these data show that equilenin, an equine steroid hormone, served as an AhR ligand in the present study.

Cytochrome P4501A induction caused by the imidazole derivative Prochloraz in a rainbow trout cell line

A variety of aquatic pollutants are able to induce cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) in fish by ligand binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). High-affinity AhR ligands are planar aromatic polycyclic molecules such as the prototypical ligand, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). The present work investigates the ability of the imidazole derivative, Prochloraz (PRO), to induce CYP1A. Computational studies on the molecular structure of PRO indicated that it is highly unlikely for PRO to have both aromatic rings of the molecule, i.e. the imidazole and the benzene ring, in the same plane. Thus, the possible conformers do not take planar structures, in contrast to the typically planar AhR ligands. Experimentally, the capability of PRO to induce CYP1A was assessed using the rainbow trout liver cell line, RTL-W1, as in vitro model. PRO increased in a concentration-dependent way the catalytic activity of CYP1A (determined as 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase, EROD, activity) in RTL-W1 cells. The potency of PRO was lower than that of a reference AhR-ligand, beta-naphthoflavone (betaNF). In addition to the catalytic level, PRO activated CYP1A also at the transcriptional level as determined by RT-PCR analysis of CYP1A mRNA. These results indicate that PRO, although its structure is not corresponding to the typical features of CYP1A-inducing AhR ligands, still is able to activate CYP1A expression.

Effects of Organochlorine Insecticides on MAP Kinase Pathways in Human HaCaT Keratinocytes: Key Role of Reactive Oxygen Species

Organochlorine pesticides (OCs) are reported as potential carcinogens in humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of four OCs (dieldrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, and lindane) on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades and more specifically to identify the mechanism underlying OC-induced ERK1/2 activation. Organochlorine pesticides increased phosphorylated Raf, MEK1/2, ERK1/2, and c-Jun in human HaCaT cells, but they had no effect on p38 MAPK activation. Moreover, blockade of Raf, MEK1/2, or PKC activation with geldanamycin, U0126, or calphostin C inhibited ERK1/2 phosphorylation, demonstrating a PKC-Raf-MEK1/2 pathway. We also showed that these insecticides induced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Pre-treatment with the antioxidant molecule N-acetyl cysteine sharply decreased the level of phospho-ERK1/2 and had no effect on Raf and MEK1/2 activation, suggesting a Raf-independent mechanism. This study indicates that OCs strongly activate the ERK1/2 pathway, and it identifies a critical role of ROS in OC-induced ERK activation, probably by stabilizing its phosphorylation.

Molecular mechanism of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation by the fungicide iprodione in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes

The dicarboximide fungicide iprodione (Ip) causes oxidative damage as a result of the production of free oxygen radicals, and induces cytochrome P4501A3 (CYP1A3) in cultured rainbow trout hepatocytes. The aim of this study was to characterise some of the molecular mechanisms by means of which Ip activates the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and subsequently induces the CYP1A3 gene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The study was performed using primary hepatocytes and transfected HepG2 cells with a reporter construct, in which luciferase gene expression is under the transcriptional control of a multimerised xenobiotic response elements (4XREs), or a 2.3 Kb DNA fragment (corresponding to the trout CYP1A3 gene promoter). Ip exposure increased rainbow trout hepatocyte CYP1A3 mRNA over time and increased the expression of reporter gene in HepG2, thus suggesting that Ip induces the CYP1A3 gene by activating the AhR. Genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, efficiently inhibited the Ip-mediated induction of the CYP1A3 gene as demonstrated by mRNA level decrease and the impaired activation of the luciferase reporter gene constructs. Staurosporine, an inhibitor of protein kinase C, also suppressed the induction by Ip. When the AhR antagonist alpha-naphthoflavone was added to the cultures, Ip-mediated CYP1A3 induction was suppressed. These findings are consistent with a mechanism of Ip-mediated CYP1A3 gene induction that involves the activation of the AhR complex via phosphorylation-dephosphorylation reactions.

Evidence for a new human CYP1A1 regulation pathway involving PPAR-alpha and 2 PPRE sites

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cytochrome P450 1A1 catalyzes the degradation of endobiotics (estradiol, fatty acids, and so on) and the bioactivation of numerous environmental procarcinogens, such as arylamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, that are found in food. Several peroxisome proliferators and arachidonic acid derivatives enhance cytochrome P450 1A1 activity, but the mechanisms involved remain unknown. The aim of this work was to study the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in cytochrome P450 1A1 gene induction.

