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Guerre P. Mycotoxin and Gut Microbiota Interactions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E769. [PMID: 33291716 PMCID: PMC7761905 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota were discovered early in animals and explained part of the differences in susceptibility to mycotoxins among species. Isolation of microbes present in the gut responsible for biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites and for binding mycotoxins led to the development of probiotics, enzymes, and cell extracts that are used to prevent mycotoxin toxicity in animals. More recently, bioactivation of mycotoxins into toxic compounds, notably through the hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins, revealed that the health benefits of the effect of the gut microbiota on mycotoxins can vary strongly depending on the mycotoxin and the microbe concerned. Interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota can also be observed through the effect of mycotoxins on the gut microbiota. Changes of gut microbiota secondary to mycotoxin exposure may be the consequence of the antimicrobial properties of mycotoxins or the toxic effect of mycotoxins on epithelial and immune cells in the gut, and liberation of antimicrobial peptides by these cells. Whatever the mechanism involved, exposure to mycotoxins leads to changes in the gut microbiota composition at the phylum, genus, and species level. These changes can lead to disruption of the gut barrier function and bacterial translocation. Changes in the gut microbiota composition can also modulate the toxicity of toxic compounds, such as bacterial toxins and of mycotoxins themselves. A last consequence for health of the change in the gut microbiota secondary to exposure to mycotoxins is suspected through variations observed in the amount and composition of the volatile fatty acids and sphingolipids that are normally present in the digesta, and that can contribute to the occurrence of chronic diseases in human. The purpose of this work is to review what is known about mycotoxin and gut microbiota interactions, the mechanisms involved in these interactions, and their practical application, and to identify knowledge gaps and future research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Guerre
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, F-31076 Toulouse, France
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Antidotal Potency of the Novel, Structurally Different Adsorbents in Rats Acutely Intoxicated with the T-2 Toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100643. [PMID: 33028026 PMCID: PMC7600379 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, the potential antidote efficacy of commercially available formulations of various feed additives such as Minazel-Plus®, Mycosorb®, and Mycofix® was considered by recording their incidence on general health, body weight, and food and water intake, as well as through histopathology and semiquantitative analysis of gastric alterations in Wistar rats treated with the T-2 toxin in a single-dose regimen of 1.67 mg/kg p.o. (1 LD50) for 4 weeks. As an organic adsorbent, Mycosorb® successfully antagonized acute lethal incidence of the T-2 toxin (protective index (PI) = 2.25; p < 0.05 vs. T-2 toxin), and had adverse effects on body weight gain as well as food and water intake during the research (p < 0.001). However, the protective efficacy of the other two food additives was significantly lower (p < 0.05). Treatment with Mycosorb® significantly reduced the severity of gastric damage, which was not the case when the other two adsorbents were used. Our results suggest that Mycosorb® is a much better adsorbent for preventing the adverse impact of the T-2 toxin as well as its toxic metabolites compared with Minazel-plus® or Mycofix-plus®, and it almost completely suppresses its acute toxic effects and cytotoxic potential on the gastric epithelial, glandular, and vascular endothelial cells.
