Discriminative stimulus effects of dextromethorphan in the rat

Study design criteria for regulatory-based drug control action: Drug discrimination

This "methods paper" focusses on one specific and limited aspect of drug safety evaluations required for all new drug entities that affect the central nervous system - the drug discrimination (DD) assay. We focus on three critical factors involved in experimental design and protocol development for the conduct of DD studies for abuse liability risk assessment that comply with the Good Laboratory Practice Guidelines (GLPs). The selection of 1) the reference drug(s) choice, 2) training dose selection, and 3) the selected route-of-administration will determine the applicability of the data to meet the regulatory expectations of the 8-factors determinative of schedule control recommendations. The study conduct and resulting data submission to the FDA are intended for drug scheduling review by the Controlled Substances Staff in the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) at the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA). These animal studies are required to meet the statutory requirements of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The abuse liability study is conducted during Phase II and III of human clinical trials. Procedural or method-based errors this late in drug development can result in a significant economic and business threat to the program.

PKCδ Knockout Mice Are Protected from Dextromethorphan-Induced Serotonergic Behaviors in Mice: Involvements of Downregulation of 5-HT1A Receptor and Upregulation of Nrf2-Dependent GSH Synthesis

We investigated whether a specific serotonin (5-HT) receptor-mediated mechanism was involved in dextromethorphan (DM)-induced serotonergic behaviors. We firstly observed that the activation of 5-HT_1A receptor, but not 5-HT_2A receptor, contributed to DM-induced serotonergic behaviors in mice. We aimed to determine whether the upregulation of 5-HT_1A receptor induced by DM facilitates the specific induction of certain PKC isoform, because previous reports suggested that 5-HT_1A receptor activates protein kinase C (PKC). A high dose of DM (80 mg/kg, i.p.) induced a selective induction of PKCδ out of PKCα, PKCβI, PKCβII, PKCξ, and PKCδ in the hypothalamus of wild-type (WT) mice. More importantly, 5-HT_1A receptor co-immunoprecipitated PKCδ in the presence of DM. Consistently, rottlerin, a pharmacological inhibitor of PKCδ, or PKCδ knockout significantly protected against increases in 5-HT_1A receptor gene expression, 5-HT turnover rate, and serotonergic behaviors induced by DM. Treatment with DM resulted in an initial increase in nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) nuclear translocation and DNA-binding activity, γ-glutamylcysteine (GCL) mRNA expression, and glutathione (GSH) level. This compensative induction was further potentiated by rottlerin or PKCδ knockout. However, GCL mRNA and GSH/GSSG levels were decreased 6 and 12 h post-DM. These decreases were attenuated by PKCδ inhibition. Our results suggest that interaction between 5-HT_1A receptor and PKCδ is critical for inducing DM-induced serotonergic behaviors and that inhibition of PKCδ attenuates the serotonergic behaviors via downregulation of 5-HT_1A receptor and upregulation of Nrf2-dependent GSH synthesis.

Studies with psychedelic drugs in human volunteers

Scientific curiosity and fascination have played a key role in human research with psychedelics along with the hope that perceptual alterations and heightened insight could benefit well-being and play a role in the treatment of various neuropsychiatric disorders. These motivations need to be tempered by a realistic assessment of the hurdles to be cleared for therapeutic use. Development of a psychedelic drug for treatment of a serious psychiatric disorder presents substantial although not insurmountable challenges. While the varied psychedelic agents described in this chapter share some properties, they have a range of pharmacologic effects that are reflected in the gradation in intensity of hallucinogenic effects from the classical agents to DMT, MDMA, ketamine, dextromethorphan and new drugs with activity in the serotonergic system. The common link seems to be serotonergic effects modulated by NMDA and other neurotransmitter effects. The range of hallucinogens suggest that they are distinct pharmacologic agents and will not be equally safe or effective in therapeutic targets. Newly synthesized specific and selective agents modeled on the legacy agents may be worth considering. Defining therapeutic targets that represent unmet medical need, addressing market and commercial issues, and finding treatment settings to safely test and use such drugs make the human testing of psychedelics not only interesting but also very challenging. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions'.