METHODS

The role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor transcription factors in cytochrome P450 1A1 induction was assessed by means of enzymatic activities, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, gene reporter assays, mutagenesis, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay.

RESULTS

We show that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha agonists (WY-14643, bezafibrate, clofibrate, and phthalate) induce human cytochrome P450 1A1 gene expression, whereas 2,4-thiazolidinedione, a specific peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist, represses it. The induction of cytochrome P450 1A1 transcripts by WY-14643 was associated with a marked increase of ethoxyresorufin O -deethylase activity (10-fold at 200 mumol/L). Transfection of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha complementary DNA enhanced cytochrome P450 1A1 messenger RNA induction by WY-14643, although WY-14643 failed to activate xenobiotic responsive element sequences. Two peroxisome proliferator response element sites were located at positions -931/-919 and -531/-519 of the cytochrome P450 1A1 promoter. Their inactivation by directed mutagenesis suppressed the inductive effect of WY-14643 on cytochrome P450 1A1 promoter activation. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay experiments showed that the 2 cytochrome P450 1A1 peroxisome proliferator response element sites bind the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha/retinoid X receptor-alpha heterodimer.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe here a new cytochrome P450 1A1 induction pathway involving peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha and 2 peroxisome proliferator response element sites, indicating that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha ligands, which are common environmental compounds, may be involved in carcinogenesis.

Cytochrome P450 expression in human keratinocytes: an aryl hydrocarbon receptor perspective

The goal of this review is to stress the importance of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily that is expressed in human skin in the hope that it may stimulate further study in an intriguing topic that currently suffers from a relative dearth of information. Like the cells that line the respiratory and GI tracts [X. Ding, L.S. Kaminsky, Human extrahepatic cytochromes P450: function in xenobiotic metabolism and tissue-selective chemical toxicity in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 43 (2003) 149-173] those present in human skin express a variety of CYPs that play important roles in xenobiotic, drug and steroid metabolism. In addition, a few CYPs, with potentially novel roles in metabolism and keratinocyte function, have recently been discovered that appear to be expressed in a keratinocyte-specific manner [L. Du, S.M. Hoffman, D.S. Keeney, Epidermal CYP2 family cytochromes P450, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 195 (2004) 278-287]. However, in preparing this review, it soon became apparent that in contrast to the progress made in understanding these events in the liver, relatively little is known in the human skin. Thus, while a number of tantalizing stories are beginning to emerge, they are far from complete. In this review, a brief synopsis of the structure of skin and methods of culturing keratinocytes will be presented. This will be followed by an overview of the various CYPs and their putative regulators that have been currently identified to be expressed in human keratinocytes. Then, a more detailed analysis of CYP regulation that involves the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling pathway will be offered in the hope that it may serve as a paradigm for other CYP regulatory studies in the skin. Finally, several clinical implications that may arise due to altered regulation of CYPs will be considered.

The role of protein tyrosine kinases in CYP1A1 induction by omeprazole and thiabendazole in rat hepatocytes

Benzimidazoles compounds like omeprazole (OME) and thiabendazole (TBZ) mediate CYP1A1 induction differently from classical aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligands, 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). To clarify the involvement of an intracellular signal pathway in CYP1A1 induction by OME and TBZ, the TBZ, OME and 3-MC signal-transducing pathways were compared by using specific protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors in primary culture of rat hepatocytes. The effect of OME and TBZ (75-250 microM) on cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) expression was therefore studied in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes after 24 h, 48 h and 72 h of exposure. Both compounds provoked a dose- and time-dependent increase in CYP1A1 (EROD activity, protein and mRNA levels), but OME was less effective at all the concentrations and times tested. The mechanism of benzimidazole-mediated induction of CYP1A1 was investigated by comparison with 3-MC, a prototypical AhR ligand. As expected, OME and TBZ were unable to displace [(3)H]-TCDD from its binding sites to the AhR in competitive binding studies. Moreover, classic tyrosine kinase inhibitor herbimycin A (HA) inhibited the two benzimidazoles-mediated CYP1A1 inductions, but only partially inhibited the 3-MC-mediated one. Another two tyrosine kinase inhibitors, Lavendustin A (LA) and genistein (GEN), had no effect on CYP1A1 induction by benzimidazoles and 3-MC. These results are consistent with the implication of a tyrosine kinase, most probably the Src tyrosine kinase, in the mechanism of CYP1A1 induction in rat hepatocytes.