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Hussar P, Popovska-Percinic F, Blagoevska K, Järveots T, Dūrītis I. Immunohistochemical Study of Glucose Transporter GLUT-5 in Duodenal Epithelium in Norm and in T-2 Mycotoxicosis. Foods 2020; 9:E849. [PMID: 32610537 PMCID: PMC7404732 DOI: 10.3390/foods9070849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although patterns of glucose transporter expression and notes about diseases leading to adaptive changes in intestinal fructose transport have been well-characterized, the connection between infection and fructose transportation has been lightly investigated. Up to now only few studies on GLUT-5 expression and function under pathological conditions in bird intestines have been carried out. The aim of our current research was to immunolocalize GLUT-5 in chicken duodenal epithelium in norm and during T-2 mycotoxicosis. Material from chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) duodenum was collected from twelve seven-day-old female broilers, divided into control group and broilers with T-2 mycotoxicosis. The material was fixed with 10% formalin and thereafter embedded into paraffin; slices 7 μm in thickness were cut, followed by immunohistochemical staining, according to the manufacturers guidelines (IHC kit, Abcam, UK) using polyclonal primary antibody Rabbit anti-GLUT-5. Our study revealed the strong expression of GLUT-5 in the apical parts of the duodenal epithelial cells in the control group chickens and weak staining for GLUT-5 in the intestinal epithelium in the T-2 mycotoxicosis group. Our results confirmed decreased the expression of GLUT-5 in the duodenal epithelium during T-2 mycotoxicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piret Hussar
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila 19, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Florina Popovska-Percinic
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ss.Cyril & Methodius University in Skopje, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia;
| | - Katerina Blagoevska
- Laboratory for Molecular Food Analyses and Genetically Modified Organism, Food Institute, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 1000 Skopje, North Macedonia;
| | - Tõnu Järveots
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, 51006 Tartu, Estonia;
| | - Ilmārs Dūrītis
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Latvian University of Agriculture, LV 3004 Jelgava, Latvia;
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Yazid SNE, Jinap S, Ismail SI, Magan N, Samsudin NIP. Phytopathogenic organisms and mycotoxigenic fungi: Why do we control one and neglect the other? A biological control perspective in Malaysia. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:643-669. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Siti Nur Ezzati Yazid
- Laboratory of Food Safety and Food IntegrityInstitute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
| | - Selamat Jinap
- Laboratory of Food Safety and Food IntegrityInstitute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and TechnologyUniversiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
| | - Siti Izera Ismail
- Laboratory of Climate‐Smart Food Crop ProductionInstitute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
- Department of Plant ProtectionFaculty of AgricultureUniversiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
| | - Naresh Magan
- Applied Mycology GroupCranfield Soil and AgriFood InstituteCranfield University Cranfield UK
| | - Nik Iskandar Putra Samsudin
- Laboratory of Food Safety and Food IntegrityInstitute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and TechnologyUniversiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Malaysia
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Koppenol A, Branco Beirão BC, Ingberman M, Caron LF. Measuring Peripheral and Some Mucosal Immune Cells to Better Understand Immunomodulation by T-2 Toxin in Broilers. J APPL POULTRY RES 2019. [DOI: 10.3382/japr/pfz040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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He D, Wu Z, Cui B, Xu E, Jin Z. Building a Fluorescent Aptasensor Based on Exonuclease-Assisted Target Recycling Strategy for One-Step Detection of T-2 Toxin. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-018-1392-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Tsubone H, Hanafusa M. An overview of toxicity of trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol: Involvements of their oxidative stress and apoptosis effects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.66.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Tsubone
- Research Center for Food Safety, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Masakazu Hanafusa
- Research Center for Food Safety, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
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Developmental exposure to T-2 toxin reversibly affects postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces neural stem cells and progenitor cells in mice. Arch Toxicol 2015; 90:2009-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1588-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Wan Q, Wu G, He Q, Tang H, Wang Y. The toxicity of acute exposure to T-2 toxin evaluated by the metabonomics technique. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2015; 11:882-91. [PMID: 25588579 DOI: 10.1039/c4mb00622d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a common contaminant in grains and animal feedstuff, which becomes an increasing threat to human and animal health due to its high toxicity. Investigating the systemic effects of T-2 toxin is important to evaluate the toxicity and facilitate the assessment of food safety. In our investigation, rats were treated with a single dose of T-2 toxin at dosage levels of 0, 0.5, 2.0 and 4.0 mg kg(-1) body weight via gavage. The metabolic profiles of body fluids and multiple organs were obtained by NMR spectroscopy and analyzed by multivariate data analysis methods. The results showed that low and moderate doses of T-2 toxin only influenced the urinary metabonomes, while a high dose of T-2 toxin induced metabolic alterations in urine and multiple organs. These changes included alterations in the levels of membrane metabolites, TCA cycle intermediates, a range of amino acids, nucleosides and nucleotides. T-2 toxin exposure impaired spleen function, causing immunotoxicity, and inhibited protein and DNA biosynthesis. In addition, T-2 toxin also caused oxidative stress and disturbance in energy metabolism and gut microbiome. Our work provided a comprehensive insight into T-2 toxicity and revealed the great potential of metabonomics in assessing the impact of a toxic compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianfen Wan
- Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China.
