1
|
Zhang C, Sheng Y, Sun X, Wang Y. New insights for gynecological cancer therapies: from molecular mechanisms and clinical evidence to future directions. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2023; 42:891-925. [PMID: 37368179 PMCID: PMC10584725 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-023-10113-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Advanced and recurrent gynecological cancers lack effective treatment and have poor prognosis. Besides, there is urgent need for conservative treatment for fertility protection of young patients. Therefore, continued efforts are needed to further define underlying therapeutic targets and explore novel targeted strategies. Considerable advancements have been made with new insights into molecular mechanisms on cancer progression and breakthroughs in novel treatment strategies. Herein, we review the research that holds unique novelty and potential translational power to alter the current landscape of gynecological cancers and improve effective treatments. We outline the advent of promising therapies with their targeted biomolecules, including hormone receptor-targeted agents, inhibitors targeting epigenetic regulators, antiangiogenic agents, inhibitors of abnormal signaling pathways, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, agents targeting immune-suppressive regulators, and repurposed existing drugs. We particularly highlight clinical evidence and trace the ongoing clinical trials to investigate the translational value. Taken together, we conduct a thorough review on emerging agents for gynecological cancer treatment and further discuss their potential challenges and future opportunities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chunxue Zhang
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030 People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Female Tumor Reproductive Specialty, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaru Sheng
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030 People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Female Tumor Reproductive Specialty, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao Sun
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030 People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Female Tumor Reproductive Specialty, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Yudong Wang
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030 People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Female Tumor Reproductive Specialty, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Disease, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Manna PR, Ahmed AU, Molehin D, Narasimhan M, Pruitt K, Reddy PH. Hormonal and Genetic Regulatory Events in Breast Cancer and Its Therapeutics: Importance of the Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10061313. [PMID: 35740335 PMCID: PMC9220045 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10061313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Estrogen promotes the development and survival of the majority of breast cancers (BCs). Aromatase is the rate-limiting enzyme in estrogen biosynthesis, and it is immensely expressed in both cancerous and non-cancerous breast tissues. Endocrine therapy based on estrogen blockade, by aromatase inhibitors, has been the mainstay of BC treatment in post-menopausal women; however, resistance to hormone therapy is the leading cause of cancer death. An improved understanding of the molecular underpinnings is the key to develop therapeutic strategies for countering the most prevalent hormone receptor positive BCs. Of note, cholesterol is the precursor of all steroid hormones that are synthesized in a variety of tissues and play crucial roles in diverse processes, ranging from organogenesis to homeostasis to carcinogenesis. The rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis is the transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane, a process that is primarily mediated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. Advances in genomic and proteomic technologies have revealed a dynamic link between histone deacetylases (HDACs) and StAR, aromatase, and estrogen regulation. We were the first to report that StAR is abundantly expressed, along with large amounts of 17β-estradiol (E2), in hormone-dependent, but not hormone-independent, BCs, in which StAR was also identified as a novel acetylated protein. Our in-silico analyses of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) datasets, for StAR and steroidogenic enzyme genes, revealed an inverse correlation between the amplification of the StAR gene and the poor survival of BC patients. Additionally, we reported that a number of HDAC inhibitors, by altering StAR acetylation patterns, repress E2 synthesis in hormone-sensitive BC cells. This review highlights the current understanding of molecular pathogenesis of BCs, especially for luminal subtypes, and their therapeutics, underlining that StAR could serve not only as a prognostic marker, but also as a therapeutic candidate, in the prevention and treatment of this life-threatening disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pulak R. Manna
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-806-743-3573; Fax: +1-806-743-3143
| | - Ahsen U. Ahmed
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA;
| | - Deborah Molehin
- Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA; (D.M.); (K.P.)
| | - Madhusudhanan Narasimhan
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA;
| | - Kevin Pruitt
- Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA; (D.M.); (K.P.)
| | - P. Hemachandra Reddy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA;
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA;
- Neurology, Departments of School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
- Public Health Department of Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, School Health Professions, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liang Y, Besch-Williford C, Hyder SM. The estrogen receptor beta agonist liquiritigenin enhances the inhibitory effects of the cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor RO 48-8071 on hormone-dependent breast-cancer growth. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2022; 192:53-63. [PMID: 35037188 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-021-06487-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Most hormone-dependent human breast cancers develop resistance to anti-hormone therapy over time. Our goal was to identify novel treatment strategies to avoid this drug resistance and thereby control hormone-dependent breast cancer. METHODS Sulforhodamine B assays were used to measure viability of cultured human breast-cancer cells. BT-474 cell tumor xenografts in nude mice were used to evaluate tumor growth. Immunohistochemistry was used to assess estrogen-receptor and angiogenesis-marker expression, as well as apoptosis, in tumor-xenograft tissues. RESULTS MCF-7 and BT-474 breast-cancer cells treated with either RO 48-8071 <[4'-[6-(Allylmethylamino)hexyloxy]-4-bromo-2'-fluorobenzophenone fumarate] [RO]; a small-molecule inhibitor of oxidosqualene cyclase, a key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis> or liquiritigenin [LQ; an estrogen receptor (ER) β agonist] exhibited significantly reduced viability in vitro. RO + LQ treatment further significantly reduced cell viability. Administration of RO, LQ, or RO + LQ significantly inhibited growth of BT-474 tumor xenografts in vivo. RO, LQ, or RO + LQ reduced ERα but induced ER β expression in tumor xenografts. Both compounds significantly reduced angiogenesis-marker expression and increased apoptosis in tumor xenografts; use of RO + LQ significantly enhanced the effects observed with a single agent. CONCLUSION The ERβ ligand LQ significantly enhanced the inhibition of breast-cancer cell viability and tumor-xenograft growth by RO. The anti-tumor properties of RO may in part be due to an off-target effect that reduces ERα and increases ERβ, the latter of which can then interact with LQ to promote anti-proliferative effects. The RO + LQ combination may have value when considering novel treatment strategies for hormone-dependent breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yayun Liang
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, 134 Research Park Drive, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | | | - Salman M Hyder
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, 134 Research Park Drive, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chauvin S, Cohen-Tannoudji J, Guigon CJ. Estradiol Signaling at the Heart of Folliculogenesis: Its Potential Deregulation in Human Ovarian Pathologies. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23010512. [PMID: 35008938 PMCID: PMC8745567 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Estradiol (E2) is a major hormone controlling women fertility, in particular folliculogenesis. This steroid, which is locally produced by granulosa cells (GC) within ovarian follicles, controls the development and selection of dominant preovulatory follicles. E2 effects rely on a complex set of nuclear and extra-nuclear signal transduction pathways principally triggered by its nuclear receptors, ERα and ERβ. These transcription factors are differentially expressed within follicles, with ERβ being the predominant ER in GC. Several ERβ splice isoforms have been identified and display specific structural features, which greatly complicates the nature of ERβ-mediated E2 signaling. This review aims at providing a concise overview of the main actions of E2 during follicular growth, maturation, and selection in human. It also describes the current understanding of the various roles of ERβ splice isoforms, especially their influence on cell fate. We finally discuss how E2 signaling deregulation could participate in two ovarian pathogeneses characterized by either a follicular arrest, as in polycystic ovary syndrome, or an excess of GC survival and proliferation, leading to granulosa cell tumors. This review emphasizes the need for further research to better understand the molecular basis of E2 signaling throughout folliculogenesis and to improve the efficiency of ovarian-related disease therapies.
