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Ecevitoglu A, Edelstein GA, Presby RE, Rotolo RA, Yang JH, Quiles T, Okifo K, Conrad RT, Kovach A, Correa M, Salamone JD. Effects of the atypical antipsychotic and D3/D2 dopamine partial agonist cariprazine on effort-based choice behavior: implications for modeling avolition. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:1747-1757. [PMID: 37358806 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06405-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cariprazine is an atypical antipsychotic that acts as a D3/D2 receptor partial agonist. In addition to treating positive symptoms of schizophrenia, cariprazine may have utility for treating negative symptoms. Rodent studies have focused on the effects of cariprazine on cognitive functions and behaviors thought to be related to anhedonia. Avolition, which is characterized by reduced initiation and persistence of goal-directed behavior, is another important negative symptom. OBJECTIVES Effort-related choice tasks have been used as animal models of avolition. In these studies, cariprazine was assessed for its effects on effort-based choice in both rats and mice. Previous work has shown that D2 antagonists such as haloperidol and eticlopride produce a low-effort bias in rodents tested on effort-based choice tasks. RESULTS Low doses of cariprazine produced a low-effort bias in rats tested on the fixed ratio 5/chow feeding choice task, decreasing lever pressing for high carbohydrate pellets but increasing chow intake. Cariprazine did not alter preference or intake of these foods in free-feeding tests. The effort-related effects of cariprazine were reversed by co-administration of the adenosine A2A antagonist istradefylline, and cariprazine failed to reverse the effort-related effects of the dopamine-depleting agent tetrabenazine. In mouse touchscreen choice tests, low doses of cariprazine also produced a low-effort bias, shifting behavior away from panel pressing. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that with these rodent models of avolition, cariprazine appears to act like a D2-family antagonist even at very low doses. Furthermore, the pharmacological regulation of avolition may differ from that of other negative symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alev Ecevitoglu
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Gayle A Edelstein
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Rose E Presby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Scintillon Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Renee A Rotolo
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Sage Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jen-Hau Yang
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Taina Quiles
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Kevin Okifo
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Ryan T Conrad
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Ashley Kovach
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Merce Correa
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, Campus de Riu Sec, 12071, Castellón de La Plana, Castelló, Spain
| | - John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA.
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2
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Tuncali I, Sorial N, Torr K, Pereira M. Positive maternal affect during mother-litter interaction is reduced in new mother rats exhibiting a depression-like phenotype. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6552. [PMID: 37085648 PMCID: PMC10121587 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33035-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The experience of positive affect during new motherhood is considered essential for a healthy mother-infant relationship, with life-long consequences for both mother and child. Affective availability and contingent responsiveness are often compromised in mothers experiencing postpartum depression, yet how maternal affect impacts parenting is not fully understood. In this study, we used the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat model of depression and ultrasonic vocalizations to examine the relationship between maternal affect and parenting. We examined the affective and behavioral response of WKY and control new mother rats during social interactions with their offspring. Our results show that WKY mothers displayed altered USV signaling accompanying substantial disturbances in their maternal caregiving. In addition, WKY mothers failed to adjust vocal frequency in coordination with offspring proximity and interaction compared to control mothers. A follow up experiment demonstrated that the administration of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist MSX-3 ameliorated both maternal behavioral deficits and low positive affect in WKY mothers. Together, our results highlight the importance of maternal positive affect in the dyad relationship and suggest a role for the striatopallidal pathway in the affective processing of parenting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idil Tuncali
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
- APDA Center for Advanced Parkinson Research and Precision Neurology Program, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Natalie Sorial
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Kali Torr
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Mariana Pereira
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
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3
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Zhang L, Liu C, Zhou X, Zhou H, Luo S, Wang Q, Yao Z, Chen JF. Neural representation and modulation of volitional motivation in response to escalating efforts. J Physiol 2023; 601:631-645. [PMID: 36534700 PMCID: PMC10108165 DOI: 10.1113/jp283915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Task-dependent volitional control of the selected neural activity in the cortex is critical to neuroprosthetic learning to achieve reliable and robust control of the external device. The volitional control of neural activity is driven by a motivational factor (volitional motivation), which directly reinforces the target neurons via real-time biofeedback. However, in the absence of motor behaviour, how do we evaluate volitional motivation? Here, we defined the criterion (ΔF/F) of the calcium fluorescence signal in a volitionally controlled neural task, then escalated the efforts by progressively increasing the number of reaching the criterion or holding time after reaching the criterion. We devised calcium-based progressive threshold-crossing events (termed 'Calcium PTE') and calcium-based progressive threshold-crossing holding-time (termed 'Calcium PTH') for quantitative assessment of volitional motivation in response to progressively escalating efforts. Furthermore, we used this novel neural representation of volitional motivation to explore the neural circuit and neuromodulator bases for volitional motivation. As with behavioural motivation, chemogenetic activation and pharmacological blockade of the striatopallidal pathway decreased and increased, respectively, the breakpoints of the 'Calcium PTE' and 'Calcium PTH' in response to escalating efforts. Furthermore, volitional and behavioural motivation shared similar dopamine dynamics in the nucleus accumbens in response to trial-by-trial escalating efforts. In general, the development of a neural representation of volitional motivation may open a new avenue for smooth and effective control of brain-machine interface tasks. KEY POINTS: Volitional motivation is quantitatively evaluated by M1 neural activity in response to progressively escalating volitional efforts. The striatopallidal pathway and adenosine A2A receptor modulate volitional motivation in response to escalating efforts. Dopamine dynamics encode prediction signal for reward in response to repeated escalating efforts during motor and volitional conditioning. Mice learn to modulate neural activity to compensate for repeated escalating efforts in volitional control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Zhang
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chengwei Liu
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Xiaopeng Zhou
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Hui Zhou
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Shengtao Luo
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qin Wang
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhimo Yao
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jiang-Fan Chen
- The Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory and the Eye-Brain Research Center, The State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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4
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Critical review of RDoC approaches to the study of motivation with animal models: effort valuation/willingness to work. Emerg Top Life Sci 2022; 6:515-528. [PMID: 36218385 DOI: 10.1042/etls20220008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 09/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) approach was instigated to refocus mental health research on the neural circuits that mediate psychological functions, with the idea that this would foster an understanding of the neural basis of specific psychiatric dysfunctions (i.e. 'symptoms and circuits') and ultimately facilitate treatment. As a general idea, this attempt to go beyond traditional diagnostic categories and focus on neural circuit dysfunctions related to specific symptoms spanning multiple disorders has many advantages. For example, motivational dysfunctions are present in multiple disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and other conditions. A critical aspect of motivation is effort valuation/willingness to work, and several clinical studies have identified alterations in effort-based decision making in various patient groups. In parallel, formal animal models focusing on the exertion of effort and effort-based decision making have been developed. This paper reviews the literature on models of effort-based motivational function in the context of a discussion of the RDoC approach, with an emphasis on the dissociable nature of distinct aspects of motivation. For example, conditions associated with depression and schizophrenia blunt the selection of high-effort activities as measured by several tasks in animal models (e.g. lever pressing, barrier climbing, wheel running). Nevertheless, these manipulations also leave fundamental aspects of hedonic reactivity, food motivation, and reinforcement intact. This pattern of effects demonstrates that the general emphasis of the RDoC on the specificity of the neural circuits mediating behavioral pathologies, and the dissociative nature of these dysfunctions, is a valid concept. Nevertheless, the specific placement of effort-related processes as simply a 'sub-construct' of 'reward processing' is empirically and conceptually problematic. Thus, while the RDoC is an excellent general framework for new ways to approach research and therapeutics, it still needs further refinement.
