1
|
Champmartin C, Chedik L, Marquet F, Cosnier F. Occupational exposure assessment with solid substances: choosing a vehicle for in vitro percutaneous absorption experiments. Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:294-316. [PMID: 36125048 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2097052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Percutaneous occupational exposure to industrial toxicants can be assessed in vitro on excised human or animal skins. Numerous factors can significantly influence skin permeation of chemicals and the flux determination. Among them, the vehicle used to solubilize the solid substances is a tricky key step. A "realistic surrogate" that closely matches the exposure scenario is recommended in first intention. When direct transposition of occupational exposure conditions to in vitro experiments is impossible, it is recommended that the vehicle used does not affect the skin barrier (in particular in terms of structural integrity, composition, or enzymatic activity). Indeed, any such effect could alter the percutaneous absorption of substances in a number of ways, as we will see. Potential effects are described for five monophasic vehicles, including the three most frequently used: water, ethanol, acetone; and two that are more rarely used, but are realistic: artificial sebum and artificial sweat. Finally, we discuss a number of criteria to be verified and the associated tests that should be performed when choosing the most appropriate vehicle, keeping in mind that, in the context of occupational exposure, the scientific quality of the percutaneous absorption data provided, and how they are interpreted, may have long-range consequences. From the narrative review presented, we also identify and discuss important factors to consider in future updates of the OECD guidelines for in vitro skin absorption experiments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Champmartin
- French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS), Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Lisa Chedik
- French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS), Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Fabrice Marquet
- French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS), Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy Cedex, France
| | - Frédéric Cosnier
- French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS), Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy Cedex, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Eilstein J, Grégoire S, Fabre A, Arbey E, Géniès C, Duplan H, Rothe H, Ellison C, Cubberley R, Schepky A, Lange D, Klaric M, Hewitt NJ, Jacques‐Jamin C. Use of human liver and EpiSkin™ S9 subcellular fractions as a screening assays to compare the in vitro hepatic and dermal metabolism of 47 cosmetics‐relevant chemicals. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 40:416-433. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
3
|
Oesch F, Fabian E, Landsiedel R. Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2411-2456. [PMID: 29916051 PMCID: PMC6063329 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2232-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Studies on the metabolic fate of medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics and other chemicals intentionally or accidently applied to the human skin have become increasingly important in order to ascertain pharmacological effectiveness and to avoid toxicities. The use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations. Hence information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the experimental systems available for pertinent studies compared with native human skin has become crucial. This review collects available information of which—taken with great caution because of the still very limited data—the most salient points are: in the skin of all animal species and skin-derived in vitro systems considered in this review cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent monooxygenase activities (largely responsible for initiating xenobiotica metabolism in the organ which provides most of the xenobiotica metabolism of the mammalian organism, the liver) are very low to undetectable. Quite likely other oxidative enzymes [e.g. flavin monooxygenase, COX (cooxidation by prostaglandin synthase)] will turn out to be much more important for the oxidative xenobiotic metabolism in the skin. Moreover, conjugating enzyme activities such as glutathione transferases and glucuronosyltransferases are much higher than the oxidative CYP activities. Since these conjugating enzymes are predominantly detoxifying, the skin appears to be predominantly protected against CYP-generated reactive metabolites. The following recommendations for the use of experimental animal species or human skin in vitro models may tentatively be derived from the information available to date: for dermal absorption and for skin irritation esterase activity is of special importance which in pig skin, some human cell lines and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to native human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization reactive-metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the Conclusions section in the end of this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Oesch
- Institute of Toxicology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Obere Zahlbacherstr. 67, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - E Fabian
- Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, GV/TB, Z470, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Robert Landsiedel
- Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, GV/TB, Z470, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dennerlein K, Göen T, Zobel M, Boos AM, Drexler H, Kilo S. Dermal penetration and resorption of beta-naphthylamine and N-phenyl-beta-naphthylamine from lubricants in an ex vivo human skin model. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 185:934-941. [PMID: 28747005 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Dermal Penetration of aromatic amines (AA's), often suspected or known to be carcinogenic, can play an important role in the overall human exposure. However, information on penetration of certain AA's is poor and inconsistent. Penetration of the former lubricant additive N-phenyl-beta-naphthylamine (PBNA) and its contaminant beta-naphthylamine (BNA) a known carcinogen was investigated and the influence of formulation and co-application characterized. Percutaneous penetration of BNA and PBNA through freshly excised human skin (n = 8; 48 h) was investigated using an ex vivo diffusion cell model. Both AA's were applied in a technical-conform lubricant or dissolved in hexane. The amount of BNA and PBNA applied to skin was 0.52 and 259 μg/0.64 cm2. The analytical determination of AA's was performed by GC-MS. Both, BNA and PBNA penetrated through human skin (38 vs. 5% of applied dose). In contrast to BNA, the percutaneous penetration of PBNA continued beyond the end of exposure. Co-exposure of both AA's increased the intradermal uptake of BNA and PBNA (p < 0.05). Exposure in lubricant showed the least overall penetration (2.9 and 1.9% of applied dose). The results clearly reveal that dermal penetration of both AA's depends strongly on the mode of application. Co-application and formulation alters the penetration of the AA's.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Dennerlein
- Institute and Out-Patient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas Göen
- Institute and Out-Patient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Melanie Zobel
- Institute and Out-Patient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anja M Boos
- Department of Plastic and Hand Surgery, University Hospital of Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Krankenhausstrasse 12, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Hans Drexler
- Institute and Out-Patient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Sonja Kilo
- Institute and Out-Patient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Schillerstrasse 25/29, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
|
6
|
Oesch F, Fabian E, Guth K, Landsiedel R. Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:2135-90. [PMID: 25370008 PMCID: PMC4247477 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1382-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The exposure of the skin to medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics, and other chemicals renders information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the skin highly interesting. Since the use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations, information on XME in models comes in the focus including non-human mammalian species and in vitro skin models. This review attempts to summarize the information available in the open scientific literature on XME in the skin of human, rat, mouse, guinea pig, and pig as well as human primary skin cells, human cell lines, and reconstructed human skin models. The most salient outcome is that much more research on cutaneous XME is needed for solid metabolism-dependent efficacy and safety predictions, and the cutaneous metabolism comparisons have to be viewed with caution. Keeping this fully in mind at least with respect to some cutaneous XME, some models may tentatively be considered to approximate reasonable closeness to human skin. For dermal absorption and for skin irritation among many contributing XME, esterase activity is of special importance, which in pig skin, some human cell lines, and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization, activating XME are not yet judgeable, but reactive metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the “Overview and Conclusions” section in the end of this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Oesch
- Oesch-Tox Toxicological Consulting and Expert Opinions GmbH&Co.KG, Rheinblick 21, 55263, Wackernheim, Germany
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gundert-Remy U, Bernauer U, Blömeke B, Döring B, Fabian E, Goebel C, Hessel S, Jäckh C, Lampen A, Oesch F, Petzinger E, Völkel W, Roos PH. Extrahepatic metabolism at the body's internal–external interfaces. Drug Metab Rev 2014; 46:291-324. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2014.900565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
8
|
Jacques C, Perdu E, Jamin EL, Cravedi JP, Mavon A, Duplan H, Zalko D. Effect of skin metabolism on dermal delivery of testosterone: qualitative assessment using a new short-term skin model. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2014; 27:188. [PMID: 24642985 DOI: 10.1159/000351683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The skin is a metabolically active organ expressing biotransformation enzymes able to metabolize both endogenous molecules and xenobiotics. We investigated the impact of metabolism on the delivery of testosterone through the skin with an ex vivo pig ear skin system as an alternative model for human skin. Penetration, absorption and metabolic capabilities were investigated up to 72 h after application of [(14)C]-testosterone doses of 50-800 nmol on either fresh or frozen skin, with the latter model being metabolically inactive. Testosterone absorption and metabolite production were monitored by radio-HPLC and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Testosterone absorption through frozen skin was much lower, irrespective of the dose of testosterone applied, compared to fresh skin. Using fresh skin samples, >95% of the radioactivity recovered in culture media, as well as the skin itself, corresponded to metabolites. These results were compared with the metabolic data obtained from other in vitro systems (liver and skin microsomes). The present work leads to the conclusion that most of the enzymatic activities expressed in liver fractions are also expressed in pig and human skin. The metabolic activity of the skin can modulate the biological activity of pharmaceuticals (and xenobiotics). Consequently, it can also greatly affect transdermal drug delivery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Jacques
