Assessment of effects of ethanol self-administration on social interactions in alcoholics

Animal models for assessing drugs of abuse

A major toxic effect that has limited the clinical usefulness of medicinal drugs has been their susceptibility to nonmedical use and abuse by significant segments of the population. Major research efforts have been directed toward the development of safer and more effective therapeutic agents that would not be subject to such misuse, and laboratory animal assessment models have contributed importantly to the evaluation of such compounds. There are now several converging lines of evidence that testify to the reliability and broad generality of observations concerning drug abuse liability in humans based upon such animal laboratory models. The most important point of contact that characterizes the interaction between such animal assessment models and the human drug abuse arena is the demonstrated relationship between the biochemical/pharmacological/toxic properties of drugs on the one hand, and their environmental/behavioral stimulus functions on the other. As a result of these developments in animal model research technology and the consequent advances in knowledge of drug action, an operational basis has been provided for redefining the bewildering range of phenomena and experiential pseudo-phenomena loosely identify with such terms as "addition," "dependence" and "abuse."

Effects of d-amphetamine on choice of social versus monetary reinforcement: a discrete-trial test

Two mutually exclusive options were concurrently available to eight volunteers during 60-min experimental sessions. Subjects chose every three minutes between conversing with another same-sex volunteer and providing speech monologues for monetary reinforcement. d-Amphetamine (12.5 and 25 mg/70 kg) significantly increased choice of social over monetary reinforcement. Drug-produced increases in choice of the social option were associated with increases in total seconds of speech and the rate of social conversation. d-Amphetamine also increased subject ratings of effects indicative of greater sociability such as friendliness, elation and energetic. These results suggest that d-amphetamine can increase the relative reinforcing effects of social interaction.

Effect of d-amphetamine, secobarbital, and marijuana on choice behavior: social versus nonsocial options

The effects of oral d-amphetamine and secobarbital and smoked marijuana on human social conversation and preference for socializing were studied in three separate experiments. During experimental sessions, active drug or placebo was administered using an acute or divided dosing procedure. Subjects who received drug then engaged in a discrete-trial choice procedure in which they made a series of mutually exclusive choices between a social (talking with their nondrugged partner) and nonsocial (sitting quietly alone) option. Lapel microphones and voice operated relays measured seconds of speech. Subjects engaged in greater amounts of conversation and chose the social option more frequently following acute dosing of d-amphetamine and secobarbital compared with placebo. Acute administration of marijuana did not significantly affect social speech or choice behavior, producing slight decreases in both measures. Acute dosing of all drugs significantly increased subjective drug effect or drug high; however, only secobarbital affected the circular lights task, producing significant performance decrements. The shifts in preference toward the social option observed with d-amphetamine and secobarbital suggest that these drugs increased the reinforcing effects of socializing relative to sitting alone. This may be one mechanism by which psychoactive drugs facilitate social conversation.

Time allocation in a concurrent schedule of social interaction and monetary reinforcement: effects of d-amphetamine

Two mutually exclusive options (socializing versus monetary reinforcement) were concurrently available to two normal volunteers during 60-min experimental sessions under controlled laboratory conditions. The amount of money available in the monetary option was adjusted for individual subjects during baseline conditions until subjects divided their time approximately evenly between a social option in which they could converse with another same-sex volunteer or a monetary option in which money was earned for sitting quietly in a private room. In both subjects studied, d-amphetamine (5-25 mg) increased the percent of time allocated to the social option and total seconds of speech. This effect occurred even though increases in the time allocated to the social option necessarily resulted in a forfeiture of monetary reinforcement. The present results provide the first empirical evidence, to our knowledge, that d-amphetamine can increase the relative reinforcing effects of social interaction.

Social drinking in a simulated tavern: an experimental analysis

Five groups of five male social drinkers, who frequently drank with one another, were observed during a 30-min drinking period in an experimental tavern. Audio/video tapes of each session were rated by two observers for onset and duration of drinking and talking using a computer scoring system. Drinking was found to follow a negatively accelerating function, with session intakes correlated with reported weekly drinking. Group talking was found to increase during the session, supporting previous reports of increased socialization following drinking. Drinking patterns and intakes were found to be comparable to some of the observations from naturalistic tavern settings suggesting that the simulated tavern is an appropriate environment in which to study drinking consequences.

The abstinence phobias: links between substance abuse and anxiety

This paper presents a new model to explain the observed relationship between anxiety and substance abuse. Specifically, the concept of "abstinence phobias," common across psychoactive substances, is developed. The evidence needed to support this concept is outlined, and relevant data from studies of opiate, alcohol, and tobacco dependences are reviewed. Parallel data obtained from the treatment of obesity are discussed. It is concluded that the abstinence phobia merits further study; clinical implications are also considered.

Contributions to behavioral treatment from studies on programmed access to alcohol

Major developments in research involving the alcohol-alcoholic interaction are presented against a backdrop of the traditional perspective of alcoholism. Studies explaining the effects of alcohol, factors influencing drinking patterns, the significance of alcohol for the alcoholic, expectations regarding alcohol use and its affective and social consequences, the parameters of alcohol use, the question of control of alcoholism, and a number of treatment related issues are reviewed. It is concluded that much of this research is provocative and may recommend a reassessment of current thinking about the nature of alcohol abuse and dependence. Such a reassessment, however, is seen to be difficult to make, for the task likely will require a paradigmatic shift.