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5
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Kaźmierczak M, Nicola SM. The Arousal-motor Hypothesis of Dopamine Function: Evidence that Dopamine Facilitates Reward Seeking in Part by Maintaining Arousal. Neuroscience 2022; 499:64-103. [PMID: 35853563 PMCID: PMC9479757 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine facilitates approach to reward via its actions on dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. For example, blocking either D1 or D2 dopamine receptors in the accumbens reduces the proportion of reward-predictive cues to which rats respond with cued approach. Recent evidence indicates that accumbens dopamine also promotes wakefulness and arousal, but the relationship between dopamine's roles in arousal and reward seeking remains unexplored. Here, we show that the ability of systemic or intra-accumbens injections of the D1 antagonist SCH23390 to reduce cued approach to reward depends on the animal's state of arousal. Handling the animal, a manipulation known to increase arousal, was sufficient to reverse the behavioral effects of the antagonist. In addition, SCH23390 reduced spontaneous locomotion and increased time spent in sleep postures, both consistent with reduced arousal, but also increased time spent immobile in postures inconsistent with sleep. In contrast, the ability of the D2 antagonist haloperidol to reduce cued approach was not reversible by handling. Haloperidol reduced spontaneous locomotion but did not increase sleep postures, instead increasing immobility in non-sleep postures. We place these results in the context of the extensive literature on dopamine's contributions to behavior, and propose the arousal-motor hypothesis. This novel synthesis, which proposes that two main functions of dopamine are to promote arousal and facilitate motor behavior, accounts both for our findings and many previous behavioral observations that have led to disparate and conflicting conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Kaźmierczak
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, Forchheimer 111, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Saleem M Nicola
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, Forchheimer 111, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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6
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Treadway MT, Salamone JD. Vigor, Effort-Related Aspects of Motivation and Anhedonia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 58:325-353. [PMID: 35505057 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter we provide an overview of the pharmacological and circuit mechanisms that determine the willingness to expend effort in pursuit of rewards. A particular focus will be on the role of the mesolimbic dopamine system, as well the contributing roles of limbic and cortical brains areas involved in the evaluation, selection, and invigoration of goal-directed actions. We begin with a review of preclinical studies, which have provided key insights into the brain systems that are necessary and sufficient for effort-based decision-making and have characterized novel compounds that enhance selection of high-effort activities. Next, we summarize translational studies identifying and expanding this circuitry in humans. Finally, we discuss the relevance of this work for understanding common motivational impairments as part of the broader anhedonia symptom domain associated with mental illness, and the identification of new treatment targets within this circuitry to improve motivation and effort-expenditure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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7
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Salamone J, Ecevitoglu A, Carratala-Ros C, Presby R, Edelstein G, Fleeher R, Rotolo R, Meka N, Srinath S, Masthay JC, Correa M. Complexities and Paradoxes in Understanding the Role of Dopamine in Incentive Motivation and Instrumental Action: Exertion of Effort vs. Anhedonia. Brain Res Bull 2022; 182:57-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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8
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Williams RG, Li KH, Phillips PEM. The Influence of Stress on Decision-Making: Effects of CRF and Dopamine Antagonism in the Nucleus Accumbens. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:814218. [PMID: 35145440 PMCID: PMC8821535 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.814218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The actions of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the core of the nucleus accumbens including increasing dopamine release and inducing conditioned place preference in stress-naïve animals. However, following two-day, repeated forced swim stress (rFSS), neither of these effects are present, indicating a stress-sensitive interaction between CRF and dopamine. To ascertain the degree to which this mechanism influences integrated, reward-based decision making, we used an operant concurrent-choice task where mice could choose between two liquid receptacles containing a sucrose solution or water delivery. Following initial training, either a CRF or dopamine antagonist, α-helical CRF (9-41) and flupenthixol, respectively, or vehicle was administered intracranially to the nucleus accumbens core. Next, the animals underwent rFSS, were reintroduced to the task, and were retested. Prior to stress, mice exhibited a significant preference for sucrose over water and made more total nose pokes into the sucrose receptacle than the water receptacle throughout the session. There were no observed sex differences. Stress did not robustly affect preference metrics but did increase the number of trial omissions compared to their stress-naïve, time-matched counterparts. Interestingly, flupenthixol administration did not affect sucrose choice but increased their nosepoke preference during the inter-trial interval, increased trial omissions, and decreased the total nosepokes during the ITI. In contrast, microinjections of α-helical CRF (9-41) did not affect omissions or ITI nosepokes but produced interactions with stress on choice metrics. These data indicate that dopamine and CRF both interact with stress to impact performance in the task but influence different behavioral aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rapheal G Williams
- Center for Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain and Emotion, Seattle, WA, United States.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Kevin H Li
- Center for Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain and Emotion, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Paul E M Phillips
- Center for Excellence in Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain and Emotion, Seattle, WA, United States.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Seattle, WA, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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9
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Gomes JI, Farinha-Ferreira M, Rei N, Gonçalves-Ribeiro J, Ribeiro JA, Sebastião AM, Vaz SH. Of adenosine and the blues: The adenosinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of major depressive disorder. Pharmacol Res 2020; 163:105363. [PMID: 33285234 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the foremost cause of global disability, being responsible for enormous personal, societal, and economical costs. Importantly, existing pharmacological treatments for MDD are partially or totally ineffective in a large segment of patients. As such, the search for novel antidepressant drug targets, anchored on a clear understanding of the etiological and pathophysiological mechanisms underpinning MDD, becomes of the utmost importance. The adenosinergic system, a highly conserved neuromodulatory system, appears as a promising novel target, given both its regulatory actions over many MDD-affected systems and processes. With this goal in mind, we herein review the evidence concerning the role of adenosine as a potential player in pathophysiology and treatment of MDD, combining data from both human and animal studies. Altogether, evidence supports the assertions that the adenosinergic system is altered in both MDD patients and animal models, and that drugs targeting this system have considerable potential as putative antidepressants. Furthermore, evidence also suggests that modifications in adenosine signaling may have a key role in the effects of several pharmacological and non-pharmacological antidepressant treatments with demonstrated efficacy, such as electroconvulsive shock, sleep deprivation, and deep brain stimulation. Lastly, it becomes clear from the available literature that there is yet much to study regarding the role of the adenosinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of MDD, and we suggest several avenues of research that are likely to prove fruitful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana I Gomes
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Miguel Farinha-Ferreira
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Nádia Rei
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joana Gonçalves-Ribeiro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joaquim A Ribeiro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana M Sebastião
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sandra H Vaz
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.