Different structural requirements of the ligand binding domain of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor for high- and low-affinity ligand binding and receptor activation

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) functions as a ligand-activated transcription factor that is responsible for the regulation of several response genes, of which the best characterized is the CYP1A1 gene. The present study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism of activation of the AhR by omeprazole (OME), 2-mercapto-5-methoxybenzimidazole (MMB), and primaquine (PRQ), compounds that have previously been reported to induce CYP1A1 expression but that are not typical AhR ligands. All compounds caused a significant increase in luciferase activity in rat H4IIE and human HepG2 hepatoma cells transfected with a Gal4-AhR construct and the corresponding Gal4-Luc reporter gene. Furthermore, MMB and PRQ, but not OME, were capable of transforming cytosolic AhR to a DNA-binding form and displacing AhR-bound [3H]TCDD in rat hepatic cytosol in vitro. By performing site-directed mutagenesis of residues in the ligand-binding domain of the Gal4-AhR, a construct containing a Y320F substitution was found to be resistant to activation by OME, MMB, and PRQ, but not by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Comparable affinities of [3H]TCDD-binding to the wild-type and the Y320F mutant Gal4-proteins, expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells, were obtained in the ligand-binding assay. In contrast, the competition of receptor-bound [3H]TCDD by PRQ was absent from Gal4-Y320F but not from Gal4-AhR cell extracts. The results of this study confirm that MMB and PRQ are low-affinity ligands for the AhR and suggest that high- and low-affinity ligands interact with different residues of the AhR ligand-binding pocket. In addition, the data presented here indicate that Tyr320 plays an important role in AhR activation.

Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor by structurally diverse exogenous and endogenous chemicals

The induction of expression of genes for xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in response to chemical insult is an adaptive response found in most organisms. In vertebrates, the AhR is one of several chemical/ligand-dependent intracellular receptors that can stimulate gene transcription in response to xenobiotics. The ability of the AhR to bind and be activated by a range of structurally divergent chemicals suggests that the AhR contains a rather promiscuous ligand binding site. In addition to synthetic and environmental chemicals, numerous naturally occurring dietary and endogenous AhR ligands have also been identified. In this review, we describe evidence for the structural promiscuity of AhR ligand binding and discuss the current state of knowledge with regards to the activation of the AhR signaling pathway by naturally occurring exogenous and endogenous ligands.

In vitro metabolism of carbaryl by human cytochrome P450 and its inhibition by chlorpyrifos

Carbaryl is a widely used anticholinesterase carbamate insecticide. Although previous studies have demonstrated that carbaryl can be metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP), the identification and characterization of CYP isoforms involved in metabolism have not been described either in humans or in experimental animals. The in vitro metabolic activities of human liver microsomes (HLM) and human cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms toward carbaryl were investigated in this study. The three major metabolites, i.e. 5-hydroxycarbaryl, 4-hydroxycarbaryl and carbaryl methylol, were identified after incubation of carbaryl with HLM or individual CYP isoforms and analysis by HPLC. Most of the 16 human CYP isoforms studied showed some metabolic activity toward carbaryl. CYP1A1 and 1A2 had the greatest ability to form 5-hydroxycarbaryl, while CYP3A4 and CYP1A1 were the most active in generation of 4-hydroxycarbaryl. The production of carbaryl methylol was primarily the result of metabolism by CYP2B6. Differential activities toward carbaryl were observed among five selected individual HLM samples with the largest difference occurring in the production of carbaryl methylol. Co-incubations of carbaryl and chlorpyrifos in HLM greatly inhibited carbaryl metabolism. The ability of HLM to metabolize carbaryl was also reduced by pre-incubation of HLM with chlorpyrifos. Chlorpyrifos inhibited the generation of carbaryl methylol, catalyzed predominately by CYP2B6, more than other pathways, correlating with an earlier observation that chlorpyrifos is metabolized to its oxon primarily by CYP2B6. Therefore, carbaryl metabolism in humans and its interaction with other chemicals is reflected by the concentration of CYP isoforms in HLM and their activities in the metabolic pathways for carbaryl. (Supported by NCDA Environmental Trust Fund)