MK-801, but not naloxone, attenuates high-dose dextromethorphan-induced convulsive behavior: Possible involvement of the GluN2B receptor

Dextromethorphan (DM) is a dextrorotatory isomer of levorphanol, a typical morphine-like opioid. When administered at supra-antitussive doses, DM produces psychotoxic and neurotoxic effects in humans. Although DM abuse has been well-documented, few studies have examined the effects of high-dose DM. The present study aimed to explore the effects of a single high dose of DM on mortality and seizure occurrence. After intraperitoneal administration with a high dose of DM (80mg/kg), Sprague-Dawley rats showed increased seizure occurrence and intensity. Hippocampal expression levels of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits (GluN1<GluN2A<GluN2B), c-Fos and pro-apoptotic factors (Bax and cleaved caspase-3) were upregulated by DM treatment; while levels of anti-apoptotic factors (Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL) were downregulated. Consistently, DM also induced ultrastructural degeneration in the hippocampus. A non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, MK-801, attenuated these effects of high-dose DM, whereas an opioid antagonist, naloxone, did not affect DM-induced neurotoxicity. Moreover, pretreatment with a highly specific GluN2B subunit inhibitor, traxoprodil, was selectively effective in preventing DM-induced c-Fos expression and apoptotic changes. These results suggest that high-dose DM produces convulsive behaviors by activating GluN2B/NMDA signaling that leads to pro-apoptotic changes.

A Role for Sigma Receptors in Stimulant Self-Administration and Addiction

Sigma receptors (σRs) are structurally unique proteins that function intracellularly as chaperones. Historically, σRs have been implicated as modulators of psychomotor stimulant effects and have at times been proposed as potential avenues for modifying stimulant abuse. However, the influence of ligands for σRs on the effects of stimulants, such as cocaine or methamphetamine, in various preclinical procedures related to drug abuse has been varied. The present paper reviews the effects of σR agonists and antagonists in three particularly relevant procedures: stimulant discrimination, place conditioning, and self-administration. The literature to date suggests limited σR involvement in the discriminative-stimulus effects of psychomotor stimulants, either with σR agonists substituting for the stimulant or with σR antagonists blocking stimulant effects. In contrast, studies of place conditioning suggest that administration of σR antagonists or down-regulation of σR protein can block the place conditioning induced by stimulants. Despite place conditioning results, selective σR antagonists are inactive in blocking the self-administration of stimulants. However, compounds binding to the dopamine transporter and blocking σRs can selectively decrease stimulant self-administration. Further, after self-administration of stimulants, σR agonists are self-administered, an effect not seen in subjects without that specific history. These findings suggest that stimulants induce unique changes in σR activity, and once established, the changes induced create redundant, and dopamine independent reinforcement pathways. Concomitant targeting of both dopaminergic pathways and σR proteins produces a selective antagonism of those pathways, suggesting new avenues for combination chemotherapies to specifically combat stimulant abuse.

High doses of dextromethorphan, an NMDA antagonist, produce effects similar to classic hallucinogens

RATIONALE

Although reports of dextromethorphan (DXM) abuse have increased recently, few studies have examined the effects of high doses of DXM.

OBJECTIVE

This study in humans evaluated the effects of supratherapeutic doses of DXM and triazolam.

METHODS

Single, acute oral doses of DXM (100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800 mg/70 kg), triazolam (0.25 and 0.5 mg/70 kg), and placebo were administered to 12 healthy volunteers with histories of hallucinogen use, under double-blind conditions, using an ascending dose run-up design. Subjective, behavioral, and physiological effects were assessed repeatedly after drug administration for 6 h.

RESULTS

Triazolam produced dose-related increases in subject-rated sedation, observer-rated sedation, and behavioral impairment. DXM produced a profile of dose-related physiological and subjective effects differing from triazolam. DXM effects included increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and emesis; increases in observer-rated effects typical of classic hallucinogens (e.g., distance from reality, visual effects with eyes open and closed, joy, anxiety); and participant ratings of stimulation (e.g., jittery, nervous), somatic effects (e.g., tingling, headache), perceptual changes, end-of-session drug liking, and mystical-type experience. After 400 mg/70 kg DXM, 11 of 12 participants indicated on a pharmacological class questionnaire that they thought they had received a classic hallucinogen (e.g., psilocybin). Drug effects resolved without significant adverse effects by the end of the session. In a 1-month follow-up, volunteers attributed increased spirituality and positive changes in attitudes, moods, and behavior to the session experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

High doses of DXM produced effects distinct from triazolam and had characteristics that were similar to the classic hallucinogen psilocybin.