- INRA, Toxalim (Research Center in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bogen KT. Dermal uptake of 18 dilute aqueous chemicals: in vivo disappearance-method measures greatly exceed in vitro-based predictions. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2013; 33:1334-1352. [PMID: 23051616 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01901.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Average rates of total dermal uptake (Kup ) from short-term (e.g., bathing) contact with dilute aqueous organic chemicals (DAOCs) are typically estimated from steady-state in vitro diffusion-cell measures of chemical permeability (Kp ) through skin into receptor solution. Widely used ("PCR-vitro") methods estimate Kup by applying diffusion theory to increase Kp predictions made by a physico-chemical regression (PCR) model that was fit to a large set of Kp measures. Here, Kup predictions for 18 DAOCs made by three PCR-vitro models (EPA, NIOSH, and MH) were compared to previous in vivo measures obtained by methods unlikely to underestimate Kup . A new PCR model fit to all 18 measures is accurate to within approximately threefold (r = 0.91, p < 10(-5) ), but the PCR-vitro predictions (r > 0.63) all tend to underestimate the Kup measures by mean factors (UF, and p value for testing UF = 1) of 10 (EPA, p < 10(-6) ), 11 (NIOSH, p < 10(-8) ), and 6.2 (MH, p = 0.018). For all three PCR-vitro models, log(UF) correlates negatively with molecular weight (r(2) = 0.31 to 0.84, p = 0.017 to < 10(-6) ) but not with log(vapor pressure) as an additional predictor (p > 0.05), so vapor pressure appears not to explain the significant in vivo/PCR-vitro discrepancy. Until this discrepancy is explained, careful in vivo measures of Kup should be obtained for more chemicals, the expanded in vivo database should be compared to in vitro-based predictions, and in vivo data should be considered in assessing aqueous dermal exposure and its uncertainty.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth T Bogen
- Exponent, Inc., 475 14th Street, Suite 400, Oakland, CA 94612, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Jacques C, Perdu E, Duplan H, Jamin EL, Canlet C, Debrauwer L, Cravedi JP, Mavon A, Zalko D. Disposition and biotransformation of 14C-Benzo(a)pyrene in a pig ear skin model: Ex vivo and in vitro approaches. Toxicol Lett 2010; 199:22-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 07/30/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
11
|
Abstract
Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) is the principal color ingredient in henna, a color additive approved with limitations for coloring hair by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under 21 CFR 73.2190. In 2002, the scientific committee on cosmetics and non-food products (SCCNFP), now known as the scientific committee for consumer products (SCCP), evaluated the safety of lawsone as a coloring agent in hair dye products of the European Union (EU). The SCCNFP concluded that lawsone was mutagenic and not suitable for use as a hair coloring agent. As a result, studies were conducted to measure the extent of lawsone absorption through human skin. Lawsone skin absorption was determined from two hair coloring products and two shampoo products, all containing henna. [(14)C]-Lawsone (sp. act. 22.9 mCi/mmol) was added to each commercial product and the products were applied to dermatomed, nonviable human skin mounted in flow-through diffusion cells perfused with a physiological buffer (HEPES-buffered Hanks' balanced salt solution, pH 7.4). Products remained on the skin for 5 minutes (shampoos) and 1 hour (hair color paste). For the henna hair paste products, 0.3 and 1.3% of the applied dose was absorbed into the receptor fluid in 24 hours while 2.2 and 4.0% remained in the skin. For both henna shampoo products, 0.3% of the applied dose was absorbed into the receptor fluid at 24 hours while 3.6 and 6.8% remained in the skin. For all products, most of the lawsone applied was washed from the surface of the skin (83-102%) at the end of the exposure period. Extended absorption studies were conducted for 72 hours to determine if skin levels of lawsone in the 24 hour studies might eventually be percutaneously absorbed. These studies determined that the majority of the lawsone remained in the skin with only a small but significant increase (for three out of four products) in receptor fluid values. Therefore, it appears that receptor fluid values would give a good estimate of lawsone absorption for an exposure estimate and that skin levels of lawsone need not be included.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E K Kraeling
- Office of Cosmetics and Colors, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Akyüz M, Ata S. Determination of aromatic amines in hair dye and henna samples by ion-pair extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 47:68-80. [PMID: 18280687 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2007] [Revised: 12/03/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method has been proposed for the determination of carcinogenic and toxic aromatic amines in hair dye, henna and dyed hair samples. The method includes ion-pair extraction of aromatic amines from aqueous samples with bis-2-ethylhexylphosphate (BEHPA) released after solving the samples in acidic solution followed by sonication, derivatisation of compounds with isobutyl chloroformate (IBCF) and their GC-MS analysis in both electron impact (EI) and positive and negative ion chemical ionisation (PNICI) mode as their isobutyloxycarbonyl (isoBOC) derivatives. The obtained recoveries of aromatic amines ranged from 92.2 to 98.4% and the precision of this method, as indicated by the relative standard deviations (RSDs) was within the range of 0.7-4.2%. The detection limits obtained from calculations by using GC-MS results based on signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)=3 were within the range from 0.02 to 0.20 ng/g. In the present study, the commercially available 54 permanent hair dye, 35 modified or natural henna and 15 dyed hair samples were analysed for the aromatic amines by the proposed method and the method was shown to be suitable to determine the aromatic amine ingredients and metabolites of these commercial products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Akyüz
- Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, 67100 Zonguldak, Turkey.