Collapse
|
5
|
Herrero Y, Pascuali N, Velázquez C, Oubiña G, Hauk V, de Zúñiga I, Peña MG, Martínez G, Lavolpe M, Veiga F, Neuspiller F, Abramovich D, Scotti L, Parborell F. SARS-CoV-2 infection negatively affects ovarian function in ART patients. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2022; 1868:166295. [PMID: 34718118 PMCID: PMC8550892 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2021.166295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Several organs, such as the heart, breasts, intestine, testes, and ovaries, have been reported to be target tissues of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. To date, no studies have demonstrated SARS-CoV-2 infection in the female reproductive system. In the present study, we investigated the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on ovarian function by comparing follicular fluid (FF) from control and recovered coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients and by evaluating the influence of these FF on human endothelial and non-luteinized granulosa cell cultures. Our results showed that most FFs (91.3%) from screened post COVID-19 patients were positive for IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Additionally, patients with higher levels of IgG against SARS-CoV-2 had lower numbers of retrieved oocytes. While VEGF and IL-1β were significantly lower in post COVID-19 FF, IL-10 did not differ from that in control FF. Moreover, in COV434 cells stimulated with FF from post COVID-19 patients, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), estrogen-receptor β (Erβ), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression were significantly decreased, whereas estrogen-receptor α (ERα) and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) did not change. In endothelial cells stimulated with post COVID-19 FF, we observed a decrease in cell migration without changes in protein expression of certain angiogenic factors. Both cell types showed a significantly higher γH2AX expression when exposed to post COVID-19 FF. In conclusion, our results describe for the first time that the SARS-CoV-2 infection adversely affects the follicular microenvironment, thus dysregulating ovarian function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yamila Herrero
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Natalia Pascuali
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Candela Velázquez
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gonzalo Oubiña
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Vanesa Hauk
- Immunopharmacology Laboratory, Institute of Biological Chemistry (IQUIBICEN), School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dalhia Abramovich
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Leopoldina Scotti
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Investigaciones y Transferencia del Noroeste de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CITNOBA) - CONICET - UNNOBA - UNSAdA, San Antonio de Areco, Argentina
| | - Fernanda Parborell
- Ovarian Pathophysiology Studies Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine (IByME) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Baron JA, Nichols HB, Anderson C, Safe S. Cigarette Smoking and Estrogen-Related Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2021; 30:1462-1471. [PMID: 33990391 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-20-1803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cigarette smoking is a known cause of many cancers, yet epidemiologic studies have found protective associations with the risk of four "estrogen-related" malignancies: endometrial cancer, endometrioid and clear cell ovarian cancers, and thyroid cancer. This review considers epidemiologic and biological aspects of these associations, focusing particularly on estrogen signaling, and contrasts them with those for breast cancer, another estrogen-related malignancy. The observational findings regarding the inverse associations are consistent and remain after adjustment for possible confounding factors. In general, women who smoke do not have lower circulating estrogen levels than nonsmokers, eliminating one possible explanation for reduced risks of these malignancies. For endometrial and endometrioid ovarian cancer, the negative associations could plausibly be explained by interference with signaling through the estrogen receptor α. However, this is unlikely to explain the lower risks of thyroid and clear cell ovarian cancers. For thyroid cancer, an anti-inflammatory effect of nicotine and reduced TSH levels from smoking have been proposed explanations for the inverse association, but both lack convincing evidence. While the overall impact of cigarette smoking is overwhelmingly negative, protective associations such as those discussed here can provide potential clues to disease etiology, treatment, and prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Baron
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. .,Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.,Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire
| | - Hazel B Nichols
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Chelsea Anderson
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Stephen Safe
- Department of Veterinary Physiology & Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Liu T, Huang Y, Lin H. Estrogen disorders: Interpreting the abnormal regulation of aromatase in granulosa cells (Review). Int J Mol Med 2021; 47:73. [PMID: 33693952 PMCID: PMC7952251 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2021.4906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) are the most important source of estrogen. Therefore, aromatase (estrogen synthase), which is the key enzyme in estrogen synthesis, is not only an important factor of ovarian development, but also the key to estrogen secretion by GCs. Disorders of the ovarian estrogen secretion are more likely to induce female estrogen-dependent diseases and fertility issues, such as ovarian cancer and polycystic ovary syndrome. Hence, aromatase is an important drug target; treatment with its inhibitors in estrogen-dependent diseases has attracted increasing attention. The present review article focuses on the regulation and mechanism of the aromatase activity in the GCs, as well as the specific regulation of aromatase promoters. In GCs, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is dependent on the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) pathway to regulate the aromatase activity, and the regulation of this enzyme is related to the activation of signaling pathways, such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). In addition, endocrine-disrupting substance and other related factors affect the expression of aromatase, which eventually create an imbalance in the estrogen secretion by the target tissues. The present review highlights these useful factors as potential inhibitors for target therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Yifei Huang
- First Clinical Medical School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Hui Lin
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Gogola J, Hoffmann M, Nimpsz S, Ptak A. Disruption of 17β-estradiol secretion by persistent organic pollutants present in human follicular fluid is dependent on the potential of ovarian granulosa tumor cell lines to metabolize estrogen. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2020; 503:110698. [PMID: 31891770 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.110698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), such as perfluorooctanoate, perfluorooctane sulfonate, 2,2-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, hexachlorobenzene, and polychlorinated biphenyl 153 are persistent pollutants that are found in human follicular fluid (FF). These compounds may affect endocrine function, disrupt steroid secretion by granulosa cells, and play a role in granulosa cell tumor (GCT) development. GCTs demonstrate endocrine activity, expressing aromatase and secreting 17β-estradiol (E2). We aimed to determine the effects of a mixture of EDCs, similar to that found in human FF, on human granulosa tumor cell lines representing the juvenile (JGCT) and adult (AGCT) forms (COV434 and KGN cells, respectively). We found that all the individual compounds and mixtures tested altered granulosa tumor cell function by disrupting E2 secretion. In KGN cells, which possess significantly higher basal aromatase gene expression, and therefore secrete more E2 than JGCT cells, EDC mixtures activated estrogen receptors (ERs) and G protein-coupled receptor-30 signaling, thereby stimulating E2 secretion, without affecting aromatase expression. By contrast, in COV434 cells, which demonstrate higher CYP1A1 expression, a key mediator of estrogen metabolism, than KGN cells, EDC mixtures reduced E2 secretion in parallel with increases in the 2-hydroxyestrogen 1/E2 ratio and CYP1A1 expression, implying an upregulation of E2 metabolism. These results indicate that the EDC mixture present in FF disrupts E2 secretion in JGCT and AGCT cells according to the estrogen metabolic potential of the cell type, involving both classical and non-classical ER pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Gogola
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Marta Hoffmann
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Samantha Nimpsz
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Ptak
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387, Krakow, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pagano MT, Ortona E, Dupuis ML. A Role for Estrogen Receptor alpha36 in Cancer Progression. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:506. [PMID: 32849292 PMCID: PMC7411082 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Estrogen receptor α (ERα) functions as a ligand dependent transcription factor that directly binds specific estrogen responsive elements, thus regulating the transcription of estrogen sensitive genes. ERα has also been shown to be associated with the plasma membrane (membrane associated ERα, mERα), concentrated in lipid rafts, plasma membrane microdomains with a distinct lipid composition, where it transduces membrane-initiated estrogen-dependent activation of the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathway. Two isoforms of ERα have been described: the "traditional" ERα66 (66 kDa) and a lower molecular weight variant: the ERα46 (46 kDa). More recently, a novel ERα variant with a molecular mass of 36 kDa (ERα36) has been discovered. Notably, ERα36 has been found expressed in different human tumor cells, including both ER- positive and ER- negative breast cancer cells. Estrogen signaling at the cell membrane via ERα36 appears as capable of activating multiple pathways of importance for cancer aggressiveness and metastatic potential. The presence of serum autoantibodies reacting with mERα (anti-ERα Abs) in a large percentage of patients with breast cancer has recently been reported by our group. These anti-ERα Abs seem to act as estrogen agonists rapidly triggering MAP kinase pathway activation thus inducing tumor cell proliferation and overcoming cell resistance to anti-estrogen drug tamoxifen. In this review, we describe the involvement of ERα36 in different tumors. We also report the potential pathogenetic activity of anti-ERα Abs and their implication in drug resistance.
Collapse
|
10
|
Biegon A, Shroyer KR, Franceschi D, Dhawan J, Tahmi M, Pareto D, Bonilla P, Airola K, Cohen J. Initial Studies with 11C-Vorozole PET Detect Overexpression of Intratumoral Aromatase in Breast Cancer. J Nucl Med 2019; 61:807-813. [PMID: 31757843 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.119.231589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aromatase inhibitors are the mainstay of hormonal therapy in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, although the response rate is just over 50% and in vitro studies suggest that only two thirds of postmenopausal breast tumors overexpress aromatase. The goal of the present study was to validate and optimize PET with 11C-vorozole for measuring aromatase expression in postmenopausal breast cancer in vivo. Methods: Ten newly diagnosed postmenopausal women with biopsy-confirmed breast cancer were administered 11C-vorozole intravenously, and PET emission data were collected between 40 and 90 min after injection. Tracer injection and scanning were repeated 2 h after ingestion of 2.5 mg of letrozole. Mean and maximal SUVs and ratios to nontumor tissue in the contralateral breast were determined at baseline and after letrozole. Biopsy specimens from the same tumors were stained for aromatase using immunohistochemistry and evaluated for stain intensity and the percentage of immune-positive cells. Results: Seven of the 10 women (70%) demonstrated increased mean focal uptake of tracer (SUV ratio > 1.1) coinciding with the mammographic location of the lesion, whereas the other 3 women (30%) did not (SUV ratio ≤ 1.0). All patients with an SUV ratio above 1.1 had mean SUVs above 2.4, and there was no overlap (SUV ratio ≤ 1; SUVmean, 0.8-1.8). The SUV ratio relative to breast around tumor was indistinguishable from the ratio to contralateral breast. Pretreatment with letrozole reduced tracer uptake in most subjects, although the percentage of blocking varied across and within tumors. Tumors with a high SUV in vivo also showed a high immunohistochemical staining intensity. Conclusion: PET with 11C-vorozole is a useful technique for measuring aromatase expression in individual breast lesions, enabling noninvasive quantitative measurement of baseline and posttreatment aromatase availability in primary tumors and metastatic lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anat Biegon
- Department of Radiology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Kenneth R Shroyer
- Department of Pathology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Dinko Franceschi
- Department of Radiology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Jasbeer Dhawan
- Department of Radiology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Mouna Tahmi
- Department of Radiology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Deborah Pareto
- Radiology Department, Vall d'Hebron University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Patrick Bonilla
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Nassau University Medical Center, East Meadow, New York; and
| | - Krystal Airola
- Department of Radiology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Jules Cohen
- Hematology/Oncology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gogola J, Hoffmann M, Ptak A. Persistent endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in human follicular fluid stimulate the proliferation of granulosa tumor spheroids via GPR30 and IGF1R but not via the classic estrogen receptors. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 217:100-110. [PMID: 30414542 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have found that women have detectable levels of organic pollutants such as hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 2,2-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), polychlorinated biphenyl 153 (PCB153), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in their follicular fluid. Thus, these compounds may directly affect the function of granulosa cells within the ovary and may promote granulosa cell tumor (GCT) progression. Two human GCT cell lines, COV434 and KGN, have been used as in vitro model systems to represent juvenile (JGCT) and adult (AGCT) GCT subtypes, respectively. In this study, we found that basal expression of estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1), estrogen receptor 2 (ESR2), and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) was higher in the AGCT subtype than in the JGCT subtype. All of the compounds acted as mitogenic factors at low nanomolar concentrations in the JGCT and AGCT forms of GCT. Interestingly, PFOA, PFOS, and HCB stimulated cell proliferation through IGF1R, whereas p,p'-DDE acted through GPR30. Moreover, a mixture of the five compounds also significantly stimulated granulosa cell proliferation; however, the observed effect was lower than predicted. Interestingly, the proliferative effect of a mixture of these compounds was dependent on IGF1R and GPR30 but independent of the classic estrogen receptors. Taken together, our results demonstrate for the first time that mixtures of persistent organic pollutants present in follicular fluids may induce granulosa tumor progression through IGF1R and GPR30 by acting as mitogenic factors in granulosa cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Gogola
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marta Hoffmann
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Ptak