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10
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Bailey MR, Chun E, Schipani E, Balsam PD, Simpson EH. Dissociating the effects of dopamine D2 receptors on effort-based versus value-based decision making using a novel behavioral approach. Behav Neurosci 2020; 134:101-118. [PMID: 32175760 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cost-benefit decision making is essential for organisms to adapt to their ever-changing environment. Most studies of cost-benefit decision making involve choice conditions in which effort and value are varied simultaneously. This prevents identification of the aspects of cost-benefit decision making that are affected by experimental manipulations. We developed operant assays to isolate the individual impacts of effort and value manipulations on cost-benefit decision making. In the concurrent effort choice (CEC) task, mice choose between exerting two distinct types of effort: the number of responses and the duration of a response, to earn the same reward. By parametrically varying response cost, psychometric functions are obtained that reflect how the two types of effort scale against one another. Direct manipulations of effort shift the functions. Because reward value is held constant in this task, differences in scaling of the two response types must be related to the effort manipulations. In the concurrent value choice (CVC) task, mice make the same type of response to earn rewards of different value (e.g., pellets vs. sucrose solutions). Here the effort required to earn one reward type is parametrically varied to obtain the psychometric function that scales the value of the two rewards into the number of responses subjects will pay to earn one reward over the other. Direct value manipulations shift these functions. We tested the effect of the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist, haloperidol, on performance in the CEC and CVC assays and found that D2R signaling is important for effort-based, but not value-based decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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11
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Pardo M, Paul NE, Collins-Praino LE, Salamone JD, Correa M. The non-selective adenosine antagonist theophylline reverses the effects of dopamine antagonism on tremor, motor activity and effort-based decision-making. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 198:173035. [PMID: 32910928 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Considerable evidence indicates that adenosine and dopamine systems interact in the regulation of basal ganglia function. Nonselective adenosine antagonists such as the methylxanthine caffeine as well as selective adenosine A2A antagonists have been shown to produce antiparkinsonian and antidepressant effects in animal models. The present studies were conducted to assess if another methylxantine, theophylline, can reverse motor and motivational impairments induced by dopamine antagonism in rats. RESULTS: Theophylline (3.75-30.0 mg/kg, IP) reversed tremulous jaw movements (TJMs), catalepsy, and locomotor suppression induced by the dopamine D2 antagonist pimozide. It also reversed TJMs induced by the muscarinic receptor agonist pilocarpine, which is a well-known tremorogenic agent. Parallel studies assessed the ability of theophylline (5.0-20.0 mg/kg, IP) to reverse the changes in effort-related choice behavior induced by the dopamine D1 antagonist ecopipam (0.2 mg/kg, IP) and the D2 antagonist haloperidol (0.1 mg/kg, IP). Rats were tested on two different operant choice tasks which assess the tendency to work for a preferred reinforcer by lever pressing (for palatable pellets or a high 5% sucrose solution) vs. approaching and consuming a less preferred reinforcer (freely available lab chow or a less concentrated 0.3% sucrose solution). Theophylline restored food and sucrose-reinforced lever pressing in animals treated with the D2 antagonist. However, it was unable to reverse the effects of the D1 antagonist. Overall, the effects of theophylline resembled those previously reported for adenosine A2A antagonists, and suggest that theophylline could be clinically useful for the treatment of motor and motivational symptoms in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Pardo
- Dept. Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Nicholas E Paul
- Dept. Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | | | - John D Salamone
- Dept. Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Mercè Correa
- Dept. Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain; Dept. Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA.
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12
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Hailwood JM, Heath CJ, Phillips BU, Robbins TW, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ. Blockade of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors facilitates motivated behaviour and rescues a model of antipsychotic-induced amotivation. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:1068-1075. [PMID: 30478410 PMCID: PMC6397643 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-018-0281-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Disruptions to motivated behaviour are a highly prevalent and severe symptom in a number of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Current treatment options for these disorders have little or no effect upon motivational impairments. We assessed the contribution of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors to motivated behaviour in mice, as a novel pharmacological target for motivational impairments. Touchscreen progressive ratio (PR) performance was facilitated by the nonselective muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine as well as the more subtype-selective antagonists biperiden (M1) and tropicamide (M4). However, scopolamine and tropicamide also produced increases in non-specific activity levels, whereas biperiden did not. A series of control tests suggests the effects of the mAChR antagonists were sensitive to changes in reward value and not driven by changes in satiety, motor fatigue, appetite or perseveration. Subsequently, a sub-effective dose of biperiden was able to facilitate the effects of amphetamine upon PR performance, suggesting an ability to enhance dopaminergic function. Both biperiden and scopolamine were also able to reverse a haloperidol-induced deficit in PR performance, however only biperiden was able to rescue the deficit in effort-related choice (ERC) performance. Taken together, these data suggest that the M1 mAChR may be a novel target for the pharmacological enhancement of effort exertion and consequent rescue of motivational impairments. Conversely, M4 receptors may inadvertently modulate effort exertion through regulation of general locomotor activity levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M. Hailwood
- 0000000121885934grid.5335.0Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Christopher J. Heath
- 0000000096069301grid.10837.3dSchool of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA UK
| | - Benjamin U. Phillips
- 0000000121885934grid.5335.0Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Trevor W. Robbins
- 0000000121885934grid.5335.0Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Lisa M. Saksida
- 0000 0004 1936 8884grid.39381.30Molecular Medicine Research Group, Robarts Research Institute & Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western University, London, ON Canada ,0000 0004 1936 8884grid.39381.30The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON Canada
| | - Timothy J. Bussey
- 0000000121885934grid.5335.0Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK ,0000 0004 1936 8884grid.39381.30Molecular Medicine Research Group, Robarts Research Institute & Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western University, London, ON Canada ,0000 0004 1936 8884grid.39381.30The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON Canada
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Salamone JD, Correa M, Ferrigno S, Yang JH, Rotolo RA, Presby RE. The Psychopharmacology of Effort-Related Decision Making: Dopamine, Adenosine, and Insights into the Neurochemistry of Motivation. Pharmacol Rev 2019; 70:747-762. [PMID: 30209181 DOI: 10.1124/pr.117.015107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Effort-based decision making is studied using tasks that offer choices between high-effort options leading to more highly valued reinforcers versus low-effort/low-reward options. These tasks have been used to study the involvement of neural systems, including mesolimbic dopamine and related circuits, in effort-related aspects of motivation. Moreover, such tasks are useful as animal models of some of the motivational symptoms that are seen in people with depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and other disorders. The present review will discuss the pharmacology of effort-related decision making and will focus on the use of these tasks for the development of drug treatments for motivational dysfunction. Research has identified pharmacological conditions that can alter effort-based choice and serve as models for depression-related symptoms (e.g., the vesicular monoamine transport-2 inhibitor tetrabenazine and proinflammatory cytokines). Furthermore, tests of effort-based choice have identified compounds that are particularly useful for stimulating high-effort work output and reversing the deficits induced by tetrabenazine and cytokines. These studies indicate that drugs that act by facilitating dopamine transmission, as well as adenosine A2A antagonists, are relatively effective at reversing effort-related impairments. Studies of effort-based choice may lead to the identification of drug targets that could be useful for treating motivational treatments that are resistant to commonly used antidepressants such as serotonin transport inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
| | - Mercè Correa
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
| | - Sarah Ferrigno
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
| | - Jen-Hau Yang
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
| | - Renee A Rotolo
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
| | - Rose E Presby
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut (J.D.S., S.F., J.-H.Y., R.A.R., R.E.P.); and Area de Psicobiologia, Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló, Spain (M.C.)