A Role for Sigma Receptors in Stimulant Self Administration and Addiction

Sigma₁ receptors (σ₁Rs) represent a structurally unique class of intracellular proteins that function as chaperones. σ₁Rs translocate from the mitochondria-associated membrane to the cell nucleus or cell membrane, and through protein-protein interactions influence several targets, including ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors, lipids, and other signaling proteins. Several studies have demonstrated that σR antagonists block stimulant-induced behavioral effects, including ambulatory activity, sensitization, and acute toxicities. Curiously, the effects of stimulants have been blocked by σR antagonists tested under place-conditioning but not self-administration procedures, indicating fundamental differences in the mechanisms underlying these two effects. The self administration of σR agonists has been found in subjects previously trained to self administer cocaine. The reinforcing effects of the σR agonists were blocked by σR antagonists. Additionally, σR agonists were found to increase dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens shell, a brain region considered important for the reinforcing effects of abused drugs. Although the effects of the σR agonist, DTG, on dopamine were obtained at doses that approximated those that maintained self administration behavior those of another agonist, PRE-084 required higher doses. The effects of DTG were antagonized by non-selective or a preferential σ₂R antagonist but not by a preferential σ₁R antagonist. The effects of PRE-084 on dopamine were insensitive to σR antagonists. The data suggest that the self administration of σR agonists is independent of dopamine and the findings are discussed in light of a hypothesis that cocaine has both intracellular actions mediated by σRs, as well as extracellular actions mediated through conventionally studied mechanisms. The co-activation and potential interactions among these mechanisms, in particular those involving the intracellular chaperone σRs, may lead to the pernicious addictive effects of stimulant drugs.

Neuropsychopharmacological understanding for therapeutic application of morphinans

Morphinans are a class of compounds containing the basic structure of morphine. It is well-known that morphinans possess diverse pharmacological effects on the central nervous system. This review will demonstrate novel neuroprotective effects of several morphinans such as, dextromethorphan, its analogs and naloxone on the models of multiple neurodegenerative disease by modulating glial activation associated with the production of a host of proinflammatory and neurotoxic factors, although dextromethorphan possesses neuropsychotoxic potentials. The neuroprotective effects and the therapeutic potential for the treatment of excitotoxic and inflammatory neurodegenerative diseases, and underlying mechanism of morphinans are discussed.

Social reward-conditioned place preference: a model revealing an interaction between cocaine and social context rewards in rats

A recent thrust in drug abuse research is the influence of social interactions on drug effects. Therefore, the present study examined conditioned place preference (CPP) as a model for assessing interactions between drug and social rewards in adolescent rats. Parameters for establishing social reward-CPP were examined, including the number of conditioning sessions/day (1 or 2), the total number of sessions (2, 8, or 16), and the duration of sessions (10 or 30 min). Subsequently, the effects of cocaine or dextromethorphan on social reward-CPP and play behavior were examined. The results demonstrate that social reward-CPP (i.e., preference shift for an environment paired previously with a rat) was similar using either 1 or 2 conditioning sessions/day and either 10 or 30 min sessions; however, social reward-CPP increased as the number of social pairings increased. Additionally, a low dose of cocaine (2 mg/kg, IP) and a low number of social pairings (2 pairings) failed to produce CPP when examined alone, but together produced a robust CPP, demonstrating an interaction between these rewards. The non-rewarding drug, dextromethorphan (30 mg/kg, IP), failed to enhance social reward-CPP, suggesting that drug-enhanced social reward-CPP is specific to rewarding drugs. Surprisingly, there was no relationship between play behaviors and preference shift in drug-naïve animals. Furthermore, cocaine inhibited play behavior despite enhancing social reward-CPP, suggesting that aspects of social interaction other than play behavior likely contribute to social reward. The findings have important implications for understanding the influence of social context on cocaine reward during adolescence.