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Dressler WE, Appelqvist T. Plasma/blood pharmacokinetics and metabolism after dermal exposure to para-aminophenol or para-phenylenediamine. Food Chem Toxicol 2006; 44:371-9. [PMID: 16239057 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2005] [Revised: 08/10/2005] [Accepted: 08/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics and metabolism following dermal application of [(14)C]-para-aminophenol (PAP) or [(14)C]-para-phenylenediamine (PPD) were investigated. Groups of rats were treated under occlusion for 24 h with 12.5 mg/kg [(14)C]-PAP, or for 4h with 50 mg/kg [(14)C]-PPD on 10% or 20% of their body surface area, respectively. A female minipig was also treated dermally (24 h, occlusion) with 4.7 mg/kg [(14)C]-PAP on 10% of its body surface area. Blood and plasma samples were analysed for radioactivity and presence of metabolites. In PAP-treated rats, mean plasma levels at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 or 24h were 0.16, 0.24, 0.38, 0.50, 0.36 or 0.14 microg [(14)C]-PAP equivalents/ml, respectively. The plasma half-life was 5.95 h, the C(max) was 0.5 microg/ml, the t(max) was 4 h, and the AUC(0-infinity) was 9.27 microg-equivalentsh/ml. No free PAP was detected in the plasma, but 3 metabolites (M1, M2 and M3) were found in 2-, 4- or 8-h samples at ranges from 0% to 17.7% (M1), 27.6% to 45.0% (M2) or 46.9% to 70% (M3) of the total plasma radioactivity. M2 was identified as acetylated PAP (paracetamol, acetaminophen, APAP), whereas M1 and M3 were identified as O-glucuronide or O-sulfate conjugates of APAP, respectively. In the pig, very low levels of radioactivity (C(max) of approximately 10 ng/ml) were found in the blood, and identified as APAP. Analysis of plasma of PPD-treated rats at 4 h after topical treatment revealed levels of 1.41 +/- 0.34 microg/ml [(14)C]-PPD-equivalents in males, and 7.40 +/- 1.83 microg/ml in females. Radioactivity, reflected a single metabolite, which was identified to be N,N'-diacetylated PPD. Comparison of the plasma APAP levels in rats or the pig following topical PAP with corresponding human plasma levels after a single oral therapeutic dose of APAP suggested a substantial margin of safety. Overall, the results suggest that topically applied PAP or PPD are metabolised in the skin, presumably by N-acetyltransferase-1 resulting in systemic exposure to acetylated metabolites, and not to their parent arylamines.