Response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) D-11 cell line to 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) exposure

The rainbow trout cytochrome P4501A gene subfamily consists of two members, CYP1A1 and CYP1A3, which are induced by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In this study, we investigated the induction of cytochrome P4501A3 in the rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) D-11 cell line after 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC) exposure by generating chimeric constructs in which a 2.3 kb fragment or portion of the 5'-flanking region of the trout cytochrome CYP1A3 gene was fused to the firefly luciferase (Luc) gene. The constructs were then transiently transfected into the trout D-11 cells and their transcriptional activity measured by luciferase assay after treatment with different 3MC concentrations. Maximal induction following exposure to 2 microM 3MC was 2.2-fold after 72 h. Deletion of the region specifying the 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of the mRNA encoding the CYP1A3 gene increased unstimulated luciferase activity but also led to a loss of response to 3MC treatment. This finding suggests that the region specifying the 5'UTR contains a negative element that is also involved in the transcriptional response to 3MC.

Summary of information on human CYP enzymes: human P450 metabolism data

This chapter is an update of the data on substrates, reactions, inducers, and inhibitors of human CYP enzymes published previously by Rendic and DiCarlo (1), now covering selection of the literature through 2001 in the reference section. The data are presented in a tabular form (Table 1) to provide a framework for predicting and interpreting the new P450 metabolic data. The data are formatted in an Excel format as most suitable for off-line searching and management of the Web-database. The data are presented as stated by the author(s) and in the case when several references are cited the data are presented according to the latest published information. The searchable database is available either as an Excel file (for information contact the author), or as a Web-searchable database (Human P450 Metabolism Database, www.gentest.com) enabling the readers easy and quick approach to the latest updates on human CYP metabolic reactions.

Monoclonal enzyme immunoassay for the analysis of carbaryl in fruits and vegetables without sample cleanup

The N-methylcarbamate pesticide carbaryl is one of the most important insecticides used worldwide. In the present work, the validation of a monoclonal antibody-based enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) for the determination of this compound in fruits and vegetables is described. The immunoassay is a competitive heterologous ELISA in the antibody-coated format, with an I(50) value for standards in buffer of 101.0 +/- 26.9 ng/L and with a dynamic range between 31.6 and 364.0 ng/L. For recovery studies, peppers, cucumbers, strawberries, tomatoes, potatoes, oranges, and apples were spiked with carbaryl at 10, 50, and 200 ppb. After liquid extraction, analyses were performed by ELISA on both extracts purified on solid-phase extraction (SPE) columns and crude, nonpurified extracts. Depending on the crop and the fortification level, recoveries in the 59.0--120.0% range were obtained for purified samples and in the 70.0--137.7% range for crude extracts. The carbaryl immunoassay performance was further validated with respect to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with postcolumn derivatization and fluorescence detection (EPA Method 531.1). Samples were spiked with carbaryl at several concentrations and analyzed as blind samples by ELISA and HPLC after SPE cleanup. The correlation between methods was excellent (y = 1.04x + 0.71, r(2) = 0.992, n = 33), with HPLC being more precise than ELISA (mean coefficients of variation of 5.2 and 12.0%, respectively). The immunoassay was then applied to the analysis of nonpurified extracts of the same samples. Results also compared very well with those obtained by HPLC on purified samples (y = 1.28x - 0.59, r(2) = 0.987, n = 33) while maintaining similar precision. Therefore, the developed immunoassay is a suitable method for the quantitative and reliable determination of carbaryl in fruits and vegetables even without sample cleanup, which saves time and money and considerably increases sample throughput.