Comparative effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on nicotine discrimination in rats

While the role of dextrorphan and dextromethorphan as N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists has received considerable research attention, their effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) has been less well characterized. Recent in vitro and in vivo research has suggested that these drugs noncompetitively block alpha3beta4*, alpha4beta2, and alpha7 nAChR subtypes and antagonize nicotine's antinociceptive and reinforcing effects. Both drugs were most potent at blocking alpha3beta4* AChR. This study investigated the effects of dextrorphan and dextromethorphan on nicotine's discriminative stimulus effects. Three groups of rats were trained in a two-lever drug discrimination procedure to discriminate 0.4 mg/kg s.c. nicotine from saline. Nicotine dose-dependently substituted for itself in all three groups. In contrast, when dextrorphan (group 1) or dextromethorphan (group 2) were injected i.p., neither substitution for nor antagonism of nicotine was observed for either drug. Since i.p. administration allows substantial metabolism of dextromethorphan to its parent compound dextrorphan, the two drugs were also tested following s.c. administration (group 3). Discrimination results were similar across both routes of administration, in that neither substitution nor antagonism occurred, however, s.c. administration reduced response rates to a much greater extent than did i.p. administration. Previous work suggests that beta2 subunits are crucial for mediation of nicotine's discriminative stimulus effects and may play a role in its reinforcing effects, albeit other research suggests a role for alpha3beta4* nicotinic receptors in the latter. Our results suggest that alpha3beta4* nicotinic receptors do not play a major role in nicotine's discriminative stimulus effects. Further, they suggest that the role of cholinergic mediation of the behavioral effects of dextrorphan and dextromethorphan related to the abuse properties of nicotine may be minimal.

Effects of dextrorotatory morphinans on α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes

We previously demonstrated that dextromethorphan (DM; 3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan) analogs have neuroprotective effects, and a recent report showed that DM reduces the adverse effects of morphine and blocks alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, a major target of anti-addictive agents. Here, we investigated the effects of DM, three of its analogs (DF, 3-methyl-17-methylmorphinan; AM, 3-allyloxy-17-methoxymorphian; and CM, 3-cyclopropyl-17-methoxymorphinan) and one of its metabolites (HM; 3-methoxymorphinan), on neuronal alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel activity expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, using the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. We found that intraoocyte injection of neuronal alpha3 and beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit cRNAs elicited an inward current (IACh) in the presence of acetylcholine. Co-treatment with DM, DF, AM, CM or HM inhibited IACh in a dose-dependent, voltage-independent and reversible manner. The IC50 values for DM, DF, AM, CM and HM were 19.5+/-5.2, 15.8+/-4.5, 16.3+/-1.7, 10.1+/-2.8, and 13.5+/-4.0 microM, respectively. The order of potency for the inhibition of IACh was CM>HM>DF=AM>DM in oocytes expressing alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The inhibitions of (IACh) by DM, DF and HM, AM and CM were non-competitive. These results indicate that AM, CM and HM could be novel non-competitive agents regulating alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor channel activity.

The dextromethorphan analog dimemorfan attenuates kainate-induced seizures via sigma1 receptor activation: comparison with the effects of dextromethorphan

In a previous study, we demonstrated that a dextromethorphan analog, dimemorfan, has neuroprotective effects. Dextromethorphan and dimemorfan are high-affinity ligands at sigma1 receptors. Dextromethorphan has moderate affinities for phencyclidine sites, while dimemorfan has very low affinities for such sites, suggesting that these sites are not essential for the anticonvulsant actions of dimemorfan. Kainate (KA) administration (10 mg kg(-1), i.p.) produced robust convulsions lasting 4-6 h in rats. Pre-treatment with dimemorfan (12 or 24 mg kg(-1)) reduced seizures in a dose-dependent manner. Dimemorfan pre-treatment also attenuated the KA-induced increases in c-fos/c-jun expression, activator protein (AP)-1 DNA-binding activity, and loss of cells in the CA1 and CA3 fields of the hippocampus. These effects of dimemorfan were comparable to those of dextromethorphan. The anticonvulsant action of dextromethorphan or dimemorfan was significantly counteracted by a selective sigma1 receptor antagonist BD 1047, suggesting that the anticonvulsant action of dextromethorphan or dimemorfan is, at least in part, related to sigma1 receptor-activated modulation of AP-1 transcription factors. We asked whether dimemorfan produces the behavioral side effects seen with dextromethorphan or dextrorphan (a phencyclidine-like metabolite of dextromethorphan). Conditioned place preference and circling behaviors were significantly increased in mice treated with phencyclidine, dextrorphan or dextromethorphan, while mice treated with dimemorfan showed no behavioral side effects. Our results suggest that dimemorfan is equipotent to dextromethorphan in preventing KA-induced seizures, while it may lack behavioral effects, such as psychotomimetic reactions.