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhao K, Li Z, Tian H. Twenty-gene-based prognostic model predicts lung adenocarcinoma survival. Onco Targets Ther 2018; 11:3415-3424. [PMID: 29928133 PMCID: PMC6003292 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s158638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Lung adenocarcinoma (LAC) accounts for more than a half of non-small cell lung cancer with high morbidity and mortality. Progression of treatment has not accelerated the improvement of its prognosis. Hence, it is an urgent need to develop novel biomarkers for its early diagnosis and treatment. Materials and methods In this study, we proposed to identify LAC survival-related genes through comprehensive analysis of large-scale gene expression profiles. LAC gene expression data sets were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in LAC compared with adjacent normal lung tissues was first performed followed by univariate Cox regression analysis to obtain genes that are significantly associated with LAC survival (SurGenes). Then, we conducted sure independence screening (SIS) for SurGenes to identify more reliable genes and the prognostic signature for LAC survival prediction. Another two lung cancer data sets from TCGA and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) were used for the validation of prognostic signature. Results A total of 20 genes were obtained, which were significantly associated with the overall survival (OS) of LAC patients. The prognostic signature, a weighted linear combination of the 20 genes, could successfully separate LAC samples with high OS from those with low OS and had robust predictive performance for survival (training set: p-value <2.2×10−16; testing set: p-value =2.04×10−5, area under the curve (AUC) =0.615). Combined with GEO data set, we obtained four genes, that is, FUT4, SLC25A42, IGFBP1, and KLHDC8B that are found in both the prognostic signature and DEGs of LAC in GEO data set. Discussion The prognostic signature combined with multi-gene expression profiles provides a moderate OS prediction for LAC and should be helpful for appropriate treatment method selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China.,Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zibo Central Hospital, Zibo, Shandong Province, China
| | - Zulei Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zibo Central Hospital, Zibo, Shandong Province, China
| | - Hui Tian
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lundqvist J, Kirkegaard T, Laenkholm AV, Duun-Henriksen AK, Bak M, Feldman D, Lykkesfeldt AE. Williams syndrome transcription factor (WSTF) acts as an activator of estrogen receptor signaling in breast cancer cells and the effect can be abrogated by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 177:171-178. [PMID: 28610873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A majority of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancers are growth stimulated by estrogens. The ability to inhibit the ER signaling pathway is therefore of critical importance in the current treatment of ER+ breast cancers. It has been reported that 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 down-regulates the expression of the CYP19A1 gene, encoding the aromatase enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of estradiol. Furthermore, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 has also been reported to down-regulate the expression of estrogen receptor α (ERα), the main mediator of ER signaling. This study reports a novel transcription factor critical to 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated regulation of estrogenic signaling in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. We have investigated the molecular mechanisms for the 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated down-regulation of CYP19A1 and ERα gene expression in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells and found that Williams syndrome transcription factor (WSTF) plays a key role by binding to the promoters of CYP19A1 and ERα. Although sometimes reported as an inhibitor of gene expression, we found that WSTF acts as an activator of the promoter activity of both CYP19A1 and ERα. Silencing of WSTF by siRNA transfection resulted in decreased aromatase-dependent cell growth as well as decreased ER signaling in the cells. When cells were treated with 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, WSTF was dissociated from the promoters and the promoter activities of CYP19A1 and ERα were decreased. We have measured the expression of WSTF in ER-positive tumor-samples from breast cancer patients and found that WSTF is expressed in the majority of the investigated samples and that the expression is higher in cancer tissue than in normal tissue. However, we were not able to show any significant association between the WSTF expression in the tumor and the disease free and overall survival in this patient group who have received adjuvant tamoxifen treatment, nor between the WSTF expression and the expression of ERα, progesterone receptor or HER2. The major conclusions of this study are that WSTF acts as an activator of ER signaling in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, that this action can be inhibited by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and that the expression of WSTF is higher in breast cancer tissue than in normal tissue. WSTF may by a new target for treatment of estrogen-dependent breast cancer cell growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lundqvist
- Breast Cancer Group, Cell Death and Metabolism, Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, P.O. Box 7028, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Tove Kirkegaard
- Breast Cancer Group, Cell Death and Metabolism, Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne-Vibeke Laenkholm
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Zealand University Hospital, Ingemannsvej 48, DK-4200 Slagelse, Denmark
| | - Anne Katrine Duun-Henriksen
- Statistics, Bioinformatics and Registry, Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Bak
- Department of Pathology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, DK-5000 Denmark
| | - David Feldman
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, United States
| | - Anne E Lykkesfeldt
- Breast Cancer Group, Cell Death and Metabolism, Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kim HG, Jin SW, Kim YA, Khanal T, Lee GH, Kim SJ, Rhee SD, Chung YC, Hwang YJ, Jeong TC, Jeong HG. Leptin induces CREB-dependent aromatase activation through COX-2 expression in breast cancer cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 106:232-241. [PMID: 28571770 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Leptin plays a key role in the control of adipocyte formation, as well as in the associated regulation of energy intake and expenditure. The goal of this study was to determine if leptin-induced aromatase enhances estrogen production and induces tumor cell growth stimulation. To this end, breast cancer cells were incubated with leptin in the absence or presence of inhibitor pretreatment, and changes in aromatase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression were evaluated at the mRNA and protein levels. Transient transfection assays were performed to examine the aromatase and COX-2 gene promoter activities and immunoblot analysis was used to examine protein expression. Leptin induced aromatase expression, estradiol production, and promoter activity in breast cancer cells. Protein levels of phospho-STAT3, PKA, Akt, ERK, and JNK were increased by leptin. Leptin also significantly increased cAMP levels, cAMP response element (CRE) activation, and CREB phosphorylation. In addition, leptin induced COX-2 expression, promoter activity, and increased the production of prostaglandin E2. Finally, a COX-2 inhibitor and aromatase inhibitor suppressed leptin-induced cell proliferation in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Together, our data show that leptin increased aromatase expression in breast cancer cells, which was correlated with COX-2 upregulation, mediated through CRE activation and cooperation among multiple signaling pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Gyun Kim
- Department Research Planning Team, Mokpo Marine Food-industry Research Center, Mokpo, Republic of Korea; Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Woo Jin
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong An Kim
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Tilak Khanal
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Gi Ho Lee
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Jong Kim
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Dal Rhee
- Research Center for Drug Discovery Technology, Division of Bio & Drug Discovery, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Chul Chung
- Department of Food Science, International University of Korea, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Jung Hwang
- Department of Food Science, International University of Korea, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Cheon Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Gwang Jeong
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Hoffmann M, Fiedor E, Ptak A. Bisphenol A and its derivatives tetrabromobisphenol A and tetrachlorobisphenol A induce apelin expression and secretion in ovarian cancer cells through a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-dependent mechanism. Toxicol Lett 2017; 269:15-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 01/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
16
|
Zhang X, Harbeck N, Jeschke U, Doisneau-Sixou S. Influence of vitamin D signaling on hormone receptor status and HER2 expression in breast cancer. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2016; 143:1107-1122. [PMID: 28025696 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-016-2325-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Breast cancer is a significant global public health issue. It is the leading cause of death among women around the world, with an incidence increasing annually. In recent years, there has been more and more information in the literature regarding a protective role of vitamin D in cancer. Increasingly preclinical and clinical studies suggest that vitamin D optimal levels can reduce the risk of breast cancer development and regulate cancer-related pathways. METHOD In this review, we focus on the importance of vitamin D in breast cancers, discussing especially the influence of vitamin D signaling on estrogen receptor and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), two major biomarkers of breast cancer today. CONCLUSION We discuss the possibility of actual and future targeted therapeutic approaches for vitamin D signaling in breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi Zhang
- Brustzentrum der Universität München, Klinik und Poliklinik für Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe, Campus Innenstadt, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Maistraße 11, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadia Harbeck
- Brustzentrum der Universität München, Klinik und Poliklinik für Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe, Campus Innenstadt, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Maistraße 11, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Udo Jeschke
- Brustzentrum der Universität München, Klinik und Poliklinik für Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe, Campus Innenstadt, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Maistraße 11, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Sophie Doisneau-Sixou
- Brustzentrum der Universität München, Klinik und Poliklinik für Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe, Campus Innenstadt, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Maistraße 11, 80337, Munich, Germany. .,Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, 31062, Toulouse Cedex 09, France.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kim S, Campbell J, Yoo W, Taylor JA, Sandler DP. Systemic Levels of Estrogens and PGE 2 Synthesis in Relation to Postmenopausal Breast Cancer Risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2016; 26:383-388. [PMID: 27864342 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-16-0556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) induces aromatase expression in adipose tissue, leading to increased estrogen production that may promote the development and progression of breast cancer. However, few studies have simultaneously investigated systemic levels of PGE2 and estrogen in relation to postmenopausal breast cancer risk.Methods: Here, we determined urinary estrogen metabolites (EM) using mass spectrometry in a case-cohort study (295 incident breast cancer cases and 294 subcohort members), and using linear regression estimated the effect of urinary levels of a major PGE2 metabolite (PGE-M) on EMs. HRs for the risk of developing breast cancer in relation to PGE-M and EMs were compared between Cox regression models with and without mutual adjustment.Results: PGE-M was a significant predictor of estrone (E1), but not estradiol (E2) levels in multivariable analysis. Elevated E2 levels were associated with an increased risk of developing breast cancer [HRQ5vs.Q1, 1.54; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.01-2.35], and this association remained unchanged after adjustment for PGE-M (HRQ5vs.Q1, 1.52; 95% CI, 0.99-2.33). Similarly, elevated levels of PGE-M were associated with increased risk of developing breast cancer (HRQ4vs.Q1, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.01-4.29), and this association was only nominally changed after consideration of E1 or E2 levels.Conclusions: Urinary levels of PGE-M and estrogens were independently associated with future risk of developing breast cancer among these postmenopausal women.Impact: Increased breast cancer risk associated with PGE-M might not be fully explained by the estrogens-breast cancer association alone but also by additional effects related to inflammation. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 26(3); 383-8. ©2016 AACR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sangmi Kim
- Medical College of Georgia, Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology/Oncology, Augusta University Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, Georgia.
| | - Jeff Campbell
- Medical College of Georgia, Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology/Oncology, Augusta University Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Wonsuk Yoo
- Institute of Public and Preventive Health - Data Coordinating Center, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Jack A Taylor
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Dale P Sandler
- Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Manna PR, Molehin D, Ahmed AU. Dysregulation of Aromatase in Breast, Endometrial, and Ovarian Cancers: An Overview of Therapeutic Strategies. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2016; 144:487-537. [PMID: 27865465 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Aromatase is the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of estrogens, which play crucial roles on a spectrum of developmental and physiological processes. The biological actions of estrogens are classically mediated by binding to two estrogen receptors (ERs), ERα and ERβ. Encoded by the cytochrome P450, family 19, subfamily A, polypeptide 1 (CYP19A1) gene, aromatase is expressed in a wide variety of tissues, as well as benign and malignant tumors, and is regulated in a pathway- and tissue-specific manner. Overexpression of aromatase, leading to elevated systemic levels of estrogen, is unequivocally linked to the pathogenesis and growth of a number malignancies, including breast, endometrium, and ovarian cancers. Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are routinely used to treat estrogen-dependent breast cancers in postmenopausal women; however, their roles in endometrial and ovarian cancers remain obscure. While AI therapy is effective in hormone sensitive cancers, they diminish estrogen production throughout the body and, thus, generate undesirable side effects. Despite the effectiveness of AI therapy, resistance to endocrine therapy remains a major concern and is the leading cause of cancer death. Considerable advances, toward mitigating these issues, have evolved in conjunction with a number of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors for countering an assortment of diseases and cancers, including the aforesaid malignancies. HDACs are a family of enzymes that are frequently dysregulated in human tumors. This chapter will discuss the current understanding of aberrant regulation and expression of aromatase in breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers, and potential therapeutic strategies for prevention and treatment of these life-threatening diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P R Manna
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, United States.