Induction of cytochrome P450 1A1 gene expression, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity by carbaryl and thiabendazole in transfected human HepG2 and lymphoblastoid cells

Carbaryl and thiabendazole, two widely used pesticides, have been shown to induce cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) expression, but neither compound is capable of displacing [3H] 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin from its aryl hydrocarbon receptor binding site. In the present study, we investigated the transcriptional regulation of CYP1A1 as well as other genes in various human hepatoma HepG2 cell lines stably transfected with the chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT) reporter gene and cloned under the control of each of 14 promoters or response elements from relevant stress genes. Carbaryl and thiabendazole were found to activate CYP1A1 at the level of transcription, as demonstrated by the dose-dependent increase in reporter CAT and CYP1A1 mRNAs. Moreover, this effect appeared to be mediated via the xenobiotic responsive element (XRE), because both pesticides specifically activated various fusion constructs containing XRE sequences (CYP1A, glutathione S-transferase, and XRE). Carbaryl and to a lesser extent thiabendazole also activated other stress genes such as c-fos and NF-kappaBRE, HSP70 and GRP78, and GADD153 at a transcriptional level. These data suggest that these molecules induce early alert genes, including those known to be sensitive to oxidative stress. This led us to examine the genotoxic effect of carbaryl and thiabendazole by an in vitro DNA repair solid-phase assay. Both compounds provoked a strong DNA-damaging activity in the human lymphoblastoid cell line that constitutively expresses human CYP1A1 cDNA, but not in the parental line, indicating that CYP1A1 is chiefly implicated in carbaryl and thiabendazole genotoxicity. This effect was confirmed on HepG2 cells. These observations support the notion that intracellular signals leading to CYP1A1 induction, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity are intimately related.

Is CYP1A1 induction always related to AHR signaling pathway?

Humans are daily subjected to ever increasing amounts of exogenous compounds. Some of them are capable of inducing cytochrome P450s, a process that allows the cell to adapt to changes in its chemical environment. One of the most widely CYP studied is CYP1A1 because it metabolises a large number of xenobiotics to cytotoxic and/or mutagenic derivatives. To date, results from the literature indicate that induction of CYP1A1 does not only involve the classical activation cascade of the Ah receptor, e.g. binding of the ligand to the AhR, heterodimerisation with Arnt protein, constitution of a complex with XRE responsive element and subsequent gene activation. Indeed, some xenobiotics do activate CYP1A1 gene expression in spite of their inability to compete with TCDD for binding to the AhR. Other signaling pathways must therefore also be considered. Firstly, the CYP1A1 inducer compounds could be very weak AhR ligands or may be metabolized into a form which is in turn capable of binding to the Ah receptor. A second hypothesis would be that these molecules could act through other signaling cascades. At this time, two of them seem to be implicated. One concerns the RARs signal transduction pathway, as already described for retinoic acid. The second may involve tyrosine kinase activation, but the precise relationship between this activation and CYPA1 induction remains yet to be established. For the moment there is still a black box which needs to be investigated.

Comparative induction of CYP1A1 expression by pyridine and its metabolites

We compared pyridine and five of its metabolites in terms of (i) in vivo induction of CYP1A1 expression in the lung, kidney, and liver in the rat and (ii) in vitro binding to, and activation of, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in cytosol from rat liver or Hepa1c1c7 cells. Following a single 2.5 mmol/kg ip dose of either pyridine, 2-hydroxpyridine, 3-hydroxypyridine, 4-hydroxypyridine, N-methylpyridinium, or pyridine N-oxide, CYP1A1 activity (ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase), protein level (as determined by Western blotting), and mRNA level (as determined by Northern blotting) were induced by pyridine, N-methylpyridinium, and pyridine N-oxide in the lung, kidney, and liver. The induction by N-methylpyridinium or pyridine N-oxide was comparable to or greater than that by pyridine in some tissues. 2-Hydroxypyridine and 3-hydroxypyridine caused tissue-specific induction or repression of CYP1A1, whereas 4-hydroxypyridine had no effect on the expression of the enzyme. Pyridine and its metabolites elicited weak activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in a gel retardation assay in cytosol from rat liver but not Hepa 1c1c7 cells. However, the receptor activation did not parallel the in vivo CYP1A1 induction by the pyridine compounds, none of which inhibited binding of ¿(3)H2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin to AhR in a competitive assay in rat liver cytosol. The findings are consistent with a role of pyridine metabolites in CYP1A1 induction by pyridine but do not clearly identify the role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the induction mechanism.