Comparison of the Effects of Dextromethorphan, Dextrorphan, and Levorphanol on the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

Dextromethorphan is a weak noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist. It is metabolized in vivo to dextrorphan, a more potent noncompetitive NMDA antagonist that is the dextrorotatory enantiomer of the opioid agonist levorphanol. The present study characterized the effects of the acute administration of dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and levorphanol on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in the rat and tested the involvement of opioid receptors in the responses produced by dextrorphan and levorphanol. Although both dextromethorphan and dextrorphan increased plasma levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone, the dextromethorphan-induced responses occurred more rapidly than the dextrorphan-induced responses. The analysis of plasma levels of dextrorphan produced after the administration of dextromethorphan indicates that the concentration of dextrorphan formed was too low to be pharmacologically relevant, suggesting that at least some of the effects on the HPA axis are due to the parent compound, and not the metabolite. Naloxone (2 mg/kg) had no effect on the dextrorphan-induced increases in plasma levels of ACTH and corticosterone, but it blocked the levorphanol-induced increases. These results support the hypothesis that dextromethorphan has pharmacological activity aside from its biotransformation to dextrorphan and demonstrate that the effects of dextrorphan are not mediated by opioid receptors.

Determination of dextromethorphan and its metabolites in rat serum by liquid-liquid extraction and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection

Dextromethorphan is an effective and safe antitussive, but has liabilities with respect to its abuse potential at doses above the therapeutic dose. At these higher doses, people report phencyclidine-like effects from the drug. A number of animal models have suggested that dextrorphan, an active metabolite of dextromethorphan, is responsible for the abuse liability of the parent compound when dextromethorphan is taken at high doses. Full pharmacokinetic profiles in single animals have not been demonstrated in these studies due to a lack of analytical sensitivity and/or selectivity for dextromethorphan and its metabolites. We have developed a low-cost liquid chromatographic method capable of characterizing the concentration-time profile for dextromethorphan and dextrorphan for 8 h in rats following an 18 mg/kg i.p. dose of dextromethorphan. Limits of quantitation (S/N=10) in 100 microL of serum were 0.25, 0.19, 0.27, and 0.22 nmol/mL for 3-hydroxymorphinan, dextrorphan, 3-methoxymorphinan, and dextromethorphan, respectively. Inter-day precision was better than 11% across the dynamic range of the method.

NMDA-receptor antagonism via dextromethorphan and ifenprodil modulates graded anxiety test performance of C57BL/6 mice

The majority of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDA-R) in the adult forebrain are di- or triheteromers composed of NR1, NR2A and NR2B subunits. Subunit non-selective NMDA-R antagonists produce anxiolytic-like effects together with motor and sensory side-effects. The graded anxiety test (GAT), permits the within-task distinction of drug effects on anxiety from those on activity and perception. By testing NMDA-R subunit selective agents in the GAT it might be possible to determine whether their effects on anxiety, activity and perception are interrelated, and whether separate NMDA-R subtypes are involved. Dextromethorphan (weakly NR2A-selective) (10 and 30 mg/kg, i.p.) and ifenprodil (highly NR2B-selective) (1, 3 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) were tested in the GAT. Both drugs failed to induce anxiolysis devoid of side-effects. However, the 10 mg/kg dose of dextromethorpan showed an anxiolytic, whereas the 30 mg/kg dose showed an anxiogenic, behavioral profile. Since the selective blockade of the NR2B subunit by ifenprodil had no clear anxiolytic effect, the anxiolytic potential of NMDA subunit non-selective agents might involve NR2A-containing receptors.