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Yuan G, Wang Y, Yuan X, Zhang T, Zhao J, Huang L, Peng S. T-2 toxin induces developmental toxicity and apoptosis in zebrafish embryos. J Environ Sci (China) 2014; 26:917-25. [PMID: 25079423 DOI: 10.1016/s1001-0742(13)60510-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is one of the most important trichothecene mycotoxins occurring in various agriculture products. The developmental toxicity of T-2 toxin and the exact mechanism of action at early life stages are not understood precisely. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to different concentrations of the toxin at 4-6 hours post fertilization (hpf) stage of development, and were observed for different developmental toxic effects at 24, 48, 72, and 144 hpf. Exposure to 0.20 μmol/L or higher concentrations of T-2 toxin significantly increased the mortality and malformation rate such as tail deformities, cardiovascular defects and behavioral changes in early developmental stages of zebrafish. T-2 toxin exposure resulted in significant increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cell apoptosis, mainly in the tail areas, as revealed by Acridine Orange staining at 24 hpf. In addition, T-2 toxin-induced severe tail deformities could be attenuated by co-exposure to reduced glutathione (GSH). T-2 toxin and GSH co-exposure induced a significant decrease of ROS production in the embryos. The overall results demonstrate that T-2 toxin is able to produce oxidative stress and induce apoptosis, which are involved in the developmental toxicity of T-2 toxin in zebrafish embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guogang Yuan
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China.
| | - Yimei Wang
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China.
| | - Xiaoyan Yuan
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Tingfen Zhang
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Liuyu Huang
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Shuangqing Peng
- Evaluation and Research Center for Toxicology, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China.
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Maruniakova N, Kadasi A, Sirotkin AV, Bulla J, Kolesarova A. T-2 toxin and its metabolite HT-2 toxin combined with insulin-like growth factor-I modify progesterone secretion by porcine ovarian granulosa cells. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2014; 49:404-409. [PMID: 24345238 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2014.854650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of A-trichothecenes T-2 and HT-2 toxins combined with insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) on the release of steroid hormone progesterone (P4) by porcine ovarian granulosa cells (GCs). The cells were incubated without (control) or with treatments of A-trichothecenes T-2 (100 and 1000 ng/mL)/ HT-2 (100 and 1000 ng/mL) combined with IGF-I (1, 10 and 100 ng/mL) for 24 h. Progesterone secretion was determined by RIA. The release of P4 by GCs after addition of T-2 toxin (at 100 ng/mL) combined with IGF-I (at 10 but not at 1 and 100 ng/mL) and HT-2 toxin (at 100 ng/mL) combined with IGF-I (at all doses) was significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited. On the other hand the release of P4 after addition of T-2/ HT-2 toxin (at 1000 ng/mL) combined with IGF-I (at all doses) was significantly (P < 0.05) stimulated. Alone IGF-I addition (at 10, 100 but not at 1 ng/mL) significantly (P < 0.05) stimulated P4 release by GCs. The results of our in vitro study indicate the T-2 and HT-2 toxins combined with IGF-I could modify progesterone secretion by porcine ovarian granulosa cells and potentially regulate process of steroidogenesis in the ovaries. Currently, occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed is a worldwide problem and therefore study of these toxins as well as their interaction with different substances such as growth factors could be beneficial for better understanding of mechanism of their toxic effects in organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Maruniakova
- a Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences , Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra , Slovak Republic
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Zhuang Z, Yang D, Huang Y, Wang S. Study on the apoptosis mechanism induced by T-2 toxin. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83105. [PMID: 24386148 PMCID: PMC3873290 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin is known to induce apoptosis in mammalian cells. The mechanism of apoptosis induced by T-2 toxin has been proposed to be linked with oxidative stress and mitochondrial pathway. In the current study, the toxic effect of T-2 on Hela, Bel-7402, and Chang liver cells was examined in dose-dependent and time-dependent manner by MTT assay. Caspase-3 was found to be up-regulated under T-2 toxin stress, which suggested that T-2 toxin induced cell apoptosis. Endogenous GSH and MDA levels in all three cell lines were found down- and up-regulated respectively, which indicated the link between toxic effect of T-2 toxin and intracellular oxidative stress. It was also found by MTT assay that NAC, which maintained the level of GSH in cells, could protect cells from death. Western-blot result showed that the level of both activated Caspase-8 and Caspase-9 increased when cells were treated by T-2 toxin. Caspase-9 was found to be activated earlier than Caspase-8. It was also found that p53 was up-regulated under T-2 toxin stress in the study. These results implied that the effect of T-2 toxin on cells was apoptosis rather than necrosis, and it was probably induced through mitochondrial pathway. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to show that JunD is down-regulated in T-2 toxin induced apoptosis. By construction of an over-expression vector for the JunD gene, we observed that the survival ratio of JunD over-expressed cells obviously increased under T-2 toxin stress. These results suggested that the mechanism of T-2 induced cell death was closely connected with oxidative stress, and that JunD plays an important role in the defensive process against T-2 toxin stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhong Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, and School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Daibin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, and School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yaling Huang
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, and School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Shihua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins of Fujian Province, Key Laboratory of Biopesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, and School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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Doi K, Uetsuka K. Mechanisms of mycotoxin-induced neurotoxicity through oxidative stress-associated pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2011; 12:5213-37. [PMID: 21954354 PMCID: PMC3179161 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12085213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Revised: 07/21/2011] [Accepted: 08/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Among many mycotoxins, T-2 toxin, macrocyclic trichothecenes, fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)) and ochratochin A (OTA) are known to have the potential to induce neurotoxicity in rodent models. T-2 toxin induces neuronal cell apoptosis in the fetal and adult brain. Macrocyclic trichothecenes bring about neuronal cell apoptosis and inflammation in the olfactory epithelium and olfactory bulb. FB(1) induces neuronal degeneration in the cerebral cortex, concurrent with disruption of de novo ceramide synthesis. OTA causes acute depletion of striatal dopamine and its metabolites, accompanying evidence of neuronal cell apoptosis in the substantia nigra, striatum and hippocampus. This paper reviews the mechanisms of neurotoxicity induced by these mycotoxins especially from the viewpoint of oxidative stress-associated pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1, Shin-Machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +81-428-33-1086; Fax: +81-428-31-6166
| | - Koji Uetsuka
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1, Shin-Machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
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Alteration of blood brain barrier permeability by T-2 toxin: Role of MMP-9 and inflammatory cytokines. Toxicology 2010; 280:44-52. [PMID: 21112371 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2010] [Revised: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by different species of Fusarium such as F. sporotichioides, F. poae, F. equiseti, F. acuminatum etc. This class of mycotoxins causes a number of pathologies including nervous disorders, cardiovascular alterations, immunodepression and hemostatic derangements. In the present study, mechanism of T-2 toxin induced alteration of blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability was assessed in terms of oxidative stress, gene expression of MMP-9, MMP-2 and their inhibitors TIMP-1 and TIMP-2, activation of inflammatory cytokines in both brain and peripheral tissue spleen. Gel zymography was used to show the activity of MMP-9 and MMP-2. The percutaneous exposure of 1 LD50 T2 toxin caused a reversible alteration in BBB permeability as observed by extravasation of Evans blue dye. Maximum dye level was observed on day 3 and reduced by day 7. A significant GSH depletion was observed on days 1 and 3. Brain ROS and lipid peroxidation levels increased significantly on 1 and 3 days and decreased by day 7. The SOD levels in brain showed significantly higher activity on 3 days (4-fold) and 7 days (5-fold) of toxin exposure compared to control. A similar trend was observed with catalase enzyme levels. The gene expression analysis of cNOS and iNOS showed varying levels of expression on different time points of post exposure. MMP-9 expression was significantly high on days 3 and 7 in brain with corresponding alteration in TIMP-1. MMP-2 and TIMP-2 showed no effect. Gene expression analysis of the inflammatory cytokines, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α showed elevated levels on day 7 in brain. As spleen plays an important role in inflammatory response we analyzed MMP-9, MMP-2 and inflammatory cytokines in spleen. The MMP-9 was activated on day 7. MMP-2 activity was found to be elevated on 3 and 7 days and TIMP-2 mRNA level increased on 1 and 3 days in spleen. Inflammatory cytokines, IL-1 α, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α showed elevated levels on days 1 and 3 in spleen indicating an early effect in spleen than in brain. In summary, the results of the study showed that the T-2 induced alteration in BBB permeability is mediated through oxidative stress, activation of MMP-9, and proinflammatory cytokines in brain as well as contribution from peripheral tissue spleen.