| | - D Molehin
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - A U Ahmed
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, Lubbock, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Song J, Wu Z, Wangtrakuldee B, Choi SR, Zha Z, Ploessl K, Mach RH, Kung H. 4-(((4-Iodophenyl)methyl)-4H-1,2,4-triazol-4-ylamino)-benzonitrile: A Potential Imaging Agent for Aromatase. J Med Chem 2016; 59:9370-9380. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b00849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Song
- Beijing
Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Zehui Wu
- Beijing
Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Beau Wangtrakuldee
- Department
of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics and the Center
for Excellence in Environmental Toxicology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 1315 BRBII/III, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6160, United States
| | - Seok Rye Choi
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Five Eleven Pharma Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Zhihao Zha
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Karl Ploessl
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Five Eleven Pharma Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Robert H Mach
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Hank Kung
- Beijing
Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Department
of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Market Street, Suite 305, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Five Eleven Pharma Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pontis A, D'Alterio MN, Pirarba S, de Angelis C, Tinelli R, Angioni S. Adenomyosis: a systematic review of medical treatment. Gynecol Endocrinol 2016; 32:696-700. [PMID: 27379972 DOI: 10.1080/09513590.2016.1197200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenomyosis is a heterogeneous gynaecologic condition with a range of clinical presentations, the most common being heavy menstrual bleeding and dysmenorrhoea; however, patients can also be asymptomatic. Several studies support the theory that adenomyosis results from invasion of the endometrium into the myometrium, causing alterations in the junctional zone. These changes are commonly seen on imaging studies, such as transvaginal ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. The aim of this review is to discuss the medical approach to the management of adenomyosis symptoms, including pain and abnormal uterine bleeding. The standard treatment of adenomyosis is hysterectomy, but there is no medical therapy to treat the symptoms of adenomyosis while still allowing patients to conceive. Medical therapies using suppressive hormonal treatments, such as continuous use of oral contraceptive pills, high-dose progestins, selective oestrogen receptor modulators, selective progesterone receptor modulators, the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device, aromatase inhibitors, danazol, and gonadotrophin receptor hormone agonists can temporarily induce regression of adenomyosis and improve the symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Pontis
- a U.O.C. Gynecology and Obstetrics, Ospedale San Francesco , Nuoro , Italy
| | - M N D'Alterio
- b Department of Surgical Sciences , Section of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Cagliari , Monserrato , Italy
| | - S Pirarba
- b Department of Surgical Sciences , Section of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Cagliari , Monserrato , Italy
| | - C de Angelis
- c Casa di Cura Accreditata Fabia Mater , Roma , Italy , and
| | - R Tinelli
- d Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Perrino Hospital , Brindisi , Italy
| | - S Angioni
- b Department of Surgical Sciences , Section of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Cagliari , Monserrato , Italy
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Evaluation of Local CYP17A1 and CYP19A1 Expression Levels as Prognostic Factors in Postmenopausal Invasive Ductal Breast Cancer Cases. Biochem Genet 2016; 54:784-802. [PMID: 27365044 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-016-9756-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
There is growing attention focused on local estrogen production in the breast tissue and its possible role in breast cancer initiation and progression. Understanding the underlying mechanisms for estrogen synthesis and the microenvironment consisting of tumor and its surrounding adipose tissue might open new avenues in breast cancer prevention, prognosis and treatment. In order to obtain insight, we compared peritumoral and tumor tissue expressions of CYP17A1 and CYP19A1 genes, which play an important role in estrogen biosynthesis. The paired tissue samples of 20 postmenopausal ER+/PR+ patients diagnosed with invasive ductal breast cancer were studied. In addition, 12 breast tissue samples obtained from premenopausal women without a history of breast cancer were also investigated as representative of normal conditions. Peritumoral adipose tissues expressed CYP19A1 approximately threefold higher than tumor itself (p = 0.001). A nonsignificant trend toward low expression of CYP17A1 was observed in peritumoral compared to tumor tissue (p = 0.687). Clinicopathological parameters and patient characteristics which are accepted as risk factors for breast cancer were also associated with individual and combined expressions of CYP17A1 and CYP19A1. This study offers that evaluation of CYP17A1 and CYP19A1 local expression levels might be useful for deciding on personalized treatment approaches and more accurate diagnosis, when evaluated together with several clinicopathological and disease risk factors. Considering the key role of these CYPs in estrogen synthesis, determining their expression levels may be useful as a postdiagnostic marker and for choosing the right treatment method in addition to the conventional approach.
Collapse
|
22
|
Biegon A. In vivo visualization of aromatase in animals and humans. Front Neuroendocrinol 2016; 40:42-51. [PMID: 26456904 PMCID: PMC4783227 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase catalyzes the last and obligatory step in the biosynthesis of estrogens across species. In vivo visualization of aromatase can be performed using positron emission tomography (PET) with radiolabeled aromatase inhibitors such as [(11)C]vorozole. PET studies in rats, monkeys and healthy human subjects demonstrate widespread but heterogeneous aromatase availability in brain and body, which appears to be regulated in a species, sex and region-specific manner. Thus, aromatase availability is high in brain amygdala and in ovaries of all species examined to date, with males demonstrating higher levels than females in all comparable organs. However, the highest concentrations of aromatase in the human brain are found in specific nuclei of the thalamus while the highest levels in rats and monkeys are found in the amygdala. Regional brain aromatase availability is increased by androgens and inhibited by nicotine. Future studies may improve diagnosis and treatment in brain disorders and cancers overexpressing aromatase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anat Biegon
- Department of Neurology, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY 11794-2565, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Manna PR, Stetson CL, Slominski AT, Pruitt K. Role of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in health and disease. Endocrine 2016; 51:7-21. [PMID: 26271515 PMCID: PMC4707056 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-015-0715-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Steroid hormones are an important class of regulatory molecules that are synthesized in steroidogenic cells of the adrenal, ovary, testis, placenta, brain, and skin, and influence a spectrum of developmental and physiological processes. The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) predominantly mediates the rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis, i.e., the transport of the substrate of all steroid hormones, cholesterol, from the outer to the inner mitochondrial membrane. At the inner membrane, cytochrome P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme cleaves the cholesterol side chain to form the first steroid, pregnenolone, which is converted by a series of enzymes to various steroid hormones in specific tissues. Both basic and clinical evidence have demonstrated the crucial involvement of the STAR protein in the regulation of steroid biosynthesis. Multiple levels of regulation impinge on STAR action. Recent findings demonstrate that hormone-sensitive lipase, through its action on the hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters, plays an important role in regulating STAR expression and steroidogenesis which involve the liver X receptor pathway. Activation of the latter influences macrophage cholesterol efflux that is a key process in the prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Appropriate regulation of steroid hormones is vital for proper functioning of many important biological activities, which are also paramount for geriatric populations to live longer and healthier. This review summarizes the current level of understanding on tissue-specific and hormone-induced regulation of STAR expression and steroidogenesis, and provides insights into a number of cholesterol and/or steroid coupled physiological and pathophysiological consequences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pulak R Manna
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, 79430, USA.