Diflubenzuron, a benzoyl-urea insecticide, is a potent inhibitor of TCDD-induced CYP1A1 expression in HepG2 cells

Diflubenzuron (DFB) belongs to a group of compounds called benzoyphenyl ureas acting as chitin synthesis inhibitors, which also inhibit growth of B16 murine melanomas. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of this insecticide, on CYP1A1 expression and induction in human hepatoma cells HepG2. Treatment of HepG2 cells over 72 h with noncytotoxic concentrations of DFB resulted in a strong dose-dependent decrease in constitutive ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity. Moreover, DFB significantly decreased CYP1A1 induction by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) after 24 h exposure, as demonstrated by ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity and Northern blot analysis. Additional studies were performed both on parental HepG2 cells and HepG2-241c.1, which were stably transfected with the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter gene, cloned under the control of the human CYP1A1 promoter (-1140 to +59). Ribonuclease protection assays (RPA) analysis clearly demonstrated an inhibition of CYP1A1 transcription in both cell lines. Surprisingly, in corresponding experiments using 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC) as a CYP1A1 inducer, DFB was less effective. Finally, in competitive binding studies using a 9S-enriched fraction of HepG2 cytosol, DFB was capable of displacing [(3)H]-2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) from its Ah receptor binding site. Taken together, these results support the involvement of a transcriptional mechanism in the inhibition of CYP1A1 expression in HepG2 cells by DFB, possibly via an Ah receptor antagonism.

Molecular characteristics of carbaryl, a CYP1A1 gene inducer

Carbaryl belongs to a series of compounds that activate the CYP1A1 gene. This study demonstrates the inability of carbaryl to compete with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin for binding to the rat aryl hydrocarbon (dioxin) receptor. Structural and physicochemical properties of this insecticide, in relation to the requirements for binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, are described. The crystal structure was determined experimentally using X-ray diffraction. A conformational search using molecular mechanics was performed by means of a Monte-Carlo-type method and a stochastic dynamics simulation. Lipophilicity calculations, log P, and molecular lipophilicity potential are also presented. Common and discriminating properties of carbaryl and aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligands are discussed.

Modulation of endocrine pathways by 4,4'-DDE in the deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus

4,4'-DDT and 4,4'-DDE are widespread environmental contaminants that cause eggshell thinning in birds, altered sex ratios in the American alligator, and changes in the anal-genital distance in rodents. These contaminants are known to cause some of their toxicity by altering steroid receptor-mediated mechanisms. However, chemical-specific alterations in the expression of hormone-metabolizing enzymes may also be a mechanism for endocrine disruption, by altering the half-life of hormones in critical tissues. Previously, we showed that 4,4'-DDE causes a dose-dependent increase in ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity, but not pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (PROD) activity, in the deer mouse. In this study, we demonstrated that 4,4'-DDE elicited a corresponding increase in CYP1A protein expression but not CYP2B using Western blotting and immunoprecipitation. 4,4'-DDE-mediated changes in phase II conjugating enzymes; UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) and phenolsulfotransferase (ST), were also investigated for the first time. Prepubescent female deer mice were dosed with 4,4'-DDE by gavage on days 1 and 2, then euthanized on day 4. As anticipated, dose-dependent increases in hepatic EROD and MROD activities, but not PROD or BROD, were observed. UGT activity was monitored by incubating liver microsomes and 14C-UDP-GA with potential substrates and measuring incorporation of radioactivity into TLC-resolved glucuronides. Dose-dependent increases in conjugation were observed with p-nitrophenol (a general UGT substrate) but not testosterone. Interestingly, a biphasic dose-response curve was observed for ST activity, with a peak at the 3 mg/kg dose. Dose-dependent increases in CYP1A1 and UGT-specific immunoreactive proteins were observed, suggesting de novo synthesis as a consequence of 4,4'-DDE exposure. We also measured Phase I and II enzymes in deer mouse platelets. Preliminary results indicate that the 4,4'-DDE-induced changes in liver Phase I and II enzyme activity were similar, but not identical, to those found in platelets. These results indicate that environmentally-relevant levels of 4,4'-DDE modulate the activity and expression of CYP1A1 and phase II enzymes in the deer mouse and that certain changes may be measured non-lethally.