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T-2 toxin-induced toxicity in pregnant mice and rats. Int J Mol Sci 2008; 9:2146-2158. [PMID: 19330064 PMCID: PMC2635623 DOI: 10.3390/ijms9112146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic secondary fungal metabolite that belongs to the trichothecene mycotoxin family. This mycotoxin is a well known inhibitor of protein synthesis through its high binding affinity to peptidyl transferase, which is an integral part of the ribosomal 60s subunit, and it also inhibits the synthesis of DNA and RNA, probably secondary to the inhibition of protein synthesis. In addition, T-2 toxin is said to induce apoptosis in many types of cells bearing high proliferating activity. T-2 toxin readily passes the placenta and is distributed to embryo/fetal tissues, which include many component cells bearing high proliferating activity. This paper reviews the reported data related to T-2 toxin-induced maternal and fetal toxicities in pregnant mice and rats. The mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in maternal and fetal tissues are also discussed in this paper.
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Jaradat ZW, Viià B, Marquardt RR. Adverse effects of T-2 toxin on chicken lymphocytes blastogenesis and its protection with Vitamin E. Toxicology 2006; 225:90-6. [PMID: 16790312 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2006] [Revised: 05/09/2006] [Accepted: 05/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin that is produced by fusarium species, is prevalent mainly in cereal crops and poultry feed. One of the major effects of this toxin is immunomodulation. The effect of T-2 toxin on chicken lymphocyte proliferation in the presence of mitogens and the subsequent protection with Vitamin E in both fat and water soluble forms was studied using an MTT colorimetric assay. T-2 toxin was administered in concentrations ranging from 0 to 10ng/mL of lymphocytes in the presence of either concanavalin A (ConA) or phytohemagglutinine (PHA-M) at optimum concentration of 333ng/mL and a dilution of 1:160 for ConA and PHA-M, respectively. Lymphocyte proliferation in response to ConA and PHA-M mitogens was depressed at T-2 doses of 1ng/mL or higher (p<0.05). The proliferation was completely abolished at 10ng/mL when the toxin was added at 0 time, while it was decreased by 80% when the toxin was added to the lymphocytes after 24h. The addition of Vitamin E in the fat soluble form (alpha-tocopheryl acetate) did not exert any protection effect against the toxin when it was added at either 25 or 100microg. However, when the water soluble form (Trolox) was added at a concentration of (200microg) (equivalent to 100microM of alpha-tocopherol), it provided considerable protection (p<0.05) against T-2 toxin inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation. The difference in the effect between the two forms of Vitamin E might be related to their relative solubility in the culture media which in turn may affect their availability for protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziad W Jaradat
- Jordan University of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid 22110, Jordan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Junko Shinozuka
- Exploratory Toxicology and DMPK Research Laboratories, Tanabe Seiyaku Co., Ltd
| | - Shinya Sehata
- Medical Safety Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd
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Bouhet S, Oswald IP. The effects of mycotoxins, fungal food contaminants, on the intestinal epithelial cell-derived innate immune response. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2005; 108:199-209. [PMID: 16144716 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2005.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are structurally diverse fungal metabolites that can contaminate a variety of dietary components consumed by animals and humans. It is considered that 25% of the world crop production is contaminated by mycotoxins. The clinical toxicological syndromes caused by ingestion of moderate to high amounts of mycotoxins and their effect on the immune system have been well characterized. However, no particular attention has been focused on the effects of mycotoxins on the local intestinal immune response. Because of their location, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) could be exposed to high doses of mycotoxins. As a component of the innate local immune response, intestinal epithelial cells have developed a variety of mechanisms which act to reduce the risk of infection by microorganisms or intoxication by toxic compounds. This review summarises the innate immune response developed by intestinal epithelial cells and reports the literature concerning the effects of mycotoxins on them. Particularly, the effects of mycotoxins on the maintenance of a physical barrier by epithelial cells will be discussed together with their effect on extrinsic protective components of the innate intestinal immunity: mucus secretion, antimicrobial peptide generation, IgA and pro-inflammatory cytokine release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Bouhet
- INRA, Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, B.P. 3, 31931 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
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Vojdani A, Kashanian A, Vojdani E, Campbell AW. Saliva secretory IgA antibodies against molds and mycotoxins in patients exposed to toxigenic fungi. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2004; 25:595-614. [PMID: 14686801 DOI: 10.1081/iph-120026444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Upper respiratory exposure to different environmental antigens results first in the activation of mucosal immunity and production of IgA antibodies in different secretions including saliva. Despite this there is no study, which addresses secretory antibodies against molds and mycotoxins. The purpose of this study was to evaluate mold-specific salivary IgA in individuals exposed to molds and mycotoxins in a water-damaged building environment. Saliva IgA antibody levels against seven different molds and two mycotoxins were studied in 40 patients exposed to molds and in 40 control subjects. Mold-exposed patients showed significantly higher levels of salivary IgA antibodies against one or more mold species. A majority of patients with high IgA antibodies against molds exhibited elevation in salivary IgA against mycotoxins, as well. These IgA antibodies against molds and mycotoxins are specific, since using molds and mycotoxins in immune absorption could reduce antibody levels, significantly. Detection of high counts of molds in water-damaged buildings, strongly suggests the existence of a reservoir of mold spores in the environment. This viable microbial activity with specific mold and mycotoxin IgA in saliva may assist in the diagnosis of mold exposure. Whether mold and mycotoxin specific IgA antibodies detected in saliva are indicative of the role of IgA antibodies in the late phase of type-1 hypersensitivity reaction or in type-2 and type-3 delayed sensitivities is a matter that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aristo Vojdani
- Immunosciences Lab., Inc., Section of Neuroimmunology, Beverly Hills, California 90211, USA.