Collapse
|
14
|
Nohynek GJ, Duche D, Garrigues A, Meunier PA, Toutain H, Leclaire J. Under the skin: Biotransformation of para-aminophenol and para-phenylenediamine in reconstructed human epidermis and human hepatocytes. Toxicol Lett 2005; 158:196-212. [PMID: 15890478 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2005.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2005] [Revised: 03/14/2005] [Accepted: 03/17/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the biotransformation of the oxidative arylamine (AA) hair dye ingredients [14C]-para-aminophenol (PAP) and [14C]-para-phenylenediamine (PPD) in reconstructed human epidermis and human hepatocytes. Human epidermis quantitatively transformed PAP to its N-acetylated derivative (APAP), whereas hepatocytes transformed PAP to sulfate or glucuronic acid conjugates of APAP or PAP as well as free APAP. Epidermis and hepatocytes converted PPD to N-mono- (MAPPD) and N,N'-di-acetylated (DAPPD) derivatives. At higher concentrations of PPD (250-1000 microM), epidermis or hepatocytes produced more of the MAPPD, whereas concentrations below 250 microM and lower favoured formation of the DAPPD metabolite. When compared with epidermis, human hepatocytes had a three-fold or eight-fold greater capacity for generation of MAPPD or DAPPD, respectively. No evidence of transformation of PAP or PPD to N-hydroxylated derivatives was found in epidermis or hepatocytes. Our results suggest that (i) after dermal absorption of PAP or PPD, humans are systemically exposed to acetylated derivatives; (ii) current in vitro skin absorption studies may be inadapated for determination of human systemic exposure to AAs due to reduced or absent metabolic capacity of non-viable skin; (iii) due to qualitative differences between dermal and hepatic metabolism, oral toxicity studies may be unsuited for the hazard assessment of dermal exposure to AAs; and (iv) use of induced rodent liver S9 metabolic activation systems for in vitro genotoxicity studies may produce misleading results on the hazard of human dermal exposure to AAs. In conclusion, our data support the growing evidence that AAs are transformed in human skin and suggest that current practices of safety assessment of AAs should take these findings into account.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard J Nohynek
- L'Oréal Research and Development, Worldwide Safety Department, 25-29 quai Aulagnier, 92600 Asnières, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Nohynek GJ, Skare JA, Meuling WJA, Hein DW, De Bie ATHJ, Toutain H. Urinary acetylated metabolites and N-acetyltransferase-2 genotype in human subjects treated with a para-phenylenediamine-containing oxidative hair dye. Food Chem Toxicol 2004; 42:1885-91. [PMID: 15350687 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2004] [Accepted: 07/01/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the organism of mammals, important detoxification pathways of arylamines are catalysed by N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2). A recent case-control epidemiology study suggested that human NAT2 slow acetylators exposed to oxidative hair dyes may be at greater risk to develop bladder cancer. We therefore profiled urinary [(14)C]-metabolites and NAT2 genotype in eight human subjects following treatment with a dark-shade oxidative hair dye containing [(14)C]-para-phenylenediamine (PPD). Genotyping identified three subjects as slow, and five subjects as intermediate NAT2 acetylators. Within 24 h after treatment, the study subjects excreted a mean total of 0.43+/-0.24% of the applied [(14)C] in the urine, where five different metabolites were found. The major urinary metabolites were concluded to be N-mono-acetylated and N,N'-diacetylated PPD. They were present in all urine samples and amounted to 80-95% of the total urinary [(14)C]. Another metabolite, possibly a glucuronic acid conjugate, was found in 6/8 urine samples at 5-13% of the total urinary [(14)C]. All metabolites appeared to be related to PPD, no evidence of the presence of high-molecular weight dye-intermediates or corresponding metabolites was found. The metabolite profile in the study subjects showed no significant differences between the NAT2 intermediate and NAT2 slow acetylator subgroups. Urine of NAT2 slow acetylators contained N-mono-acetylated-PPD at 42.2+/-10.2% and N,N'-di-acetylated-PPD at 54.1+/-7.6% of total urinary radioactivity, while the corresponding values of intermediate acetylators were 46.0+/-8.9% and 45.7+/-9.9%, respectively. Overall, our results suggest that the human acetylation rate of PPD after topical application is independent of the NAT2 genotype status, most likely due to metabolism by epidermal NAT1 prior to systemic absorption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard J Nohynek