Behavioral treatment methods for alcoholism

This chapter offers a review of the behavioral methodology directed to the treatment of alcoholism. Beginning with an outline of the theoretical bases of behavior therapy and assessment, a review with some historical perspective is undertaken of the chemical, electrical, and covert aversion treatments of alcoholism. Thereafter, the procedures of the social skills-training strategies (including marital skills and assertiveness training) are presented, followed by a discussion of the relaxation and desensitization techniques. The operant methodologies are illustrated by contingency contracting and the community-reinforcement approaches. Within the broad-spectrum procedures, a description of self-control training and an example of a broad-spectrum treatment study are offered. It is noted that although the merits of these various techniques are becoming widely recognized in the alcoholism treatment literature, the behavior therapeutic approaches to alcoholism have yet to receive widespread public acceptance. It is anticipated that future studies of treatment effectiveness will contribute to an increasing appreciation of the advantages of behavioral therapies to the management of alcohol abuse and dependence.

Human social conversation: effects of ethanol, secobarbital and chlorpromazine

Effects of oral ethanol, secobarbital and chlorpromazine on human vocalization were studied in a dyadic social situation using repeated observations within subject pairs. Throat microphones and voice operated relays were used to measure quantitative aspects of vocalization (conversational speech) during daily experimental sessions. Ethanol (1-6 oz of 95-proof) and secobarbital (30-300 mg) produced dose-related increases in vocalization by the subject who received active drug, while vocalization by the partner who received placebo only was not generally altered systematically. Chlorpromazine (25-100 mg) produced dose-related decreases in amount of vocalization by the subject and vocalization by partners tended to decrease as well on days when the subject received active drug. Selected scales from the Addiction Research Center Inventory were administered following social sessions to assess subjective drug effects. No consistent changes on ARCI scales were obtained after ethanol or secobarbital, while chlorpromazine produced dose-related increases on the PCAG scale. Overall, quantitative measures of vocalization in a social context provided a reliable and sensitive indicator of dose-related drug effects.

Drug-produced changes in human social behavior: facilitation by d-amphetamine

The effects of oral d-amphetamine 5-30 mg on human social and verbal behavior were studied using repeated observations within subjects under a time-sampling observation procedure in a residential research ward. d-Amphetamine increased socializing in all three subjects studied, but only increased standing in one of the subjects. In the second experiment throat microphones and voice-operated relays were used to measure automatically quantitative aspects of dyadic verbal interactions during 1-hr daily sessions. Total speaking time showed dose-related increases in 5 of the 7 subjects receiving d-amphetamine. Adjective checklist self-report scores indicating stimulant drug effects were as sensitive and reliable as the speaking measure to the effects of d-amphetamine in these subjects. Speaking time also increased in 2 of the 8 partners who received placebo when the subjects with whom they were paired received d-amphetamine. This represents a socially mediated indirect drug effect. Adjective checklist scores of the partners receiving placebo were not changed when the paired subjects received d-amphetamine. Under controlled experimental conditions the naturalistic human behaviors of socializing and speaking are sensitive dependent variables for behavioral pharmacology research.

Marihuana and human physical activity

Adult male volunteers with a prior history of either moderate (N = 12) or heavy (N = 14) marihuana use were systematically observed before, during and after a 21-day period of free access to 1 g 2% delta-9 THC marihuana cigarettes. A matched sample of casual alcohol drinkers (N = 11) served as a control group. Sleep and other molar behaviors were observed hourly to obtain a representative sample of daily activity. Both moderate and heavy users were less active immediately after marihuana use and slept more on days following heavier consumption. Heavy users reduced their waking activity on days following heavier consumption, as well as during the entire period of marihuana availability. These reactions did not persist beyond the period of availability for either group. The findings suggest a dose-related delayed reaction to heavy marihuana consumption which disappears following the cessation of regular use. However, changes in activity following single doses of marihuana may be related more to the social circumstances of its use than to its pharmacological action.

Facilitation of human tobacco self-administration by ethanol: a behavioral analysis

The effect of ethanol on the cigarette smoking of alcoholic subjects was studied in a residential laboratory. During daily 6-hr sessions, cigarettes were obtained either by request to the ward staff or by operation of a lever (fixed-ratio 5 or 10). In a mixed sequence across days, sessions involved ingestion of either vehicle (orange juice or vehicle plus ethanol (133.7 g). During ethanol sessions, the rate of cigarette smoking increased from 26% to 117% of vehicle levels. A series of control studies eliminated a number of potential behavorial mechanisms for the observed effect and indicated that the ethanol-induced increase in cigarette smoking occurred under a variety of experimental conditions: (1) when smoking could not occur concurrently with ethanol or vehicle consumption; (2) when subjects were not allowed to socialize; (3) when ingestion of ethanol or vehicle was scheduled for a number of consecutive days; (4) when various doses of ethanol were administered under blind conditions. In control experiments, weighing unsmoked tobacco and counting the number of puffs per cigarette indicated the effect was not due to smoking less of each cigarette. The effect was not limited to the experimental sessions alone, since total daily smoking was higher on ethanol days than vehicle days.

Effect of ethanol self-administration on choice behavior: money vs. socializing

Volunteer chronic alcoholic subjects were exposed to a discrete-trail choice procedure within a residential research setting. Twelve daily trials occurred at 20 min intervals. In each trial a subject chose between 2 mutually exclusive options involving either receipt of money or the opportunity for socializing. The effect of ethanol self-administration was evaluated by requiring randomly over days that a subject consume either 8 drinks of orange juice or 8 drinks of ethanol (89.12 g ethanol total). For all 4 subjects, the mean rate of choosing socialization over money was significantly greater on sessions involving ethanol self-administration than on sessions involving orange juice self-administration.