Metabolism to dextrorphan is not essential for dextromethorphan's anticonvulsant activity against kainate in mice

The effects of dextromethorphan (DM), and its major metabolite dextrorphan (DX) on kainic acid-induced seizures in mice were examined. Intracerebroventricular DM or DX (5 or 10 microg/0.5 microl) pretreatment significantly attenuated seizures induced by kainic acid (0.07 microg/0.07 microl) in a dose-related manner. DM or DX pretreatment significantly attenuated kainic acid-induced increases in AP-1 DNA-binding activity and fos-related antigen-immunoreactivity as well as neuronal loss in the hippocampus. DM appears to be a more potent neuroprotectant than DX. Since the high-affinity DM binding sites are recognized as being identical to the sigma-1 site, we examined the role of the sigma-1 receptor on the pharmacological action mediated by DM or DX. Pretreatment with the sigma-1 receptor antagonist BD1047 (2.5 or 5 mg/kg, i.p.) blocked the neuroprotection by DM in a dose-related manner. This effect of BD 1047 was more pronounced in the animals treated with DM than in those treated with DX. Combined, our results suggest that metabolism of DM to DX is not essential for DM to exert its effect. They also suggest that DM provides neuroprotection from kainic acid via sigma-1 receptor modulation.

Anticonvulsant effects of new morphinan derivatives

We synthesized a series of compounds that are modified in positions 3 and 17 of the morphinan ring system, with the intention of developing ideal anticonvulsant agents. We examined the effects of these compounds on kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures, and on locomotor patterns in rats. We found that compounds 5, 6, and 8 exhibit novel anticonvulsant effects, with negligible psychotropic effects.

Comparative effects of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on morphine, methamphetamine, and nicotine self-administration in rats

The effects of dextromethorphan and its metabolite dextrorphan on morphine, methamphetamine and nicotine self-administration and on responding for a nondrug reinforcer (water) were assessed in rats. Both dextromethorphan and dextrorphan decreased morphine self-administration at 10-30 mg/kg, s.c., decreased methamphetamine self-administration at 20 and 30 mg/kg, s.c., and decreased nicotine self-administration at 5-30 mg/kg, s.c.; doses of both drugs less than 40 mg/kg, s.c. did not affect responding for water. The equal potencies of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan suggest mediation of these effects by a non-NMDA receptor mechanism, possibly involving blockade of alpha3beta4 nicotinic receptors. The results also suggest that dextromethorphan should be tested extensively as a potential treatment for diverse populations of drug-abusing patients.

Effects of dextromethorphan on the seizures induced by kainate and the calcium channel agonist BAY k-8644: comparison with the effects of dextrorphan

BAY k-8644 (an L-type Ca(2+) channel agonist of the dihydropyridine class) is recognized as a potent convulsant agent. In this study, we used BAY k-8644 to explore the effects of dextromethorphan (DM) and its major metabolite, dextrorphan (DX), on the (pro)convulsant activity regulated by calcium channels. BAY k-8644 (2 mg/kg, s.c) potentiated seizures induced in rats by kainic acid (KA) (10 mg/kg, i.p.). DM appears more efficacious than DX in attenuation of KA-induced seizures. The anticonvulsant effect of a low dose (12.5 mg/kg, s.c.) of DM was reversed by BAY k-8644 (2 mg/kg) challenge. In contrast, BAY k-8644 (1 or 2 mg/kg) did not significantly affect an anticonvulsant effect from a higher dose (25 mg/kg) of either DM or DX. Intracerebroventricular injection of BAY k-8644 (37.5 microg) significantly induced seizures in mice. DM (12.5 or 25 mg/kg) pretreatment more significantly attenuated seizures evoked by BAY k-8644 than did DX (12.5 or 25 mg/kg). Furthermore, seizure activity induced by KA or BAY k-8644 was consistent with respective activator protein-1 DNA binding activity of the hippocampus. Therefore, our results suggest that the anticonvulsant effects of the morphinans involve, at least in part, the L-type calcium channel. They also suggest that DM is a more potent anticonvulsant than DX in the KA and BAY k-8644 seizure models.