- L'Oréal Research and Development, River Plaza Building, 25-29 quai Aulagnier, 92600 Asnières, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kraeling MEK, Yourick JJ, Bronaugh RL. In vitro human skin penetration of diethanolamine. Food Chem Toxicol 2004; 42:1553-61. [PMID: 15304302 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2003] [Accepted: 04/29/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Concerns about the safety of diethanolamine (DEA) have been raised by the National Toxicology Program (NTP). Therefore, we measured the extent of DEA absorption in human skin relevant to exposures from shampoos, hair dyes and body lotions. Radiolabeled [14C]-DEA was added to two commercial products from each class and applied to excised viable and non-viable human skin in flow-through diffusion cells. The products remained on the skin for 5, 30 and 24 h for shampoos, hair dyes and body lotions, respectively. After 24 h, most of the absorbed dose was found in skin: 2.8% for shampoos, 2.9% for hair dyes and 10.0% for body lotions. Only small amounts were absorbed into the receptor fluid: 0.08%, 0.09% and 0.9% for shampoos, hair dyes and body lotions respectively. There was no significant difference in the absorption of DEA through viable and non-viable skin or from product application doses of 1, 2 or 3 mg lotion/cm2. In 72 h daily repeat dose studies with a lotion, DEA appeared to accumulate in the skin (29.2%) with little diffusing out into the receptor fluid. Therefore, skin levels of DEA should not be included in estimates of systemic absorption used in exposure assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M E K Kraeling
- Office of Cosmetics and Colors, US Food and Drug Administration, BRF HFS-128, 8301 Muirkirk Rd, Laurel, MD 20708, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hueber-Becker F, Nohynek GJ, Meuling WJA, Benech-Kieffer F, Toutain H. Human systemic exposure to a [14C]-para-phenylenediamine-containing oxidative hair dye and correlation with in vitro percutaneous absorption in human or pig skin. Food Chem Toxicol 2004; 42:1227-36. [PMID: 15207372 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2003] [Accepted: 02/22/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the absorption of a commercial [14C]-PPD-containing oxidative dark-shade hair dye in human volunteers as well as in vitro using human or pig ear skin. The hair of eight male volunteers was cut to a standard length, dyed, washed, dried, clipped and collected. Hair, washing water, materials used in the study and a 24-h scalp wash were collected for determination of radioactivity. Blood, urine and faeces were analysed up to 120 h after hair dyeing. An identical [14C]-PPD-containing hair dye formulation was applied in vitro for 0.5 h to human and pig ear skin, and radioactivity was determined in skin compartments after 24 h. In humans, the recovery rate was 95.7+/-1.5% of the applied radioactivity. Washing water, cut hair, gloves, paper towels, caps or scalp wash contained a total of 95.16+/-1.46% of the applied [14C]. Absorbed radioactivity amounted to 0.50+/-0.24% in the urine and 0.04+/-0.04% in the faeces, corresponding to a mean of 7.0+/-3.4 mg [14C]-PPD-equivalents absorbed. Within 24 h after application, most of the radioactivity was eliminated. The Cmax of [14C]-PPD-equivalents in the plasma was 0.087 microgeq/ml, the Tmax was approximately 2 h, and the mean the AUC(0-12h) was 0.67 microgeq h/ml. In vitro tests in human or pig skin found total absorbed amounts of 2.4+/-1.6% (10.6+/-6.7 microgeq/cm2) or 3.4+/-1.7% (14.6+/-6.9 microgeq/cm2), respectively. Percentage-based in vitro results were considerably higher than corresponding in vivo data, whereas, in units of microg/cm2, they corresponded to a total absorbed amount of 7.40 or 10.22 mgeq for human or pig skin, respectively. All results suggested that hair dyeing with oxidative hair dyes produces minimal systemic exposure that is unlikely to pose a risk to human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frédérique Hueber-Becker
- L'OREAL Research, Global Safety, River Plaza Building, 25-29 quai Aulagnier, 92600 Asnières, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
Several cohort and case-control studies have found an increased risk of bladder cancer among hairdressers and barbers who are occupationally exposed to hair dyes. However, the carcinogenic risk associated with personal use of hair dyes remains uncertain since several large case-control and cohort studies did not find an association between personal hair dye use and bladder cancer. To address this question, the authors used data collected on 459 bladder cancer cases and 665 controls who were interviewed as part of a case-control study conducted in New Hampshire between 1994 and 1998. Participants underwent a structured personal interview with regard to history of hair dye use and bladder cancer risk factors. Unconditional logistic regression analysis was used to compute odds ratios that were associated with