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SHINOZUKA J, DOI K. T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in the mouse lymphoid and hematopoietic tissues. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.53.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Huwig A, Freimund S, Käppeli O, Dutler H. Mycotoxin detoxication of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicol Lett 2001; 122:179-88. [PMID: 11439224 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(01)00360-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The contamination of animal feed with mycotoxins represents a worldwide problem for farmers. These toxins originate from molds whose growth on living and stored plants is almost unavoidable particularly under moist conditions. Mycotoxin-containing feed can cause serious diseases in farm animals resulting in suffering and even death and thus can cause substantial economic losses. The most applied method for protecting animals against mycotoxicosis is the utilization of adsorbents mixed with the feed which are supposed to bind the mycotoxins efficiently in the gastro-intestinal tract. Aluminosilicates are the preferred adsorbents, followed by activated charcoal and special polymers. The efficiency of mycotoxin binders, however, differs considerably depending mainly on the chemical structure of both the adsorbent and the toxin. This review describes the most important types of adsorbents and the respective mechanisms of adsorption. Data of the in vitro and in vivo efficacy of detoxication are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Huwig
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Technical Chemistry, Universitätstrasse 6, 8092, Zurich, Switzerland
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Shinozuka J, Suzuki H, Tsutsui S, Nakayama H, Doi K. T-2 Toxin-Induced Apoptosis and c-fos mRNA Expression in Con A-Stimulated Mouse Thymocyte Primary Cultures. J Toxicol Pathol 2001. [DOI: 10.1293/tox.14.247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Junko Shinozuka
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hodaka Suzuki
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Shigeki Tsutsui
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hiroyuki Nakayama
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
| | - Kunio Doi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
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Quiroga AM, Risso M, Perfumo CJ, Idiart JR, Ohtsuka R, Doi K. Sequence of and Regional Difference in Apoptotic Index in the Mouse Gastrointestinal Mucous Epithelia after T-2 Toxin Inoculation. J Toxicol Pathol 2000. [DOI: 10.1293/tox.13.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra M. Quiroga
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, PO Box 296, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - M.A. Risso
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, PO Box 296, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Carlos J. Perfumo
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, PO Box 296, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Julio R. Idiart
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, PO Box 296, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Ryoichi Ohtsuka
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Kunio Doi
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Shinozuka J, Suzuki M, Noguchi N, Sugimoto T, Uetsuka K, Nakayama H, Doi K. T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in hematopoietic tissues of mice. Toxicol Pathol 1998; 26:674-81. [PMID: 9789955 DOI: 10.1177/019262339802600512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We examined T-2 toxin-induced lesions in the bone marrow and splenic red pulp as many as 48 hr after oral inoculation with 10 mg/kg body weight of T-2 toxin in female ICR:CD-1 mice. Histopathologically, the bone marrow and splenic red pulp showed a significant hypocellularity. In the bone marrow, the number of myelocytes significantly decreased due to the loss of immature granulocytes, erythroblasts, and lymphocytes. The nuclei of the remaining cells showing pyknosis or karyorrhexis were positively stained by the TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) method, and these TUNEL-positive cells showed ultrastructural characteristics of apoptosis. With agarose gel electrophoresis, DNA ladders were clearly detected in bone marrow samples. The number of TUNEL-positive cells in splenic red pulp increased earlier than it did in the splenic white pulp. Thus, T-2 toxin induced-lesions in the hematopoietic tissues and in the lymphoid tissues were brought about by apoptosis of component cells. We believe that damage to the hematopoietic microenvironment may also play an indirect role in the induction of apoptosis in the bone marrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Shinozuka
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tokyo, Japan.
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Harvey RB, Edrington TS, Kubena LF, Elissalde MH, Corrier DE, Rottinghaus GE. Effect of aflatoxin and diacetoxyscirpenol in ewe lambs. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 1995; 54:325-330. [PMID: 7749261 DOI: 10.1007/bf00195100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R B Harvey
- USDA, Food Animal Protection Research Laboratory, College Station, Texas 77845, USA
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Abstract
Experiments were performed on pentobarbital-anesthetized cats to test the hypothesis that hypovolemia rather than cardiac failure is responsible for the acute lethal toxicity of the trichothecene mycotoxin, T-2 toxin (T2T). Measurements were made on mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), arterial pulse pressure (PP), and heart rate (HR) in eight otherwise untreated cats given T2T (2 mg/kg iv) and in three cats similarly injected with T2T but then transfused with plasma and blood. The transfusions to their available extent significantly delayed or counteracted the development of mycotoxic shock (i.e., depressed MAP and PP) and prevented or reversed a rise in the hematocrit. HR remained stable under all conditions. Plasmapheresis followed by whole-blood removal was found best to simulate mechanistically the mycotoxic shock syndrome in six blood donor cats free of T2T. It is concluded that hypovolemia with polycythemia resulting from plasma leakage and internal bleeding accounts for acute lethal T-2 mycotoxicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Borison
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03756
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