| | - Cloyce L Stetson
- Department of Dermatology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, 79430, USA
| | - Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Dermatology, VA Medical Center, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Kevin Pruitt
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX, 79430, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Davis SR, Wahlin-Jacobsen S. Testosterone in women--the clinical significance. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015; 3:980-92. [PMID: 26358173 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-8587(15)00284-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone is an essential hormone for women, with physiological actions mediated directly or via aromatisation to oestradiol throughout the body. Despite the crucial role of testosterone and the high circulating concentrations of this hormone relative to oestradiol in women, studies of its action and the effects of testosterone deficiency and replacement in women are scarce. The primary indication for the prescription of testosterone for women is loss of sexual desire, which causes affected women substantial concern. That no formulation has been approved for this purpose has not impeded the widespread use of testosterone by women--either off-label or as compounded therapy. Observational studies indicate that testosterone has favourable cardiovascular effects measured by surrogate outcomes; however, associations between endogenous testosterone and the risk of cardiovascular disease and total mortality, particularly in older women, are yet to be established. Adverse cardiovascular effects have not been seen in studies of transdermal testosterone therapy in women. Clinical trials suggest that exogenous testosterone enhances cognitive performance and improves musculoskeletal health in postmenopausal women. Unmet needs include the availability of approved testosterone formulations for women and studies to elucidate the contribution of testosterone to cardiovascular, cognitive, and musculoskeletal health and the risk of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Davis
- Women's Health Research Program, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Sarah Wahlin-Jacobsen
- Department of Sexological Research, Sexological Clinic, Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Zhao PL, Zhang QF, Yan LY, Huang S, Chen Y, Qiao J. Functional investigation on aromatase in endometrial hyperplasia in polycystic ovary syndrome cases. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 15:8975-9. [PMID: 25374239 DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.20.8975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the possible significance of aromatase P450 in endometrial hyperplasia with a background of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). METHODS Immunohistochemistry was used to determine the expression of aromatase P450 in endometrium of PCOS patients. Semiquantitative analysis of aromatase P450 expression of mRNA and protein level wasalso carried out by real-time quantitative RT-PCR method. After endometrial cells were stimulated by testosterone and letrozole in vitro, the estradiol (E2) level was determined, and the expression of cell aromatase P450 mRNA was assessed. RESULTS The aromatase P450 mRNA level was increased in endometria of PCOS patients. When endometrial cells were cultured with 10-6 M testosterone, the E2 level in the culture medium increased. An inhibitory effect on E2 generation and expression of aromatase P450 mRNA was observed when the endometrial cells were treated with 10(-5) M letrozole. CONCLUSIONS There is an increased expression of aromatase P450 in PCOS patient endometrium. Androgen stimulation could enhance the synthesis of aromatase P450 mRNA and the production of E2 in endometrial cells in vitro while letrozole could do the reverse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pan-Lin Zhao
- Reproductive Center, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China E-mail :
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Biegon A, Alexoff DL, Kim SW, Logan J, Pareto D, Schlyer D, Wang GJ, Fowler JS. Aromatase imaging with [N-methyl-11C]vorozole PET in healthy men and women. J Nucl Med 2015; 56:580-5. [PMID: 25698781 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.114.150383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Aromatase, the last and obligatory enzyme catalyzing estrogen biosynthesis from androgenic precursors, can be labeled in vivo with (11)C-vorozole. Aromatase inhibitors are widely used in breast cancer and other endocrine conditions. The present study aimed to provide baseline information defining aromatase distribution in healthy men and women, against which its perturbation in pathologic situations can be studied. METHODS (11)C-vorozole (111-296 MBq/subject) was injected intravenously in 13 men and 20 women (age range, 23-67 y). PET data were acquired over a 90-min period. Each subject had 4 scans, 2 per day separated by 2-6 wk, including brain and torso or pelvis scans. Young women were scanned at 2 discrete phases of the menstrual cycle (midcycle and late luteal). Men and postmenopausal women were also scanned after pretreatment with a clinical dose of the aromatase inhibitor letrozole. Time-activity curves were obtained, and standardized uptake values (SUV) were calculated for major organs including brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, muscle, bone, and male and female reproductive organs (penis, testes, uterus, ovaries). Organ and whole-body radiation exposures were calculated using OLINDA software. RESULTS Liver uptake was higher than uptake in any other organ but was not blocked by pretreatment with letrozole. Mean SUVs were higher in men than in women, and brain uptake was blocked by letrozole. Male brain SUVs were also higher than SUVs in any other organ (ranging from 0.48 ± 0.05 in lungs to 1.5 ± 0.13 in kidneys). Mean ovarian SUVs (3.08 ± 0.7) were comparable to brain levels and higher than in any other organ. Furthermore, ovarian SUVs in young women around the time of ovulation (midcycle) were significantly higher than those measured in the late luteal phase, whereas aging and cigarette smoking reduced (11)C-vorozole uptake. CONCLUSION PET with (11)C-vorozole is useful for assessing physiologic changes in estrogen synthesis capacity in the human body. Baseline levels in breasts, lungs, and bones are low, supporting further investigation of this tracer as a new tool for detection of aromatase-overexpressing primary tumors or metastases in these organs and optimization of treatment in cancer and other disorders in which aromatase inhibitors are useful.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anat Biegon
- Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York
| | | | - Sung Won Kim
- National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Jean Logan
- New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Deborah Pareto
- Institut de Recerca Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Alta Tecnologia, Barcelona, Spain; and
| | | | - Gene-Jack Wang
- National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Joanna S Fowler
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Brown KA. Impact of obesity on mammary gland inflammation and local estrogen production. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:183-9. [PMID: 24935438 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9321-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity rates have risen dramatically over the past century, having nearly doubled since 1980. Changes in diet and lifestyle have contributed to this occurrence in younger women, and changing hormone levels during the menopausal transition has no doubt exacerbated the issue in older women. The relationship between adiposity and breast cancer is clear in postmenopausal women, and is intimately linked to the increased expression of aromatase and the production of estrogens within the breast adipose. This, in turn, is highly dependent on the localized chronic inflammation observed in obese adipose. This review will therefore explore the relationship between obesity, inflammation and estrogens, with a particular focus on the molecular regulation of aromatase in the postmenopausal breast in the context of obesity and breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristy A Brown
- Metabolism & Cancer Laboratory, MIMR-PHI Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, Australia,
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Liang Y, Besch-Williford C, Aebi JD, Mafuvadze B, Cook MT, Zou X, Hyder SM. Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors as potent novel anti-cancer agents: suppression of hormone-dependent breast cancer by the oxidosqualene cyclase inhibitor RO 48-8071. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2014; 146:51-62. [PMID: 24878988 PMCID: PMC11121502 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-014-2996-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In most human breast cancers, tumor cell proliferation is estrogen dependent. Although hormone-responsive tumors initially respond to anti-estrogen therapies, most of them eventually develop resistance. Our goal was to identify alternative targets that might be regulated to control breast cancer progression. Sulforhodamine B assay was used to measure the viability of cultured human breast cancer cell lines exposed to various inhibitors. Protein expression in whole-cell extracts was determined by Western blotting. BT-474 tumor xenografts in nude mice were used for in vivo studies of tumor progression. RO 48-8071 ([4'-[6-(Allylmethylamino)hexyloxy]-4-bromo-2'-fluorobenzophenone fumarate]; RO), a small-molecule inhibitor of oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC, a key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis), potently reduced breast cancer cell viability. In vitro exposure of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive human breast cancer cells to pharmacological levels of RO or a dose close to the IC50 for OSC (nM) reduced cell viability. Administration of RO to mice with BT-474 tumor xenografts prevented tumor growth, with no apparent toxicity. RO degraded ERα while concomitantly inducing the anti-proliferative protein ERβ. Two other cholesterol-lowering drugs, Fluvastatin and Simvastatin, were less effective in reducing breast cancer cell viability and were found not to induce ERβ. ERβ inhibition or knockdown prevented RO-dependent loss of cell viability. Importantly, RO had no effect on the viability of normal human mammary cells. RO is a potent inhibitor of hormone-dependent human breast cancer cell proliferation. The anti-tumor properties of RO appear to be in part due to an off-target effect that increases the ratio of ERβ/ERα in breast cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yayun Liang
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Liu E, Samad F, Mueller BM. Local adipocytes enable estrogen-dependent breast cancer growth: Role of leptin and aromatase. Adipocyte 2013; 2:165-9. [PMID: 23991363 PMCID: PMC3756105 DOI: 10.4161/adip.23645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of the microenvironment in breast cancer growth and progression is becoming increasingly clear. Adipocytes are abundant in the mammary microenvironment, and recent studies show that adipocytes produce endocrine, inflammatory, and angiogenic factors that have tremendous potential to affect adjacent breast cancer cells. Yet, the extent to which local adipocyte function contributes to the pathogenesis of breast cancer is largely unexplored. Here we describe a unique animal model to study interactions between adipocytes and breast cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment. Our results suggest that local interactions between adipocytes and tumor cells are sufficient to promote the growth of hormone-dependent breast cancer. We also demonstrate that leptin signaling in adipocytes induces aromatase expression, expected to result in higher estrogen in the microenvironment thus enabling mammary tumorigenesis.
Collapse
|
30
|
Tilghman SL, Townley I, Zhong Q, Carriere PP, Zou J, Llopis SD, Preyan LC, Williams CC, Skripnikova E, Bratton MR, Zhang Q, Wang G. Proteomic signatures of acquired letrozole resistance in breast cancer: suppressed estrogen signaling and increased cell motility and invasiveness. Mol Cell Proteomics 2013; 12:2440-55. [PMID: 23704778 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m112.023861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Aromatase inhibitors, such as letrozole, have become the first-line treatment for postmenopausal women with estrogen-dependent breast cancer. However, acquired resistance remains a major clinical obstacle. Previous studies demonstrated constitutive activation of the MAPK signaling, overexpression of HER2, and down-regulation of aromatase and ERα in letrozole-resistant breast cancer cells. Given the complex signaling network involved in letrozole-refractory breast cancer and the lack of effective treatment for hormone resistance, further investigation of aromatase inhibitor resistance by a novel systems biology approach may reveal previously unconsidered molecular changes that could be utilized as therapeutic targets. This study was undertaken to characterize for the first time global proteomic alterations occurring in a letrozole-resistant cell line. A quantitative proteomic analysis of the whole cell lysates of LTLT-Ca (resistant) versus AC-1 cells (sensitive) was performed to identify significant protein expression changes. A total of 1743 proteins were identified and quantified, of which 411 were significantly up-regulated and 452 significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05, fold change > 1.20). Bioinformatics analysis revealed that acquired letrozole resistance is associated with a hormone-independent, more aggressive phenotype. LTLT-Ca cells exhibited 84% and 138% increase in migration and invasion compared with the control cells. The ROCK inhibitor partially abrogated the enhanced migration and invasion of the letrozole-resistant cells. Flow cytometric analyses also demonstrated an increase in vimentin and twist expression in letrozole-resistance cells, suggesting an onset of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Moreover, targeted gene expression arrays confirmed a 28-fold and sixfold up-regulation of EGFR and HER2, respectively, whereas ERα and pS2 were dramatically reduced by 28-fold and 1100-fold, respectively. Taken together, our study revealed global proteomic signatures of a letrozole-resistant cell line associated with hormone independence, enhanced cell motility, EMT and the potential values of several altered proteins as novel prognostic markers or therapeutic targets for letrozole resistant breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Syreeta L Tilghman