hair dye use, while controlling for potential confounding factors. A history of any hair dye use was inversely associated with bladder cancer incidence in men [adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 0.5; 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.3-0.8], although risk reductions were not statistically significant for individual dye types. In women, use of permanent (adjusted OR = 1.5; 95%CI = 0.8-2.7) and rinse-type hair dye (adjusted OR = 1.7; 95%CI = 0.8-3.6) were associated with a modestly elevated risk of bladder cancer but with limited statistical precision; no association was found with use of semi-permanent dyes (adjusted OR = 0.7; 95%CI = 0.3-1.4). For permanent hair dye use, odds ratios were most pronounced for younger age at first use, higher frequency and prolonged time since first use; however there were no clear trends in risk by these factors. In light of the prevalence of hair dye use, further studies are needed that address the effects of specific colors and types of hair dyes along with the possible role of individual susceptibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angeline S Andrew
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Cho JA, Oh E, Lee E, Sul D. Effects of Hair Dyeing on DNA Damage in Human Lymphocytes. J Occup Health 2003; 45:376-81. [PMID: 14676417 DOI: 10.1539/joh.45.376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Comet assays were carried out to evaluate DNA damage in human lymphocytes from 20 volunteers before and after hair dyeing. DNA damage in lymphocytes was found to be slightly higher in volunteers after hair dyeing. Tail moments before and after hair dyeing were 1.47 +/- 0.41 and 1.75 +/- 0.29 respectively (p<0.0008). DNA damage in lymphocytes showed significant difference with treatment and heating time. The tail moments after 15 min of treatment time before and after hair dyeing were 1.44 +/- 0.22 and 1.85 +/- 0.36, respectively (p=0.0004) and the corresponding tail moments in 20 min of heating time before and after were 1.37 +/- 0.15 and 1.78 +/- 0.34 (p=0.0002). In conclusion, we found that an acute exposure of hair dyes with heating caused DNA damages in peripheral lymphocytes and that this damage had significant association with treatment and heating time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin-A Cho
- Department of Beauty Arts, Seokyeong University, Korea
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Turesky RJ, Freeman JP, Holland RD, Nestorick DM, Miller DW, Ratnasinghe DL, Kadlubar FF. Identification of aminobiphenyl derivatives in commercial hair dyes. Chem Res Toxicol 2003; 16:1162-73. [PMID: 12971805 DOI: 10.1021/tx030029r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A recent epidemiological study suggested that aromatic amines present in hair dyes may contribute to an increased risk of bladder cancer (Gago-Dominguez, et al. (2003) Carcinogenesis 24, 483-489). Moreover, a preliminary study linked frequent hair dye usage with elevated levels of DNA adducts of 4-aminobiphenyl (4-ABP) in human epithelial breast cells (Gorlewska, et al. Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 43, 1018-1019). Therefore, we sought to determine if 4-ABP, a recognized human urinary bladder carcinogen, is present in commercial hair dyes. 4-ABP was isolated from dyes by solvent extraction with hexane, followed by silica gel chromatography, either with or without chemical treatment of the extract with Zinc/HCl, and a final purification with a mixed cation exchange reversed-phase resin. The identity of 4-ABP was confirmed by both HPLC with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) and gas chromatography with negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry (GC-NICI-MS) following chemical derivatization with pentafluoropropionic anhydride (PFPA). The levels of 4-ABP ranged from not detectable (<0.29 parts per billion (ppb)) up to 12.8 ppb. The noncarcinogenic isomer 2-aminobiphenyl (2-ABP) was also found at quantities up to 310 ppb. 4-ABP was detected in eight of the 11 hair dyes and found in black, red, and blonde hair dyes but not in brown hair dyes. 1,4-Phenylenediamine (PPD) is a key constituent for color development of many permanent hair dyes. Some batches of chemical research grade PPD were contaminated with 4-ABP (up to 500 ppb) and 2-ABP (up to 70 parts per million) and may be a source of ABP contamination in hair dyes. These analytical data demonstrate that 4-ABP is present in some hair dyes. Studies on dermal absorption and bioavailability of 4-ABP from hair dyes are required to determine if this aromatic amine contributes to the increased risk of bladder cancer reported in frequent users of hair dyes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Turesky
- Division of Chemistry, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, Arkansas 72079, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|