Further characterization of the discriminative stimulus effects of spiradoline

The results of a previous study in rats indicated that spiradoline has pharmacologically selective discriminative effects that are mediated by kappa-opioid receptors. However, the training dose, 3.0 mg/kg, increased response latencies, suggesting that it was relatively high. The current study was performed to characterize further the discriminative effects of spiradoline by using a lower training dose, 1.0 mg/kg, and testing a larger number of drugs for generalization with spiradoline. Rats were trained in a discrete-trial avoidance/escape procedure to discriminate 1.0 mg/kg spiradoline, SC, from saline in an average of 19.7 sessions; response latencies after saline and spiradoline were not different from each other. The rats generalized dose dependently and completely to other kappa-opioid agonists that have relatively high efficacy: ethylketocyclazocine, U69,593, and U50,488. They generalized partially to ketocyclazocine, (-)-N-allylnormetazocine, and DuP 747, and not at all to cyclazocine, butorphanol, nalorphine, and pentazocine, discriminable opioids that have relatively low efficacy at kappa-opioid receptors, or to morphine and dextromethorphan, discriminable drugs that do not act at kappa-opioid receptors. The discriminative effects of spiradoline were unaffected by the mu-opioid antagonist beta-funaltrexamine, but were blocked completely for at least 4 weeks by the kappa-opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphimine. Thus, spiradoline-like stimulus control of behavior remains kappa-opioid selective, and continues to have a high efficacy requirement even at a training dose that does not impair performance.

Relationship between modulation of the cerebellorubrospinal system in the in vitro turtle brain and changes in motor behavior in rats: effects of novel sigma ligands

Saturation and competition binding studies showed that the turtle brain contains sigma sites labeled by both [3H]di-o-tolylguanidine (DTG) and [3H](+)-pentazocine. There was a significant correlation between the IC50 values of sigma ligands for [3H]DTG sites in the turtle vs. rat brain, suggesting that the sites are comparable in the two species. In contrast, [3H](+)-pentazocine, which primarily labels sigma1 sites in the rodent brain, labels a heterogeneity of sites in the turtle brain. In extracellular recordings from the in vitro turtle brainstem, some sigma ligands enhanced the burst responses of red nucleus (RN) neurons (DTG, haloperidol, BD1031, BD1052, BD1069) while other sigma ligands decreased the burst responses (BD1047, BD1063). Control compounds (turtle Ringer vehicle control, opiate antagonist naloxone, atypical neuroleptic sulpiride) had no significant effects on the RN burst responses recorded from the in vitro turtle brain. The ED50s of the ligands for altering the burst responses in RN neurons from the turtle brain were correlated with their IC50s for turtle brain sites labeled with [3H]DTG, but not [3H](+)-pentazocine; this pattern is identical to that previously reported in rats, where there is a correlation between the potencies of sigma ligands for producing dystonic postures after microinjection into the rat RN and their binding to rat brain sites labeled with [3H]DTG, but not [3H](+)-pentazocine. When the novel sigma ligands were microinjected into the rat RN, dystonic postures were produced by ligands that increased the burst duration of RN neurons in the turtle brain. Novel sigma ligands that reduced the burst responses in the in vitro turtle brain have previously been reported to have no effects on their own when microinjected into the rat RN, but to block the dystonic postures produced by other sigma ligands. Taken together, the data suggest that the opposite effects of the novel ligands in the turtle electrophysiological studies represent the actions of agonists vs. antagonists, and that the directionality of the effects has predictive value for the expected motor effects of the drugs.

Psychotropic effects of dextromethorphan are altered by the CYP2D6 polymorphism: a pilot study

Dextromethorphan is a nonopioid antitussive metabolized by cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) to an active metabolite, dextrorphan. CYP2D6 is polymorphically expressed in humans, with 5 to 10% of Caucasians being homozygous deficient for the active form of the enzyme. In a pilot study, the authors investigated the pharmacologic effects of dextromethorphan in individuals phenotyped and genotyped as extensive metabolizers (EMs, N = 4) and poor metabolizers (PMs, N = 2) of CYP2D6 substrates. Dextromethorphan doses ranged from 0 to 6 mg/kg based on individual subject tolerance. All EMs tolerated 3 to 6 mg/kg dextromethorphan, whereas PMs barely tolerated 3 mg/kg dextromethorphan and therefore received lower doses. As shown in previous studies, plasma kinetics show profound differences in dextromethorphan metabolism between EMs and PMs. Dextromethorphan produced qualitatively and quantitatively different objective and subjective effects in the two groups. Objectively, PMs had greater psychomotor impairment, as measured by a joystick tracking task, compared with EMs on 3 mg/kg dextromethorphan (mean performance +/- SE, 95+/-0.5% for EMs vs. 86+/-6% for PMs; p < 0.05). At this dose, EMs also reported greater abuse potential compared with PMs (p < 0.05), and PMs reported greater sedation and dysphoria compared with EMs (p < 0.01). These data provide preliminary evidence that dextrorphan contributes to dextromethorphan abuse liability, and therefore PMs may be less likely to abuse dextromethorphan.