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Ferré S, Díaz-Ríos M, Salamone JD, Prediger RD. New Developments on the Adenosine Mechanisms of the Central Effects of Caffeine and Their Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders. J Caffeine Adenosine Res 2018; 8:121-131. [PMID: 30596206 PMCID: PMC6306650 DOI: 10.1089/caff.2018.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies on interactions between striatal adenosine and dopamine and one of its main targets, the adenosine A2A receptor–dopamine D2 receptor (A2AR–D2R) heteromer, have provided a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in the psychostimulant effects of caffeine and have brought forward new data on the mechanisms of operation of classical orthosteric ligands within G protein-coupled receptor heteromers. The striatal A2AR–D2R heteromer has a tetrameric structure and forms part of a signaling complex that includes a Gs and a Gi protein and the effector adenyl cyclase (subtype AC5). Another target of caffeine, the adenosine A1 receptor–dopamine D1 receptor (A1R–D1R) heteromer, seems to have a very similar structure. Initially suggested to be localized in the striatum, the A1R–D1R heteromer has now been identified in the spinal motoneuron and shown to mediate the spinally generated caffeine-induced locomotion. In this study, we review the recently discovered properties of A2AR–D2R and A1R–D1R heteromers. Our studies demonstrate that these complexes are a necessary condition to sustain the canonical antagonistic interaction between a Gs-coupled receptor (A2AR or D1R) and a Gi-coupled receptor (D2R or A1R) at the adenylyl cyclase level, which constitutes a new concept in the field of G protein-coupled receptor physiology and pharmacology. A2AR antagonists targeting the striatal A2AR–D2R heteromer are already being considered as therapeutic agents in Parkinson's disease. In this study, we review the preclinical evidence that indicates that caffeine and A2AR antagonists could be used to treat the motivational symptoms of depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, while A1R antagonists selectively targeting the spinal A1R–D1R heteromer could be used in the recovery of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergi Ferré
- Integrative Neurobiology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Manuel Díaz-Ríos
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - Rui Daniel Prediger
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
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López-Cruz L, San Miguel N, Carratalá-Ros C, Monferrer L, Salamone JD, Correa M. Dopamine depletion shifts behavior from activity based reinforcers to more sedentary ones and adenosine receptor antagonism reverses that shift: Relation to ventral striatum DARPP32 phosphorylation patterns. Neuropharmacology 2018; 138:349-359. [PMID: 29408363 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system plays a critical role in behavioral activation and effort-based decision-making. DA depletion produces anergia (shifts to low effort options) in animals tested on effort-based decision-making tasks. Caffeine, the most consumed stimulant in the world, acts as an adenosine A1/A2A receptor antagonist, and in striatal areas DA D1 and D2 receptors are co-localized with adenosine A1 and A2A receptors respectively. In the present work, we evaluated the effect of caffeine on anergia induced by the VMAT-2 inhibitor tetrabenazine (TBZ), which depletes DA. Anergia was evaluated in a three-chamber T-maze task in which animals can chose between running on a wheel (RW) vs. sedentary activities such as consuming sucrose or sniffing a neutral odor. TBZ-caffeine interactions in ventral striatum were evaluated using DARPP-32 phosphorylation patterns as an intracellular marker of DA-adenosine receptor interaction. In the T-maze, control mice spent more time running and much less consuming sucrose or sniffing. TBZ (4.0 mg/kg) reduced ventral striatal DA tissue levels as measured by HPLC, and also shifted preferences in the T-maze, reducing selection of the reinforcer that involved vigorous activity (RW), but increasing consumption of a reinforcer that required little effort (sucrose), at doses that had no effect on independent measures of appetite or locomotion in a RW. Caffeine at doses that had no effect on their own reversed the effects of TBZ on T-maze performance, and also suppressed TBZ-induced pDARPP-32(Thr34) expression as measured by western blot, suggesting a role for D2-A2A interactions. These results support the idea that DA depletion produces anergia, but does not affect the primary motivational effects of sucrose. Caffeine, possibly by acting on A2A receptors in ventral striatum, reversed the DA depletion effects. It is possible that caffeine, like selective adenosine A2A antagonists, could have some therapeutic benefit for treating effort-related symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Noemí San Miguel
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Carla Carratalá-Ros
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Lidón Monferrer
- Àrea de Didàctica Ciències Experimentals, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - John D Salamone
- Behavioral Neuroscience Div., University of Connecticut, Storrs, 06269-1020 CT, USA
| | - Mercè Correa
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain; Behavioral Neuroscience Div., University of Connecticut, Storrs, 06269-1020 CT, USA.
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Simola N, Brudzynski SM. Rat 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations as a tool in studying neurochemical mechanisms that regulate positive emotional states. J Neurosci Methods 2018; 310:33-44. [PMID: 29959002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2018.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescent and adult rats emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to communicate the appetitive arousal and the presence of positive emotional states to conspecifics. NEW METHOD Based on its communicative function, emission of 50-kHz USVs is increasingly being evaluated in preclinical studies of affective behavior, motivation and social behavior. RESULTS Emission of 50-kHz USVs is initiated by the activation of dopamine receptors in the shell subregion of the nucleus accumbens. However, several lines of evidence show that non-dopaminergic receptors may influence the numbers of 50-kHz USVs that are emitted, as well as the acoustic parameters of calls. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS Emission of 50-kHz USVs is a non-invasive method that may be used to study reward and motivation without the need for extensive training and complex animal manipulations. Moreover, emission of 50-kHz USVs can be used alone or combined with other well-standardized behavioral paradigms (e.g., conditioned place preference, self-administration). CONCLUSIONS This review summarizes the current evidence concerning molecular mechanisms that regulate the emission of 50-kHz USVs. Moreover, the review discusses the usefulness of 50-kHz USVs as an experimental tool to investigate how different neurotransmitter systems regulate the manifestations of positive emotional states, and also use of this tool in preclinical modeling of psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuropsychopharmacology Division, University of Cagliari, Italy; National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Stefan M Brudzynski
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, L3 3A1 Canada
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López-Cruz L, Salamone JD, Correa M. Caffeine and Selective Adenosine Receptor Antagonists as New Therapeutic Tools for the Motivational Symptoms of Depression. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:526. [PMID: 29910727 PMCID: PMC5992708 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is one of the most common and debilitating psychiatric disorders. Some of the motivational symptoms of depression, such anergia (lack of self-reported energy) and fatigue are relatively resistant to traditional treatments such as serotonin uptake inhibitors. Thus, new pharmacological targets are being investigated. Epidemiological data suggest that caffeine consumption can have an impact on aspects of depressive symptomatology. Caffeine is a non-selective adenosine antagonist for A1/A2A receptors, and has been demonstrated to modulate behavior in classical animal models of depression. Moreover, selective adenosine receptor antagonists are being assessed for their antidepressant effects in animal studies. This review focuses on how caffeine and selective adenosine antagonists can improve different aspects of depression in humans, as well as in animal models. The effects on motivational symptoms of depression such as anergia, fatigue, and psychomotor slowing receive particular attention. Thus, the ability of adenosine receptor antagonists to reverse the anergia induced by dopamine antagonism or depletion is of special interest. In conclusion, although further studies are needed, it appears that caffeine and selective adenosine receptor antagonists could be therapeutic agents for the treatment of motivational dysfunction in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain
| | - John D. Salamone
- Behavioral Neuroscience Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Mercè Correa
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain
- Behavioral Neuroscience Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
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18
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SanMiguel N, Pardo M, Carratalá-Ros C, López-Cruz L, Salamone JD, Correa M. Individual differences in the energizing effects of caffeine on effort-based decision-making tests in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 169:27-34. [PMID: 29655598 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Motivated behavior is characterized by activation and high work output. Nucleus accumbens (Nacb) modulates behavioral activation and effort-based decision-making. Caffeine is widely consumed because of its energizing properties. This methylxanthine is a non-selective adenosine A1/A2A receptor antagonist. Adenosine receptors are highly concentrated in Nacb. Adenosine agonists injected into Nacb, shift preference towards low effort alternatives. The present studies characterized effort-related effects of caffeine in a concurrent progressive ratio (PROG)/free reinforcer choice procedure that requires high levels of work output, and generates great variability among different animals. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received an acute dose of caffeine (2.5-20.0 mg/kg, IP) and 30 min later were tested in operant boxes. One group was food-restricted and had to lever pressed for high carbohydrate pellets, another group was non-food-restricted and lever pressed for a high sucrose solution. Caffeine (2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg) increased lever pressing in food-restricted animals that were already high responders. However, in non-restricted animals, caffeine (5.0 and 10.0 mg/kg) increased work output only among low responders. In fact, caffeine (10.0 and 20.0 mg/kg) in non-restricted animals, reduced lever pressing among high responders in the PROG task, and also in a different group of animals lever pressing in an easy task (fixed ratio 7 schedule) that uniformly generates high levels of responding. Caffeine did not modify sucrose preference or consumption under free access conditions. Thus, when animals do not have a homeostatic need, caffeine can help those not very intrinsically motivated to work harder for a more palatable reward. However, caffeine can disrupt performance of animals intrinsically motivated to work hard for a better reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noemí SanMiguel
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Marta Pardo
- Dept. of Neurology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Carla Carratalá-Ros
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - John D Salamone
- Behavioral Neuroscience Div., University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Mercè Correa
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain.