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, LA 70125, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Kim S, Taylor JA, Milne GL, Sandler DP. Association between urinary prostaglandin E2 metabolite and breast cancer risk: a prospective, case-cohort study of postmenopausal women. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2013; 6:511-8. [PMID: 23636050 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-13-0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Overweight or obese women are at increased risk of developing and dying from breast cancer. Obesity-driven inflammation may stimulate prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-mediated aromatase activation and estrogen biosynthesis in breast tissues. We hypothesized that increased production of PGE2 would contribute to elevated breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. We carried out a case-cohort study with 307 incident breast cancer cases and 300 subcohort members from the Sister Study cohort. HRs and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated for the association between urinary levels of a major PGE2 metabolite (PGE-M) and breast cancer risk using Prentice's pseudo-likelihood approach. Several lifestyle factors were associated with urinary levels of PGE-M: smoking, high-saturated fat diet, and obesity increased urinary PGE-M, and use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID) decreased urinary PGE-M. Although there was no association between urinary PGE-M and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the overall analysis or among regular users of NSAIDs, there was a positive association among postmenopausal women who did not regularly use NSAIDs with HRs of 2.1 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0-4.3]; 2.0 (95% CI: 1.0-3.9); and 2.2 (95% CI: 1.1-4.3) for the second, third, and highest quartiles of PGE-M. Our findings suggest a link between systemic PGE2 formation and postmenopausal breast cancer, and a possible modification of the association by lifestyle and pharmacologic interventions. If confirmed in larger studies, these results may have useful implications for the development of preventive strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sangmi Kim
- Georgia Regents University Cancer Center, Medical College of Georgia, Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, 1410 Laney Walker Blvd., Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Duncan KA, Walters BJ, Saldanha CJ. Traumatized and inflamed--but resilient: glial aromatization and the avian brain. Horm Behav 2013; 63:208-15. [PMID: 22414444 PMCID: PMC9366899 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Revised: 02/26/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Steroids like estrogens have potent effects on the vertebrate brain, and are provided to neural targets from peripheral and central sources. Estradiol synthesized within the vertebrate CNS modulates neural structure and function, including the pathways involved in neuroprotection, and perhaps, neural repair. Specifically, aromatase; the enzyme responsible for the conversion of testosterone to estradiol, is upregulated in the avian and mammalian brain following disruption of the neuropil by multiple forms of perturbation including mechanical injury, ischemia and excitotoxicity. This injury induced aromatase expression is somewhat unique in that it occurs in astroglia rather than neurons, and is stimulated in response to factors associated with brain damage. In this review, we focus on the induction, expression and consequences of glial aromatization in the songbird brain. We begin with a review of the anatomical consequences of glial estrogen provision followed by a discussion of the cellular mechanisms whereby glial aromatization may affect injury-induced neuroplasticity. We then present the current status of our understanding regarding the inductive role of inflammatory processes in the transcription and translation of astrocytic aromatase. We consider the functional aspects of glial aromatization before concluding with unanswered questions and suggestions for future studies. Birds have long informed us about fundamental questions in endocrinology, immunology, and neuroplasticity; and their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics continue to provide an excellent system in which to learn about brain trauma, inflammation, and neuroprotection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelli A. Duncan
- Department of Biology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, USA
| | - Bradley J. Walters
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Colin J. Saldanha
- Department of Biology, American University, Washington DC, 20016, USA
- Department of Psychology, American University, Washington DC, 20016, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Basu S, Nachat-Kappes R, Caldefie-Chézet F, Vasson MP. Eicosanoids and adipokines in breast cancer: from molecular mechanisms to clinical considerations. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 18:323-60. [PMID: 22746381 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is one of the foremost risk factors for different types of malignancies, including breast cancer. Additional risk factors of this pathology in postmenopausal women are weight gain, obesity, estrogen secretion, and an imbalance in the production of adipokines, such as leptin and adiponectin. Various signaling products of transcription factor, nuclear factor-kappaB, in particular inflammatory eicosanoids, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and cytokines, are thought to be involved in chronic inflammation-induced cancer. Together, these key components have an influence on inflammatory reactions in malignant tissue damage when their levels are deregulated endogenously. Prostaglandins (PGs) are well recognized in inflammation and cancer, and they are solely biosynthesized through cyclooxygenases (COXs) from arachidonic acid. Concurrently, ROS give rise to bioactive isoprostanes from arachidonic acid precursors that are also involved in acute and chronic inflammation, but their specific characteristics in breast cancer are less demonstrated. Higher aromatase activity, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme, is intimately connected to tumor growth in the breast through estrogen synthesis, and is interrelated to COXs that catalyze the formation of both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory PGs such as PGE(2), PGF(2α), PGD(2), and PGJ(2) synchronously under the influence of specific mediators and downstream enzymes. Some of the latter compounds upsurge the intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate concentration and appear to be associated with estrogen synthesis. This review discusses the role of COX- and ROS-catalyzed eicosanoids and adipokines in breast cancer, and therefore ranges from their molecular mechanisms to clinical aspects to understand the impact of inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samar Basu
- Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Nutrition, University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Lundqvist J, Hansen SK, Lykkesfeldt AE. Vitamin D analog EB1089 inhibits aromatase expression by dissociation of comodulator WSTF from the CYP19A1 promoter-a new regulatory pathway for aromatase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2012; 1833:40-7. [PMID: 23085504 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The enzyme aromatase, encoded by the CYP19A1 gene, catalyzes the production of estrogens and inhibition of aromatase has therefore become one of the key strategies in breast cancer treatment. We have studied the effects of the vitamin D analog EB1089 on aromatase gene expression and enzyme activity in breast cancer cells. We found that EB1089 was able to decrease the gene expression and enzyme activity as well as inhibit aromatase-dependent cell growth. Furthermore, a low dose of EB1089 combined with low doses of clinically used aromatase inhibitors such as anastrozole, letrozole and exemestane were able to effectively inhibit aromatase-dependent growth of breast cancer cells. The molecular mechanism for this effect of EB1089 on the aromatase gene expression was investigated and we found that it is mediated by the vitamin D receptor (VDR), vitamin D receptor interacting repressor (VDIR) and Williams syndrome transcription factor (WSTF). ChIP and Re-ChIP assays revealed that EB1089 mediates dissociation of WSTF from the CYP19A1 promoter and thereby decreases the gene expression. Regulation of aromatase via WSTF has not been reported previously. Furthermore, gene silencing of WSTF results in decreased gene expression of CYP19A1 and aromatase activity, showing that WSTF is an interesting drug target for development of new anti-cancer drugs. In summary, we report that the vitamin D analog EB1089 is able to decrease the gene expression and enzyme activity of aromatase via a novel regulatory pathway for aromatase and suggest that EB1089 may be a new treatment option for estrogen dependent breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lundqvist
- Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Tsigginou A, Bimpaki E, Nesterova M, Horvath A, Boikos S, Lyssikatos C, Papageorgiou C, Dimitrakakis C, Rodolakis A, Stratakis C, Antsaklis A. PRKAR1A gene analysis and protein kinase A activity in endometrial tumors. Endocr Relat Cancer 2012; 19:457-62. [PMID: 22461635 PMCID: PMC4034123 DOI: 10.1530/erc-11-0328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
PRKAR1A codes for the type 1a regulatory subunit (RIα) of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), an enzyme with an important role in cell cycle regulation and proliferation. PKA dysregulation has been found in various tumors, and PRKAR1A-inactivating mutations have been reported in mostly endocrine neoplasias. In this study, we investigated PKA activity and the PRKAR1A gene in normal and tumor endometrium. Specimens were collected from 31 patients with endometrial cancer. We used as controls 41 samples of endometrium that were collected from surrounding normal tissues or from women undergoing gynecological operations for other reasons. In all samples, we sequenced the PRKAR1A-coding sequence and studied PKA subunit expression; we also determined PKA activity and cAMP binding. PRKAR1A mutations were not found. However, PKA regulatory subunit protein levels, both RIα and those of regulatory subunit type 2b (RIIβ), were lower in tumor samples; cAMP binding was also lower in tumors compared with normal endometrium (P<0.01). Free PKA activity was higher in tumor samples compared with that of control tissue (P<0.01). There are significant PKA enzymatic abnormalities in tumors of the endometrium compared with surrounding normal tissue; as these were not due to PRKAR1A mutations, other mechanisms affecting PKA function ought to be explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. Tsigginou
- 1st Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Athens University Medical School, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - E. Bimpaki
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - M. Nesterova
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - A. Horvath
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - S. Boikos
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - C. Lyssikatos
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
| | - C. Papageorgiou
- 1st Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Athens University Medical School, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - C. Dimitrakakis
- 1st Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Athens University Medical School, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
- Developmental Endocrinology Branch, NICHD, NIH, CRC, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - A. Rodolakis
- 1st Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Athens University Medical School, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - C.A. Stratakis
- Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NIH, Bethesda, MD20892, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: Constantine Stratakis, MD, D(med)Sci Section on Endocrinology & Genetics (SEGEN), Program on Developmental Endocrinology & Genetics (PDEGEN), NICHD, NIH, Building 10, CRC, Room 1-3330, 10 Center Dr., MSC1103, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, tel.. 301-496-4686/496-6683, fax 301-301-402-0574/480-0378,
| | - A. Antsaklis