(+)-SKF-10,047 and dextromethorphan ameliorate conditioned fear stress through the activation of phenytoin-regulated sigma 1 sites

Mice exhibited a marked suppression of motility when they were replaced in the same environment in which they had previously received an electric footshock. This psychological stress-induced motor suppression, known as conditioned fear stress, was dose dependently attenuated by (+)-N-allylnormetazocine ((+)-SKF-10,047) and by dextromethorphan, putative sigma receptor agonists, but not by other sigma receptor ligands, (+)-pentazocine and 1,3-di-(2-tolyl)guanidine (DTG). Unlike (+)-SKF-10,047 and dextromethorphan, the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, phencyclidine and dizocilpine, attenuated the conditioned fear stress only at high doses that induced marked hypermotility in non-stressed mice. The effects of (+)-SKF-10,047 and dextromethorphan, but not phencyclidine and dizocilpine, on the conditioned fear stress were antagonized by the sigma receptor antagonists, NE-100 (N,N-dipropyl-2-[4-methoxy-3-(2- phenylethoxy)phenyl]-ethylamine monohydrochloride) and BMY-14802 (alpha-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-(5-fluoro-2-pyrimidinyl)-1-piperazine- butanol hydrochloride). Interestingly, the effects of (+)-SKF-10,047 and dextromethorphan on the stress response were enhanced by combination with phenytoin, an anticonvulsant drug, whereas those of (+)- pentazocine, DTG, phencyclidine, and dizocilpine were not. These results suggest that activation of phenytoin-regulated type sigma 1 receptors, but not of phencyclidine receptors, is involved in the ameliorating effects of (+)-SKF-10,047 and dextromethorphan on stress-induced motor suppression.

Dizocilpine-like discriminative stimulus effects of low-affinity uncompetitive NMDA antagonists

The dizocilpine-like discriminative stimulus effects of a variety of channel blocking (uncompetitive) N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists were examined in rats trained to discriminate dizocilpine (0.17 mg/kg, i.p) from saline in a two-lever operant procedure. The dissociative anesthetic-type NMDA antagonists dizocilpine (ED50 0.05 mg/kg), phencyclidine (ED50 3.4 mg/kg) and ketamine (ED50 14 mg/kg) showed complete substitution without producing significant decreases in response rates, whereas dexoxadrol (ED50 4.3 mg/kg) also produced complete substitution with a concomitant decrease (35%) in response rate. Similarly, the low-affinity antagonist memantine resulted in complete substitution (ED50 9.7 mg/kg) at doses that significantly reduced (68%) the response rate. All other low-affinity antagonists resulted in either partial or no substitution for the discriminative stimulus effects of dizocilpine at doses that significantly decreased average response rates. These include (ED50 values in parentheses) remacemide (29 mg/kg), the remacemide metabolite 1,2-diphenyl-2-propylamine (ARL 12495) (14 mg/kg), phencylcyclopentylamine (25 mg/kg), dextromethorphan (46 mg/kg), (+/-)-5-aminocarbonyl-10,11-dihydro -5H-dibenzo-[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine (ADCI; no substitution) and levoxadrol (no substitution). We conclude that low-affinity uncompetitive NMDA antagonists have discriminative stimulus properties distinct from dissociative anesthetic-type uncompetitive NMDA antagonists. The lowest-affinity antagonists show virtually no substitution for dizocilpine, whereas the relatively more potent low-affinity antagonists (such as memantine) exhibit greater substitution, but complete substitution is obtained only at rate-reducing doses.