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Assessment of a glycine uptake inhibitor in animal models of effort-related choice behavior: implications for motivational dysfunctions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1525-1534. [PMID: 28083675 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4523-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Motivated behavior can be characterized by a substantial exertion of effort, and organisms often make effort-related decisions based upon analyses of work-related response costs and reinforcement preference. Moreover, alterations in effort-based choice can be seen in people with major depression and schizophrenia. Effort-related decision making is studied using tasks offering choices between high effort options leading to highly valued reinforces vs low effort/low reward options. Interference with dopamine (DA) transmission by administration of the DA D2 family antagonist haloperidol biases behavior towards the lower effort option that can be obtained with minimal work, and previous research has shown that DA interacts with other transmitters, including adenosine and GABA, to regulate effort-based choice. OBJECTIVES The present studies focused upon the ability of the glycine transport inhibitor bitopertin to attenuate haloperidol-induced shifts in effort-related choice behavior. METHODS Effort-based choice in rats was assessed using the concurrent fixed ratio (FR) 5/chow feeding choice task and the T-maze barrier choice procedure. RESULTS Haloperidol shifted effort-based choice, biasing animals towards the low effort option in each task. Co-administration of bitopertin (1.0-10.0 mg/kg) significantly attenuated haloperidol-induced shifts in choice behavior, but the same doses of bitopertin had no effect when administered alone. CONCLUSIONS These results indicated that elevation of extracellular glycine via inhibition of glycine uptake was able to reverse the effects of D2 antagonism. Increases in extracellular glycine, possibly through actions on the glycine allosteric site on the NMDA receptor, may be a useful strategy for treating motivational dysfunctions in humans.
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20
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Yohn SE, Arif Y, Haley A, Tripodi G, Baqi Y, Müller CE, Miguel NS, Correa M, Salamone JD. Effort-related motivational effects of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6: pharmacological and neurochemical characterization. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:3575-86. [PMID: 27497935 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4392-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Motivational dysfunctions such as anergia, fatigue, and reduced effort expenditure are common in patients with depression and other disorders. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are implicated in depression, and cytokine administration induces motivational deficits in humans. OBJECTIVES These studies focused on the effects of the cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) on effort-related decision-making. METHODS Rats were assessed using the concurrent fixed ratio 5-lever pressing/chow feeding choice procedure, which measures the tendency of rats to work for a preferred food (high carbohydrate pellets) in the presence of a concurrently available but less preferred substitute (lab chow). RESULTS IL-6 (2.0-8.0 μg/kg IP) shifted choice behavior, significantly decreasing lever pressing and increasing chow intake. Further experiments showed that the adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3 and the stimulant methylphenidate attenuated the effort-related impairments produced by IL-6, increasing lever pressing and decreasing chow intake in IL-6 treated rats. The same doses of IL-6 did not alter food intake or preference in parallel free-feeding choice studies, demonstrating that these low doses were not altering preference for the high carbohydrate pellets or generally suppressing appetite. Also, IL-6 did not affect body temperature. Microdialysis studies showed that 8.0 μg/kg IL-6 significantly decreased extracellular dopamine in nucleus accumbens core. CONCLUSIONS In summary, IL-6 reduces the tendency to work for food, even at low doses that do not produce fever or loss of appetite. Dopaminergic mechanisms may be involved in these effort-related effects. This research has implications for the involvement of cytokines in motivational dysfunctions such as anergia and fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha E Yohn
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
| | - Yumna Arif
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
| | - Allison Haley
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
| | - Guiseppe Tripodi
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
| | - Younis Baqi
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
| | - Christa E Müller
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Bonn, Germany
| | - Noemi San Miguel
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
| | - Mercè Correa
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
| | - John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA.
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Salamone JD, Yohn SE, López-Cruz L, San Miguel N, Correa M. Activational and effort-related aspects of motivation: neural mechanisms and implications for psychopathology. Brain 2016; 139:1325-47. [PMID: 27189581 PMCID: PMC5839596 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aww050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Motivation has been defined as the process that allows organisms to regulate their internal and external environment, and control the probability, proximity and availability of stimuli. As such, motivation is a complex process that is critical for survival, which involves multiple behavioural functions mediated by a number of interacting neural circuits. Classical theories of motivation suggest that there are both directional and activational aspects of motivation, and activational aspects (i.e. speed and vigour of both the instigation and persistence of behaviour) are critical for enabling organisms to overcome work-related obstacles or constraints that separate them from significant stimuli. The present review discusses the role of brain dopamine and related circuits in behavioural activation, exertion of effort in instrumental behaviour, and effort-related decision-making, based upon both animal and human studies. Impairments in behavioural activation and effort-related aspects of motivation are associated with psychiatric symptoms such as anergia, fatigue, lassitude and psychomotor retardation, which cross multiple pathologies, including depression, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease. Therefore, this review also attempts to provide an interdisciplinary approach that integrates findings from basic behavioural neuroscience, behavioural economics, clinical neuropsychology, psychiatry, and neurology, to provide a coherent framework for future research and theory in this critical field. Although dopamine systems are a critical part of the brain circuitry regulating behavioural activation, exertion of effort, and effort-related decision-making, mesolimbic dopamine is only one part of a distributed circuitry that includes multiple neurotransmitters and brain areas. Overall, there is a striking similarity between the brain areas involved in behavioural activation and effort-related processes in rodents and in humans. Animal models of effort-related decision-making are highly translatable to humans, and an emerging body of evidence indicates that alterations in effort-based decision-making are evident in several psychiatric and neurological disorders. People with major depression, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease show evidence of decision-making biases towards a lower exertion of effort. Translational studies linking research with animal models, human volunteers, and clinical populations are greatly expanding our knowledge about the neural basis of effort-related motivational dysfunction, and it is hoped that this research will ultimately lead to improved treatment for motivational and psychomotor symptoms in psychiatry and neurology.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Salamone
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Samantha E Yohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Noemí San Miguel
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Mercè Correa
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
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Chesworth R, Brown RM, Kim JH, Ledent C, Lawrence AJ. Adenosine 2A receptors modulate reward behaviours for methamphetamine. Addict Biol 2016; 21:407-21. [PMID: 25612195 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Addiction to methamphetamine (METH) is a global health problem for which there are no approved pharmacotherapies. The adenosine 2A (A2 A ) receptor presents a potential therapeutic target for METH abuse due to its modulatory effects on striatal dopamine and glutamate transmission. Notably, A2 A receptor signalling has been implicated in the rewarding effects of alcohol, cocaine and opiates; yet, the role of this receptor in METH consumption and seeking is essentially unknown. Therefore, the current study used A2 A knockout (KO) mice to assess the role of A2 A in behaviours relevant to METH addiction. METH conditioned place preference was absent in A2 A KO mice compared with wild-type (WT) littermates. Repeated METH treatment produced locomotor sensitization in both genotypes; however, sensitization was attenuated in A2 A KO mice in a dose-related manner. METH intravenous self-administration was intact in A2 A KO mice over a range of doses and schedules of reinforcement. However, the motivation to self-administer was reduced in A2 A KO mice. Regression analysis further supported the observation that the motivation to self-administer METH was reduced in A2 A KO mice even when self-administration was similar to WT mice. Sucrose self-administration was also reduced in A2 A KO mice but only at higher schedules of reinforcement. Collectively, these data suggest that A2 A signalling is critically required to integrate rewarding and motivational properties of both METH and natural rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Chesworth