Structural and mechanistic aspects of transcriptional induction of cytochrome P450 1A1 by benzimidazole derivatives in rat hepatoma H4IIE cells

The effect of several structurally different benzimidazole compounds on CYP1A1 expression at the transcriptional, mRNA and protein levels was investigated in the rat hepatoma H4IIE cell line. Omeprazole, thiabendazole, carbendazim, 2-mercaptobenzimidazole and 2-mercapto-5-methoxybenzimidazole caused a dose-dependent increase in CYP1A1 protein levels that reached maximum effect at 250 microm, as measured by Western blot. In addition, hydroxyomeprazole, 2-aminobenzimidazole and 2-mercapto-5-nitro-benzimidazole caused a notable increase in CYP1A1 protein expression, whereas 5-O-desmethylomeprazole, 2-hydroxybenzimidazole, 2-benzimidazole propionic acid and 5-benzimidazole carboxylic acid were ineffective. Thus, benzimidazole substituted with a thiol or an amino group in the 2-position were active inducers. Northern blot analysis confirmed an extensive increase of CYP1A1 mRNA induced by omeprazole and 2-mercapto-5-methoxybenzimidazole which was 32% and 49% of maximal induction by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) respectively, whereas thiabendazole and carbendazim showed approximately 15% increase as compared to TCDD. Transient transfection of H4IIE cells, with a XRE-pGL3 reporter gene construct revealed a 2.3-4.3-fold induction by carbendazim, thiabendazole, and 2-mercapto-5-methoxybenzimidazole as compared to a 3.3- and 23-fold induction by omeprazole and TCDD, respectively. Thus, these data indicate that the benzimidazoles utilize the aryl hydrocarbon receptor-arnt-XRE-mediated signal-transduction pathway for induction of the CYP1A1 gene.

Cytochrome 1A1 induction by primaquine in human hepatocytes and HepG2 cells: absence of binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Malaria remains the most prevalent infectious disease of tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It represents a crucial problem in public health care, affecting 750 million people annually, of whom at least two million die. Various antimalarials currently used were studied for their capability to induce expression of the cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) gene, an enzyme that plays an important role in the activation of xenobiotics to genotoxic derivatives. Studies on human hepatocytes and HepG2 cell lines showed that primaquine was capable of dose dependently increasing both the ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity and CYP1A1 mRNAs, suggesting a transcriptional activation of this gene. Moreover, alpha-naphthoflavone, a partial aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist, and 8-methoxypsoralen, which interferes with the binding of activated AhR to the xenobiotic responsive element, were shown to suppress CYP1A1 induction when added to the cultures. However, neither primaquine nor its metabolites were able to displace [3H]2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin from AhR in competitive binding studies using 9S-enriched fractions of human cytosol. These data, together with the induction of CYP1A1 promoter-directed chloramphenicol acetyl transferase gene expression, suggest that CYP1A1 induction involves the participation of the AhR but not a direct primaquine-receptor interaction. This supports the notion that an alternative ligand-independent mechanism has to be considered. Given the pharmaco-toxicological significance of CYP1A1 induction, these findings may have important implications in the treatment of malaria with primaquine and new analogs.

Carbaryl, a carbamate insecticide, is a ligand for the hepatic Ah (dioxin) receptor

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that mediates many of the biological and toxicological actions of a variety of hydrophobic natural and synthetic chemicals, including the environmental contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD, dioxin). Induction of CYP1A1 gene expression is one such response that is known to be regulated by the AhR complex. It was recently reported (Ledirac et al., Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 144, 177-182, 1997) that, although carbaryl, a carbamate insecticide, can induce AhR-dependent expression of CYP1A1, it was not an AhR ligand. Since this apparent ligand-independent activation of the AhR is difficult to reconcile given what is known about the mechanism of AhR action, we have examined the ability of carbaryl to stimulate the AhR signaling pathway. Not only was dioxin responsive element-driven luciferase gene expression induced by carbaryl in stably transfected mouse, rat, guinea pig, and human cells, gel retardation analysis revealed that carbaryl stimulated AhR transformation and DNA binding in vitro and in cells in culture. Dose-response experiments revealed that carbaryl was 300,000-fold less potent that the prototypical inducer, TCDD, in both inducing luciferase gene expression and stimulating AhR transformation and DNA binding in vitro, suggesting that carbaryl itself was the inducing agent. The identification of carbaryl as an AhR ligand was demonstrated by its ability to competitively inhibit [3H]-TCDD to the guinea pig hepatic cytosolic AhR. Our results confirm that carbaryl is both a weak AhR ligand and inducer of AhR-dependent gene expression and argue against its proposed ligand-independent mechanism of AhR activation.