- 1st Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Athens University Medical School, Alexandra Hospital, Athens, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Panda H, Chuang TD, Luo X, Chegini N. Endometrial miR-181a and miR-98 expression is altered during transition from normal into cancerous state and target PGR, PGRMC1, CYP19A1, DDX3X, and TIMP3. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97:E1316-26. [PMID: 22492871 PMCID: PMC3387391 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2012-1018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Evidence suggests that a number of microRNA (miRNA) are aberrantly expressed in endometrial disorders with potential posttranscriptional regulation of their specific target genes, including ovarian steroid receptors. OBJECTIVES Our objective was to assess the endometrial expression of miR-98 and miR-181a and their respective target genes, progesterone (P4) receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) and P4 receptor (PGR). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS We evaluated tissue expression and in vitro regulation at an academic university medical center in endometrial biopsies and endometrial tissues from follicular and luteal phases with and without exposure to hormonal therapies and grade I-III endometrial cancer (n = 52). INTERVENTIONS INTERVENTIONS included endometrial biopsies and in vitro transfection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES We evaluated expression and function of miR-98 and miR-181a. RESULTS Aberrant expression of miR-98 and miR-181a is associated with endometrial transition from normal into cancerous states, which to some extent is influenced by hormonal milieu, and exhibited an inverse relationship with PGMRC1 and PGR expression, respectively. Treatments of Ishikawa cells with 17β-estradiol, P4, or medroxyprogesterone acetate had limited effects on miR-98, miR-181a, and PGRMC1 expression, whereas 17β-estradiol treatment increased PGR expression. In Ishikawa cells, gain of function of miR-98 repressed PGRMC1 and CYP19A1, and miR-181a repressed PGR, DDX3X, and TIMP3 at mRNA and protein levels through direct interactions with their respective 3'-untranslated regions and CCNE1 through miR-181a-induced DDX3X repression, with miR-98 reducing the rate of cell proliferation as compared with controls. CONCLUSION miR-98 and miR-181a through their regulatory functions on PGRMC1, PGR, CYP19A1, TIMP3, and DDX3X expression may influence a wide range of endometrial cellular activities during normal menstrual cycle and transition into disease states, including endometrial cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Harekrushna Panda
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Zhao H, Pearson EK, Brooks DC, Coon JS, Chen D, Demura M, Zhang M, Clevenger CV, Xu X, Veenstra TD, Chatterton RT, DeMayo FJ, Bulun SE. A humanized pattern of aromatase expression is associated with mammary hyperplasia in mice. Endocrinology 2012; 153:2701-13. [PMID: 22508516 PMCID: PMC3359608 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase is essential for estrogen production and is the target of aromatase inhibitors, the most effective endocrine treatment for postmenopausal breast cancer. Peripheral tissues in women, including the breast, express aromatase via alternative promoters. Female mice lack the promoters that drive aromatase expression in peripheral tissues; thus, we generated a transgenic humanized aromatase (Arom(hum)) mouse line containing a single copy of the human aromatase gene to study the link between aromatase expression in mammary adipose tissue and breast pathology. Arom(hum) mice expressed human aromatase, driven by the proximal human promoters II and I.3 and the distal promoter I.4, in breast adipose fibroblasts and myoepithelial cells. Estrogen levels in the breast tissue of Arom(hum) mice were higher than in wild-type mice, whereas circulating levels were similar. Arom(hum) mice exhibited accelerated mammary duct elongation at puberty and an increased incidence of lobuloalveolar breast hyperplasia associated with increased signal transducer and activator of transcription-5 phosphorylation at 24 and 64 wk. Hyperplastic epithelial cells showed remarkably increased proliferative activity. Thus, we demonstrated that the human aromatase gene can be expressed via its native promoters in a wide variety of mouse tissues and in a distribution pattern nearly identical to that of humans. Locally increased tissue levels, but not circulating levels, of estrogen appeared to exert hyperplastic effects on the mammary gland. This novel mouse model will be valuable for developing tissue-specific aromatase inhibition strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhao
- Division of Reproductive Biology Research, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Zimmerman R, Peng DJ, Lanz H, Zhang YH, Danen-Van Oorschot A, Qu S, Backendorf C, Noteborn M. PP2A inactivation is a crucial step in triggering apoptin-induced tumor-selective cell killing. Cell Death Dis 2012; 3:e291. [PMID: 22476099 PMCID: PMC3358009 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2012.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Apoptin (apoptosis-inducing protein) harbors tumor-selective characteristics making it a potential safe and effective anticancer agent. Apoptin becomes phosphorylated and induces apoptosis in a large panel of human tumor but not normal cells. Here, we used an in vitro oncogenic transformation assay to explore minimal cellular factors required for the activation of apoptin. Flag-apoptin was introduced into normal fibroblasts together with the transforming SV40 large T antigen (SV40 LT) and SV40 small t antigen (SV40 ST) antigens. We found that nuclear expression of SV40 ST in normal cells was sufficient to induce phosphorylation of apoptin. Mutational analysis showed that mutations disrupting the binding of ST to protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) counteracted this effect. Knockdown of the ST-interacting PP2A-B56γ subunit in normal fibroblasts mimicked the effect of nuclear ST expression, resulting in induction of apoptin phosphorylation. The same effect was observed upon downregulation of the PP2A-B56δ subunit, which is targeted by protein kinase A (PKA). Apoptin interacts with the PKA-associating protein BCA3/AKIP1, and inhibition of PKA in tumor cells by treatment with H89 increased the phosphorylation of apoptin, whereas the PKA activator cAMP partially reduced it. We infer that inactivation of PP2A, in particular, of the B56γ and B56δ subunits is a crucial step in triggering apoptin-induced tumor-selective cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Zimmerman
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - D-J Peng
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - H Lanz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Y-H Zhang
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A Danen-Van Oorschot
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - S Qu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - C Backendorf
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - M Noteborn
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leiden Institute for Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Khan SI, Zhao J, Khan IA, Walker LA, Dasmahapatra AK. Potential utility of natural products as regulators of breast cancer-associated aromatase promoters. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2011; 9:91. [PMID: 21693041 PMCID: PMC3142499 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-9-91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aromatase, the key enzyme in estrogen biosynthesis, converts androstenedione to estrone and testosterone to estradiol. The enzyme is expressed in various tissues such as ovary, placenta, bone, brain, skin, and adipose tissue. Aromatase enzyme is encoded by a single gene CYP 19A1 and its expression is controlled by tissue-specific promoters. Aromatase mRNA is primarily transcribed from promoter I.4 in normal breast tissue and physiological levels of aromatase are found in breast adipose stromal fibroblasts. Under the conditions of breast cancer, as a result of the activation of a distinct set of aromatase promoters (I.3, II, and I.7) aromatase expression is enhanced leading to local overproduction of estrogen that promotes breast cancer. Aromatase is considered as a potential target for endocrine treatment of breast cancer but due to nonspecific reduction of aromatase activity in other tissues, aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are associated with undesirable side effects such as bone loss, and abnormal lipid metabolism. Inhibition of aromatase expression by inactivating breast tumor-specific aromatase promoters can selectively block estrogen production at the tumor site. Although several synthetic chemical compounds and nuclear receptor ligands are known to inhibit the activity of the tumor-specific aromatase promoters, further development of more specific and efficacious drugs without adverse effects is still warranted. Plants are rich in chemopreventive agents that have a great potential to be used in chemotherapy for hormone dependent breast cancer which could serve as a source for natural AIs. In this brief review, we summarize the studies on phytochemicals such as biochanin A, genistein, quercetin, isoliquiritigenin, resveratrol, and grape seed extracts related to their effect on the activation of breast cancer-associated aromatase promoters and discuss their aromatase inhibitory potential to be used as safer chemotherapeutic agents for specific hormone-dependent breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shabana I Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Jianping Zhao
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Ikhlas A Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Larry A Walker
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA
- University of Mississippi Cancer Institute, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Asok K Dasmahapatra
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Biegon A, Kim SW, Alexoff DL, Jayne M, Carter P, Hubbard B, King P, Logan J, Muench L, Pareto D, Schlyer D, Shea C, Telang F, Wang GJ, Xu Y, Fowler JS. Unique distribution of aromatase in the human brain: in vivo studies with PET and [N-methyl-11C]vorozole. Synapse 2011; 64:801-7. [PMID: 20842717 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase catalyzes the last step in estrogen biosynthesis. Brain aromatase is involved in diverse neurophysiological and behavioral functions including sexual behavior, aggression, cognition, and neuroprotection. Using positron emission tomography (PET) with the radiolabeled aromatase inhibitor [N-methyl-(11)C]vorozole, we characterized the tracer distribution and kinetics in the living human brain. Six young, healthy subjects, three men and three women, were administered the radiotracer alone on two separate occasions. Women were scanned in distinct phases of the menstrual cycle. Specificity was confirmed by pretreatment with a pharmacological (2.5 mg) dose of the aromatase inhibitor letrozole. PET data were acquired over a 90-min period and regions of interest placed over selected brain regions. Brain and plasma time activity curves, corrected for metabolites, were used to derive kinetic parameters. Distribution volume (V(T)) values in both men and women followed the following rank order: thalamus > amygdala = preoptic area > medulla (inferior olive) > accumbens, pons, occipital and temporal cortex, putamen, cerebellum, and white matter. Pretreatment with letrozole reduced V(T) in all regions, though the size of the reduction was region-dependent, ranging from ∼70% blocking in thalamus andpreoptic area to ∼10% in cerebellum. The high levels of aromatase in thalamus and medulla (inferior olive) appear to be unique to humans. These studies set the stage for the noninvasive assessment of aromatase involvement in various physiological and pathological processes affecting the human brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anat Biegon
- Medical Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Vlahos NF, Economopoulos KP, Creatsas G. Fertility drugs and ovarian cancer risk: a critical review of the literature. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1205:214-9. [PMID: 20840275 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05668.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
There is evidence that medications used for ovarian stimulation and in vitro fertilization may be associated with ovarian cancer. In this review, we attempt to describe this relationship according to the most recent epidemiologic data and to present the possible mechanisms on the molecular level that could potentially explain this correlation. Currently there is no proven relationship between any type of ovarian cancer and drugs used for infertility treatment. Overall, infertile women have increased risk for ovarian malignancies. Nulligravidas that received treatment are at increased risk for ovarian malignancy as compared to women that conceived after treatment. More studies with the appropriate statistical power and follow-up time, as well as with better adjustment for confounding factors, which coexist in infertile patients, are required to evaluate accurately the long-term effects of these drugs and procedures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikos F Vlahos
- Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aretaieio Hospital, University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Picazo F, Domingo B, Pérez-Ortiz JM, Llopis J. Imaging local estrogen production in single living cells with recombinant fluorescent indicators. Biosens Bioelectron 2010; 26:2147-53. [PMID: 20947335 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 09/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens are steroid hormones with many systemic effects in addition to development and maintenance of the female reproductive system, and ligands of estrogen receptors are of clinical importance because of their use as oral contraceptive, hormone replacement and antitumoral therapy. In addition, tumoral tissues have been found to express aromatase and other steroidogenic enzymes synthesizing estradiol. To aid in the understanding of these processes, we have developed assays to image the local production of estrogens in isolated living mammalian cells. We constructed biosensors based on estrogen receptor α ligand binding domain and fluorescent proteins by following two approaches. First, the ligand binding domain and a short fragment of steroid receptor coactivator-1 were appended to a circularly permuted yellow fluorescent protein to construct an excitation ratio estrogen indicator. In the second strategy, we constructed emission ratio sensors based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer, containing the ligand binding domain flanked by donor and acceptor fluorescent proteins. Estrogens altered the fluorescence signal of cells transfected with the indicators in a dose-dependent manner. We imaged local estrogen production in adrenocortical H295 cells expressing aromatase and transfected with the fluorescent sensors. In addition, paracrine detection was observed in HeLa cells harboring the indicators and co-cultured with H295 cells. This imaging approach may allow detection of physiological levels of these hormones in suitable animal models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Picazo
- Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas and Facultad de Medicina de Albacete, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Han EH, Kim HG, Hwang YP, Choi JH, Im JH, Park B, Yang JH, Jeong TC, Jeong HG. The role of cyclooxygenase-2-dependent signaling via cyclic AMP response element activation on aromatase up-regulation by o,p'-DDT in human breast cancer cells. Toxicol Lett 2010; 198:331-41. [PMID: 20678559 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2010] [Revised: 07/24/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
o,p'-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (o,p'-DDT) is a DDT isomer and xenoestrogen that can induce inflammation and cancer. However, the effect of o,p'-DDT on aromatase is unclear. Thus, we investigated the effects of o,p'-DDT on aromatase expression in human breast cancer cells. We also examined whether cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is involved in o,p'-DDT-mediated aromatase expression. Treatment with o,p'-DDT-induced aromatase protein expression in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells; enhancing aromatase gene expression, and enzyme and promoter activity. Treatment with ICI 182.780, a estrogen receptor antagonist, did not affect the inductive effects of o,p'-DDT on aromatase expression. In addition, o,p'-DDT increased COX-2 protein levels markedly, increased COX-2 mRNA expression and promoter activity, enhanced the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), induced cyclic AMP response element (CRE) activation, and cAMP levels and binding of CREB. o,p'-DDT also increased the phosphorylation of PKA, Akt, ERK, and JNK in their signaling pathways in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Finally, o,p'-DDT induction of aromatase was inhibited by various inhibitors [COX-2 (by NS-398), PKA (H-89), PI3-K/Akt (LY 294002), EP2 (AH6809), and EP4 receptor (AH23848)]. Together, these results suggest that o,p'-DDT increases aromatase, and that o,p'-DDT-induced aromatase is correlated with COX-2 up-regulation, mediated via the CRE activation and PKA and PI3-kinase/Akt signaling pathways in breast cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eun Hee Han
- Department of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong, Daejeon 305-764, Yuseong-Gu, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Dunbier AK, Hong Y, Masri S, Brown KA, Sabnis GJ, Palomares MR. Progress in aromatase research and identification of key future directions. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 118:311-5. [PMID: 19778609 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2009.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The IX International Aromatase Conference focused upon key developments in research related to the aromatase enzyme that had occurred since the last meeting. A session took place at the conclusion of conference discussing key areas for future research and issues currently facing researchers in the field. While significant progress on understanding structural elements of the enzyme and regulatory mechanisms of both the gene and protein provides an excellent basis for development of improved aromatase inhibitors and exploration of the important problem of aromatase inhibitor resistance, significant challenges remain. Increasing the speed with which findings are translated into clinical practice and finding an appropriate balance between basic and translational research were identified as areas which require further attention before the next meeting in 2010.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anita K Dunbier
- Academic Department of Biochemistry, Royal Marsden Hospital, London SW3 6JJ, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Kim JY, Han EH, Kim HG, Oh KN, Kim SK, Lee KY, Jeong HG. Bisphenol A-induced aromatase activation is mediated by cyclooxygenase-2 up-regulation in rat testicular Leydig cells. Toxicol Lett 2010; 193:200-8. [PMID: 20096755 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2009] [Revised: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (4,4'-dihydroxy-2,2-diphenylpropane; BPA) is an endocrine disruptor that affects the reproductive health of wildlife and possibly of humans. Evidence suggests that BPA interrupts ovarian steroidogenesis by altering steroidogenic enzymes. We evaluated the effect of BPA on aromatase expression in rat testicular Leydig cells. In addition, we investigated whether cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) was involved in BPA-induced aromatase expression. BPA induced a time- and concentration-dependent increase in aromatase protein expression in rat testicular Leydig R2C cells. It also increased aromatase gene expression and its enzyme and promoter activity, but reduced testosterone synthesis; increased COX-2 mRNA expression and promoter activity, the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), and the gene expression of PGE(2) (EP2 and EP4) receptors; induced the activation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element (CRE) and CREB binding; and increased the phosphorylation of protein kinase A (PKA), Akt, and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling pathways. BPA activation of aromatase was reversed by various inhibitors (COX-2, PKA, Akt, ERK, JNK, and p38). Taken together, these results suggest that BPA increases aromatase activity, which is correlated with COX-2 up-regulation mediated by the CRE, PKA, Akt, and MAP kinase signaling pathways in rat testicular Leydig cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Young Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Research Institute of Drug Development, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Caruso C, Balistreri CR, Candore G, Carruba G, Colonna-Romano G, Di Bona D, Forte GI, Lio D, Listì F, Scola L, Vasto S. Polymorphisms of pro-inflammatory genes and prostate cancer risk: a pharmacogenomic approach. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2009; 58:1919-33. [PMID: 19221747 PMCID: PMC11030552 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-009-0658-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/06/2009] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we consider the role of the genetics of inflammation in the pathophysiology of prostate cancer (PCa). This paper is not an extensive review of the literature, rather it is an expert opinion based on data from authors' laboratories on age-related diseases and inflammation. The aim is the detection of a risk profile that potentially allows both the early identification of individuals at risk for disease and the possible discovery of potential targets for medication. In fact, a major goal of clinical research is to improve early detection of age-related diseases, cancer included, by developing tools to move diagnosis backward in disease temporal course, i.e., before the clinical manifestation of the malady, where treatment might play a decisive role in preventing or significantly retarding the manifestation of the disease. The better understanding of the function and the regulation of inflammatory pathway in PCa may help to know the mechanisms of its formation and progression, as well as to identify new targets for the refinement of new treatment such as the pharmacogenomics approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Calogero Caruso
- Gruppo di Studio sull'Immunosenescenza, Dipartimento di Biopatologia e Metodologie Biomediche, Università di Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Liang YJ, Hao Q, Wu YZ, Wang QL, Wang JD, Hu YL. Aromatase Inhibitor Letrozole in Synergy With Curcumin in the Inhibition of Xenografted Endometrial Carcinoma Growth. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2009; 19:1248-52. [DOI: 10.1111/igc.0b013e3181b33d76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
|
48
|
Lin SL, Yan LY, Liang XW, Wang ZB, Wang ZY, Qiao J, Schatten H, Sun QY. A novel variant of ER-alpha, ER-alpha36 mediates testosterone-stimulated ERK and Akt activation in endometrial cancer Hec1A cells. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2009; 7:102. [PMID: 19775474 PMCID: PMC2761922 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-7-102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2009] [Accepted: 09/24/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Endometrial cancer is one of the most common gynecologic malignancies and its incidence has recently increased. Experimental and epidemiological data support that testosterone plays an important role in the pathogenesis of endometrial cancer, but the underlying mechanism has not been fully understood. Recently, we identified and cloned a variant of estrogen receptor (ER) alpha, ER-alpha36. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of ER-alpha36 in testosterone carcinogenesis. METHODS The cellular localization of ER-alpha36 was determined by immunofluorescence. Hec1A endometrial cancer cells (Hec1A/V) and Hec1A cells with siRNA knockdown of ER-alpha36 (Hec1A/RNAi) were treated with testosterone, ERK and Akt phosphorylation was assessed by Western blot analysis. Furthermore, the kinase inhibitors U0126 and LY294002 and the aromatase inhibitor letrozole were used to elucidate the pathway underlying testosterone-induced activities. RESULTS Immunofluorescence shows that ER-alpha36 was localized on the plasma membrane of the both ER-alpha- and androgen receptor-negative endometrial cancer Hec1A cells. Testosterone induced ERK and Akt phosphorylation, which could be abrogated by ER-alpha 36 shRNA knockdown or the kinase inhibitors, U0126 and LY294002, and the aromatase inhibitor letrozole. CONCLUSION Testosterone induces ERK and Akt phosphorylation via the membrane-initiated signaling pathways mediated by ER-alpha36, suggesting a possible involvement of ER-alpha 36 in testosterone carcinogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Li Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li-Ying Yan
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xing-Wei Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhao-Yi Wang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University Medical School, Omaha, USA
| | - Jie Qiao
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Heide Schatten
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Qing-Yuan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Endometriosis, in vitro fertilisation and the risk of gynaecological malignancies, including ovarian and breast cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2009; 24:39-50. [PMID: 19733123 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2009.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence that endometriosis as well as drugs used in the process of in vitro fertilisation appear to associate with increased risk for gynaecological cancer. In this review, we attempt to describe this relationship according to the most recent epidemiologic data and to present the possible mechanisms on the molecular level that could potentially explain this correlation. There are data to support that ovarian endometriosis could have the potential for malignant transformation. Epidemiologic and genetic studies support this notion. It seems that endometriosis is associated with specific types of ovarian cancer (endometrioid and clear cell). There is no clear association between endometriosis and breast or endometrial cancer. More studies are needed to establish the risk factors that may lead to malignant transformation of this condition and to identify predisposed individuals who may require closer surveillance. Currently, there is no proven relationship between any type of gynaecological cancer and drugs used for infertility treatment. In principle, infertile women have increased risk for gynaecologic malignancies. Nulligravidas who received treatment are at increased risk for malignancy compared with women who had conceived after treatment. There is limited evidence that clomiphene citrate use for more than six cycles or 900mg or treatment of women over the age of 40 could increase their risk for ovarian and breast cancer. More studies with the appropriate statistical power and follow-up time are required to evaluate accurately the long-term effects of these drugs and procedures.
Collapse
|
50
|
Saldanha CJ, Duncan KA, Walters BJ. Neuroprotective actions of brain aromatase. Front Neuroendocrinol 2009; 30:106-18. [PMID: 19450619 PMCID: PMC2700852 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2009] [Revised: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The steroidal regulation of vertebrate neuroanatomy and neurophysiology includes a seemingly unending list of brain areas, cellular structures and behaviors modulated by these hormones. Estrogens, in particular have emerged as potent neuromodulators, exerting a range of effects including neuroprotection and perhaps neural repair. In songbirds and mammals, the brain itself appears to be the site of injury-induced estrogen synthesis via the rapid transcription and translation of aromatase (estrogen synthase) in astroglia. This induction seems to occur regardless of the nature and location of primary brain damage. The induced expression of aromatase apparently elevates local estrogen levels enough to interfere with apoptotic pathways, thereby decreasing secondary degeneration and ultimately lessening the extent of damage. There is even evidence suggesting that aromatization may affect injury-induced cytogenesis. Thus, aromatization in the brain appears to confer neuroprotection by an array of mechanisms that involve the deceleration and acceleration of degeneration and repair, respectively. We are only beginning to understand the factors responsible for the injury-induced transcription of aromatase in astroglia. In contrast, much of the manner in which local and circulating estrogens may achieve their neuroprotective effects has been elucidated. However, gaps in our knowledge include issues about the cell-specific regulation of aromatase expression, steroidal influences of aromatization distinct from estrogen formation, and questions about the role of constitutive aromatase in neuroprotection. Here we describe the considerable consensus and some interesting differences in knowledge gained from studies conducted on diverse animal models, experimental paradigms and preparations towards understanding the neuroprotective actions of brain aromatase.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colin J Saldanha
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, United States.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|