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Australia
| | - Robyn M. Brown
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Australia
- Department of Neurosciences; Medical University of South Carolina; Charleston SC USA
| | - Jee Hyun Kim
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Australia
| | - Catherine Ledent
- Institut de Recherche Interdisciplinaire; Faculté de Médecine; Université de Bruxelles; Belgium
| | - Andrew J. Lawrence
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Australia
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Salamone JD, Correa M, Yohn S, Lopez Cruz L, San Miguel N, Alatorre L. The pharmacology of effort-related choice behavior: Dopamine, depression, and individual differences. Behav Processes 2016; 127:3-17. [PMID: 26899746 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This review paper is focused upon the involvement of mesolimbic dopamine (DA) and related brain systems in effort-based processes. Interference with DA transmission affects instrumental behavior in a manner that interacts with the response requirements of the task, such that rats with impaired DA transmission show a heightened sensitivity to ratio requirements. Impaired DA transmission also affects effort-related choice behavior, which is assessed by tasks that offer a choice between a preferred reinforcer that has a high work requirement vs. less preferred reinforcer that can be obtained with minimal effort. Rats and mice with impaired DA transmission reallocate instrumental behavior away from food-reinforced tasks with high response costs, and show increased selection of low reinforcement/low cost options. Tests of effort-related choice have been developed into models of pathological symptoms of motivation that are seen in disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. These models are being employed to explore the effects of conditions associated with various psychopathologies, and to assess drugs for their potential utility as treatments for effort-related symptoms. Studies of the pharmacology of effort-based choice may contribute to the development of treatments for symptoms such as psychomotor slowing, fatigue or anergia, which are seen in depression and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Salamone
- Dept. of Psychology Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA.
| | - Merce Correa
- Dept. of Psychology Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA; Area de Psicobiol., Dept. Psic., Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló 12071, Spain
| | - Samantha Yohn
- Dept. of Psychology Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Laura Lopez Cruz
- Dept. of Psychology Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA; Area de Psicobiol., Dept. Psic., Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló 12071, Spain
| | - Noemi San Miguel
- Dept. of Psychology Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA; Area de Psicobiol., Dept. Psic., Universitat de Jaume I, Castelló 12071, Spain
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Simola N, Costa G, Morelli M. Activation of adenosine A₂A receptors suppresses the emission of pro-social and drug-stimulated 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in rats: possible relevance to reward and motivation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:507-19. [PMID: 26564233 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Rats emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in response to pleasurable stimuli, and these USVs are considered a tool for investigating reward and motivation. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to clarify how activity of adenosine A2A receptors, which modulate reward and motivation, influences 50-kHz USV emission in rats. METHODS Rats received one of the following treatments in a test cage: (1) acute administration of the A2A receptor agonist CGS 21680 (0.05-0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) during social interactions; (2) long-term amphetamine (1 or 2 mg/kg, i.p.) or morphine (7.5 mg/kg, s.c.) administration on alternate days, alone or with CGS 21680, followed after 7 days of discontinuation by test cage re-exposure, to assess drug-conditioning effects, and thereafter drug challenge; (3) acute administration of the D1/D2 receptor agonist apomorphine (4 mg/kg, i.p.), alone or with CGS 21680; and (4) long-term administration of the non-selective A1/A2A receptor antagonist caffeine (15 mg/kg, i.p.), on alternate days. USVs and locomotor activity were evaluated throughout the treatments. RESULTS CGS 21680 attenuated 50-kHz USV emission stimulated by social interactions, amphetamine, apomorphine, and morphine, and rats administered CGS 21680 with amphetamine or morphine emitted fewer conditioned 50-kHz USVs upon test cage re-exposure, compared with rats administered amphetamine or morphine alone. Moreover, CGS 21680 administration prevented long-term changes in locomotor activity in amphetamine- and morphine-treated rats. Finally, caffeine had no effect on 50-kHz USVs. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that activation of A2A receptors attenuates 50-kHz USV emission in rats and further elucidate how these receptors modulate the motivational properties of natural and pharmacological stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, University of Cagliari, Via Ospedale, 72, 09124, Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Giulia Costa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, University of Cagliari, Via Ospedale, 72, 09124, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Micaela Morelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, University of Cagliari, Via Ospedale, 72, 09124, Cagliari, Italy.,CNR, National Research Council of Italy, Neuroscience Institute, Cagliari, Italy
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Yohn SE, Santerre JL, Nunes EJ, Kozak R, Podurgiel SJ, Correa M, Salamone JD. The role of dopamine D1 receptor transmission in effort-related choice behavior: Effects of D1 agonists. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 135:217-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Yohn SE, Thompson C, Randall PA, Lee CA, Müller CE, Baqi Y, Correa M, Salamone JD. The VMAT-2 inhibitor tetrabenazine alters effort-related decision making as measured by the T-maze barrier choice task: reversal with the adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3 and the catecholamine uptake blocker bupropion. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:1313-23. [PMID: 25323625 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3766-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Depressed people show effort-related motivational symptoms, such as anergia, retardation, lassitude, and fatigue. Animal tests can model these motivational symptoms, and the present studies characterized the effort-related effects of the vesicular monoamine transport (VMAT-2) inhibitor tetrabenazine. Tetrabenazine produces depressive symptoms in humans and, at low doses, preferentially depletes dopamine. OBJECTIVES The current studies investigated the effects of tetrabenazine on effort-based decision making using the T-maze barrier task. METHODS Rats were tested in a T-maze in which the choice arms of the maze contain different reinforcement densities, and under some conditions, a vertical barrier was placed in the high-density arm to provide an effort-related challenge. The first experiment assessed the effects of tetrabenazine under different maze conditions: a barrier in the arm with 4 food pellets and 2 pellets in the no barrier arm (4-2 barrier), 4 pellets in one arm and 2 pellets in the other with no barrier in either arm (no barrier), and 4 pellets in the barrier arm with no pellets in the other (4-0 barrier). RESULTS Tetrabenazine (0.25-0.75 mg/kg IP) decreased selection of the high cost/high reward arm when the barrier was present, but had no effect on choice under the no barrier and 4-0 barrier conditions. The effects of tetrabenazine on barrier climbing in the 4-2 condition were reversed by the adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3 and the catecholamine uptake inhibitor and antidepressant bupropion. CONCLUSIONS These studies have implications for the development of animal models of the motivational symptoms of depression and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha E Yohn
- Division of Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
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Salamone JD, Pardo M, Yohn SE, López-Cruz L, SanMiguel N, Correa M. Mesolimbic Dopamine and the Regulation of Motivated Behavior. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 27:231-57. [PMID: 26323245 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2015_383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has been known for some time that nucleus accumbens dopamine (DA) is involved in aspects of motivation , but theoretical approaches to understanding the functions of DA have continued to evolve based upon emerging data and novel concepts. Although it has become traditional to label DA neurons as "reward" neurons, the actual findings are more complicated than that, because they indicate that DA neurons can respond to a variety of motivationally significant stimuli. Moreover, it is important to distinguish between aspects of motivation that are differentially affected by dopaminergic manipulations. Studies that involve nucleus accumbens DA antagonism or depletion indicate that accumbens DA does not mediate primary food motivation or appetite. Nevertheless, DA is involved in appetitive and aversive motivational processes including behavioral activation , exertion of effort, sustained task engagement, and Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer. Interference with accumbens DA transmission affects instrumental behavior in a manner that interacts with the response requirements of the task and also shifts effort-related choice behavior, biasing animals toward low-effort alternatives. Dysfunctions of mesolimbic DA may contribute to motivational symptoms seen in various psychopathologies, including depression , schizophrenia, parkinsonism, and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Salamone
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA.