Disruption of endogenous regulator homeostasis underlies the mechanism of rat CYP1A1 mRNA induction by metyrapone

The transcriptional induction of the cytochrome P-450 1A1 (CYP1A1) gene by xenobiotics such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons is dependent on their interaction with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Administration of the structurally unrelated compounds metyrapone (a cytochrome P-450 inhibitor) or dexamethasone (a glucocorticoid) to male rats does not induce hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA. However, administration of both metyrapone and dexamethasone to male rats results in the induction of hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA expression. The induction response is mimicked in vitro in cultured rat hepatocytes by the addition of metyrapone and dexamethasone to a serum-free culture medium, suggesting that these compounds act directly on the liver in vivo to effect hepatic CYP1A1 mRNA induction. An examination of the characteristics of CYP1A1 induction by metyrapone and dexamethasone in combination in vitro indicate that at least 6 h of treatment is required for detectable levels of CYP1A1 mRNA to accumulate in hepatocytes. In contrast, beta-naphthoflavone, which is known to bind to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor to effect CYP1A1 gene expression, induces detectable levels of CYP1A1 mRNA within 2 h of treatment. CYP1A1 mRNA is also induced when hepatocytes are treated with metyrapone in combination with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide but not with dexamethasone in combination with cycloheximide, indicating that CYP1A1 mRNA induction is strictly dependent on the presence of metyrapone and suggesting that the metyrapone-associated induction of CYP1A1 mRNA is dependent on a loss of a constitutively expressed protein that functions to suppress CYP1A1 gene expression. The role of dexamethasone in metyrapone-associated induction of CYP1A1 is probably mediated through the glucocorticoid receptor since the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486 reduces the levels of CYP1A1 mRNA induced by metyrapone and dexamethasone in combination. Increasing the levels of the photosensitizer riboflavin present in the culture medium 10-fold and exposure to light increases the levels of CYP1A1 mRNA induced by metyrapone and dexamethasone in combination in vitro, suggesting that photoactivation of inducing medium constituent(s) might be required for induction. Failure to induce CYP1A1 mRNA by co-administration of metyrapone and dexamethasone in hepatocytes cultured in a balanced salt solution with or without photoactivation indicates that induction is dependent on a photoactivated component of the culture medium and not on metyrapone or dexamethasone alone. The addition of tryptophan in the presence of riboflavin to the balanced salt solution restores CYP1A1 mRNA induction by metyrapone alone and induction is increased when medium is exposed to light, indicating that induction is dependent on tryptophan photoactivation in vitro. Metyrapone failed to compete with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin for specific binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in rat liver cytosolic fractions. These results suggest that CYP1A1 might be induced in rats by metyrapone through an indirect mechanism associated with an elevation in the level of an endogenously generated inducer such as photoactivated product(s) of tryptophan and not because of metyrapone's interacting with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The dependence of CYP1A1 induction on dexamethasone or cycloheximide suggests that derepression by a glucocorticoid receptor-modulated negative-acting factor of CYP1A1 gene expression might be critical to induction by metyrapone.

The 4S benzo(a)pyrene-binding protein is not a transcriptional activator of Cyp1a1 gene in Ah receptor-deficient (AHR -/-) transgenic mice

In an effort to better understand the role of the 4S benzo(a)pyrene-binding protein in the induction of CYP1A1 by PAHs, we used a genetically engineered mouse line deficient in Ah receptor (AHR -/-). First, we demonstrated through binding experiments analyzed by sucrose gradient sedimentation and gel permeation chromatography that AHR -/- mice have no detectable AHR protein. In contrast, this AHR-deficient line expressed a 4S protein which efficiently binds BP as it does in hepatic cytosol from C57BL/6 mice. In vivo BP exposure in AHR-deficient mice proved the inability to sustain any CYP1A1 mRNA or CYP1A1 protein induction. These findings demonstrate the requirement of an active AHR to sustain the transactivation pathway leading to CYP1A1 induction. Surprisingly, the 4S BP-binding protein, which was previously characterized as the glycine N-methyltransferase, was completely devoid of such an enzymatic activity after purification by Sephacryl gel permeation chromatography. Moreover, sedimentation and chromatographic experiments, under nondenaturing conditions, do not support the assumption of 4S protein as a subunit of a multimeric protein (GNMT) displaying a molecular mass of 150 kDa.