| | - Marta Pardo
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
| | - Samantha E Yohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA
| | - Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
| | - Noemí SanMiguel
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
| | - Mercè Correa
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06269-1020, USA.,Àrea de Psicobiologia, Universitat Jaume I, 12071, Castelló, Spain
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The dopamine reuptake inhibitor MRZ-9547 increases progressive ratio responding in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17:2045-56. [PMID: 24964269 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145714000996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs that are able to shift effort-related decision making in intact rats towards high-effort response options are largely unknown. Here, we examined the effects of two candidate drugs, MRZ-9547 and its l-enantiomer MRZ-9546 on progressive ratio (PR) responding using two different tasks, a standard PR task that involves increasing ratio requirements and a PR/chow feeding choice task in which animals can lever press for preferred food pellets under a PR schedule or approach freely available less preferred lab chow. Furthermore, we assessed the mechanisms of action of both drugs using in vitro-assay methods and in vivo-microdialysis. Results reveal that MRZ-9547 is a selective dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibitor that moderately stimulated striatal dopamine release. MRZ-9546 was a much less potent DAT inhibitor. Furthermore, MRZ-9547 dose dependently increased the tendency to work for food reinforcement both in the standard PR task and the PR/chow feeding choice task, MRZ-9546 was considerably less active. Relative to MRZ-9547, other DAT-interfering drugs had only moderate (methylphenidate) or marginal (modafinil, d-amphetamine) stimulant effects on PR responding in either task. Collectively, our data demonstrate that the DAT inhibitor MRZ-9547 can markedly stimulate PR responding and shift effort-related decision making in intact rats towards high-effort response options. An analysis of effort-related decision making in rodents could provide an animal model for motivational dysfunctions related to effort expenditure such as fatigue, e.g. in Parkinson's disease or major depression. Our findings suggest that DAT inhibitors such as MRZ-9547 could be potentially useful for treating energy-related symptoms in neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Yamada K, Kobayashi M, Shiozaki S, Ohta T, Mori A, Jenner P, Kanda T. Antidepressant activity of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist, istradefylline (KW-6002) on learned helplessness in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:2839-49. [PMID: 24488405 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3454-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Istradefylline, an adenosine A2A receptor antagonist, improves motor function in animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD) and in patients with PD. In addition, some A2A antagonists exert antidepressant-like activity in rodent models of depression, such as the forced swim and the tail suspension tests. OBJECTIVE We have investigated the effect of istradefylline on depression-like behaviors using the rat learned helplessness (LH) model. RESULTS Acute, as well as chronic, oral administration of istradefylline significantly improved the inescapable shock (IES)-induced escape deficit with a degree of efficacy comparable to chronic treatment with the tricyclic antidepressant desipramine and the selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine. Both the A1/A2A receptor nonspecific antagonist theophylline and the moderately selective antagonist CGS15943, but not the A1 selective antagonist DPCPX, ameliorated the IES-induced escape deficit. The enhancement of escape response by istradefylline was reversed by a local injection of the A2A specific agonist CGS21680 either into the nucleus accumbens, the caudate-putamen, or the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, but not by the A1 specific agonist R-PIA into the nucleus accumbens. Moreover, neither the 5-HT2A/2C receptor antagonist methysergide or the adrenergic α 2 antagonist yohimbine, nor the β-adrenergic antagonist propranolol, affected the improvement of escape response induced by istradefylline. CONCLUSIONS Istradefylline exerts antidepressant-like effects via modulation of A2A receptor activity which is independent of monoaminergic transmission in the brain. Istradefylline may represent a novel treatment option for depression in PD as well as for the motor symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Yamada
- Development Research Laboratories, Research Division, Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd., 1188 Shimotogari, Nagaizumi-cho, Sunto-gun, Shizuoka, 411-8731, Japan
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Randall PA, Lee CA, Nunes EJ, Yohn SE, Nowak V, Khan B, Shah P, Pandit S, Vemuri VK, Makriyannis A, Baqi Y, Müller CE, Correa M, Salamone JD. The VMAT-2 inhibitor tetrabenazine affects effort-related decision making in a progressive ratio/chow feeding choice task: reversal with antidepressant drugs. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99320. [PMID: 24937131 PMCID: PMC4061002 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral activation is a fundamental feature of motivation, and organisms frequently make effort-related decisions based upon evaluations of reinforcement value and response costs. Furthermore, people with major depression and other disorders often show anergia, psychomotor retardation, fatigue, and alterations in effort-related decision making. Tasks measuring effort-based decision making can be used as animal models of the motivational symptoms of depression, and the present studies characterized the effort-related effects of the vesicular monoamine transport (VMAT-2) inhibitor tetrabenazine. Tetrabenazine induces depressive symptoms in humans, and also preferentially depletes dopamine (DA). Rats were assessed using a concurrent progressive ratio (PROG)/chow feeding task, in which they can either lever press on a PROG schedule for preferred high-carbohydrate food, or approach and consume a less-preferred lab chow that is freely available in the chamber. Previous work has shown that the DA antagonist haloperidol reduced PROG work output on this task, but did not reduce chow intake, effects that differed substantially from those of reinforcer devaluation or appetite suppressant drugs. The present work demonstrated that tetrabenazine produced an effort-related shift in responding on the PROG/chow procedure, reducing lever presses, highest ratio achieved and time spent responding, but not reducing chow intake. Similar effects were produced by administration of the subtype selective DA antagonists ecopipam (D1) and eticlopride (D2), but not by the cannabinoid CB1 receptor neutral antagonist and putative appetite suppressant AM 4413, which suppressed both lever pressing and chow intake. The adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3, the antidepressant and catecholamine uptake inhibitor bupropion, and the MAO-B inhibitor deprenyl, all reversed the impairments induced by tetrabenazine. This work demonstrates the potential utility of the PROG/chow procedure as a rodent model of the effort-related deficits observed in depressed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A. Randall
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Christie A. Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Eric J. Nunes
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Samantha E. Yohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Victoria Nowak
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Bilal Khan
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Priya Shah
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Saagar Pandit
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - V. Kiran Vemuri
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alex Makriyannis
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Younis Baqi
- Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
| | - Christa E. Müller
- Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Merce Correa
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló, Spain
| | - John D. Salamone
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Nunes EJ, Randall PA, Estrada A, Epling B, Hart EE, Lee CA, Baqi Y, Müller CE, Correa M, Salamone JD. Effort-related motivational effects of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1-beta: studies with the concurrent fixed ratio 5/ chow feeding choice task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:727-36. [PMID: 24136220 PMCID: PMC4468782 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3285-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Effort-related motivational symptoms such as anergia and fatigue are common in patients with depression and other disorders. Research implicates pro-inflammatory cytokines in depression, and administration of cytokines can induce effort-related motivational symptoms in humans. OBJECTIVES The present experiments focused on the effects of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1-beta (IL-1β) on effort-related choice behavior. METHODS Rats were tested on a concurrent fixed ratio 5 lever pressing/chow feeding choice procedure, which assesses the tendency of rats to work for a preferred food (high carbohydrate pellets) in the presence of a concurrently available but less preferred substitute (laboratory chow). RESULTS IL-1β (1.0-4.0 μg/kg IP) shifted choice behavior, significantly decreasing lever pressing and increasing intake of the freely available chow. The second experiment assessed the ability of the adenosine A2A antagonist (E)-phosphoric acid mono-[3-[8-[2-(3-methoxyphenyl)vinyl]-7-methyl-2,6-dioxo-1-prop-2-ynyl-1,2,6,7-tetrahydropurin-3-yl] propyl] ester disodium salt (MSX-3) to reverse the behavioral effects of IL-1β. MSX-3 attenuated the effort-related impairments produced by IL-1β, increasing lever pressing and also decreasing chow intake. In the same dose range that shifted effort-related choice behavior, IL-1β did not alter food intake or preference in parallel free-feeding choice studies, indicating that these low doses were not generally suppressing appetite or altering preference for the high carbohydrate pellets. In addition, IL-1β did not affect core body temperature. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that IL-1β can reduce the tendency to work for food, even at low doses that do not produce a general sickness, malaise, or loss of appetite. This research has implications for the involvement of cytokines in motivational symptoms such as anergia and fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. Nunes
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Patrick A. Randall
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Alexavier Estrada
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Brian Epling
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Evan E. Hart
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Christie A. Lee
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Younis Baqi
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E. Müller
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Bonn, Germany
| | - Mercè Correa
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA,Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - John D. Salamone
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
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Involvement of Adenosine A2A Receptors in Depression and Anxiety. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 119:373-93. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801022-8.00015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Nunes EJ, Randall PA, Hart EE, Freeland C, Yohn SE, Baqi Y, Müller CE, López-Cruz L, Correa M, Salamone JD. Effort-related motivational effects of the VMAT-2 inhibitor tetrabenazine: implications for animal models of the motivational symptoms of depression. J Neurosci 2013; 33:19120-30. [PMID: 24305809 PMCID: PMC3850037 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2730-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Motivated behaviors are often characterized by a high degree of behavioral activation, and work output and organisms frequently make effort-related decisions based upon cost/benefit analyses. Moreover, people with major depression and other disorders often show effort-related motivational symptoms such as anergia, psychomotor retardation, and fatigue. It has been suggested that tasks measuring effort-related choice behavior could be used as animal models of the motivational symptoms of depression, and the present studies characterized the effort-related effects of the vesicular monoamine transport (VMAT) inhibitor tetrabenazine. Tetrabenazine produces depressive symptoms in humans and, because of its selective inhibition of VMAT-2, it preferentially depletes dopamine (DA). Rats were assessed using a concurrent fixed-ratio 5/chow feeding choice task that is known to be sensitive to dopaminergic manipulations. Tetrabenazine shifted response choice in rats, producing a dose-related decrease in lever pressing and a concomitant increase in chow intake. However, it did not alter food intake or preference in parallel free-feeding choice studies. The effects of tetrabenazine on effort-related choice were reversed by the adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3 and the antidepressant bupropion. A behaviorally active dose of tetrabenazine decreased extracellular DA in nucleus accumbens and increased expression of DARPP-32 in accumbens medium spiny neurons in a pattern indicative of reduced transmission at both D1 and D2 DA receptors. These experiments demonstrate that tetrabenazine, which is used in animal models to produce depression-like effects, can alter effort-related choice behavior. These studies have implications for the development of animal models of the motivational symptoms of depression and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. Nunes
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
| | - Patrick A. Randall
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
| | - Evan E. Hart
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
| | - Charlotte Freeland
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
| | - Samantha E. Yohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
| | - Younis Baqi
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, 53121 Bonn, Germany, and
| | - Christa E. Müller
- Universität Bonn, Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, 53121 Bonn, Germany, and
| | - Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Mercè Correa
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - John D. Salamone
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-1020
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Markou A, Salamone JD, Bussey TJ, Mar AC, Brunner D, Gilmour G, Balsam P. Measuring reinforcement learning and motivation constructs in experimental animals: relevance to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2149-65. [PMID: 23994273 PMCID: PMC3849135 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The present review article summarizes and expands upon the discussions that were initiated during a meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (CNTRICS; http://cntrics.ucdavis.edu) meeting. A major goal of the CNTRICS meeting was to identify experimental procedures and measures that can be used in laboratory animals to assess psychological constructs that are related to the psychopathology of schizophrenia. The issues discussed in this review reflect the deliberations of the Motivation Working Group of the CNTRICS meeting, which included most of the authors of this article as well as additional participants. After receiving task nominations from the general research community, this working group was asked to identify experimental procedures in laboratory animals that can assess aspects of reinforcement learning and motivation that may be relevant for research on the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as other disorders characterized by deficits in reinforcement learning and motivation. The tasks described here that assess reinforcement learning are the Autoshaping Task, Probabilistic Reward Learning Tasks, and the Response Bias Probabilistic Reward Task. The tasks described here that assess motivation are Outcome Devaluation and Contingency Degradation Tasks and Effort-Based Tasks. In addition to describing such methods and procedures, the present article provides a working vocabulary for research and theory in this field, as well as an industry perspective about how such tasks may be used in drug discovery. It is hoped that this review can aid investigators who are conducting research in this complex area, promote translational studies by highlighting shared research goals and fostering a common vocabulary across basic and clinical fields, and facilitate the development of medications for the treatment of symptoms mediated by reinforcement learning and motivational deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athina Markou
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, M/C0603, La Jolla, CA 92093-0603, USA.
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Koch P, Akkari R, Brunschweiger A, Borrmann T, Schlenk M, Küppers P, Köse M, Radjainia H, Hockemeyer J, Drabczyńska A, Kieć-Kononowicz K, Müller CE. 1,3-Dialkyl-substituted tetrahydropyrimido[1,2-f]purine-2,4-diones as multiple target drugs for the potential treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:7435-52. [PMID: 24139167 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine receptors and monoamine oxidases are drug targets for neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. In the present study we prepared a library of 55 mostly novel tetrahydropyrimido[2,1-f]purinediones with various substituents in the 1- and 3-position (1,3-dimethyl, 1,3-diethyl, 1,3-dipropyl, 1-methyl-3-propargyl) and broad variation in the 9-position. A synthetic strategy to obtain 3-propargyl-substituted tetrahydropyrimido[2,1-f]purinedione derivatives was developed. The new compounds were evaluated for their interaction with all four adenosine receptor subtypes and for their ability to inhibit monoamine oxidases (MAO). Introduction of mono- or di-chloro-substituted phenyl, benzyl or phenethyl residues at N9 of the 1,3-dimethyl series led to the discovery of a novel class of potent MAO-B inhibitors, the most potent compound being 9-(3,4-dichlorobenzyl)-1,3-dimethyl-6,7,8,9-tetrahydropyrimido[1,2-f]purine-2,4(1H,3H)-dione (21g, IC(50) human MAO-B: 0.0629 μM), which displayed high selectivity versus the other investigated targets. Potent dually active A1/A2A adenosine receptor antagonists were identified, for example, 9-benzyl-1-methyl-3-propargyl-6,7,8,9-tetrahydropyrimido[1,2-f]purine-2,4(1H,3H)dione (19f, Ki, human receptors, A1: 0.249 μM, A2A: 0.253 μM). Several compounds showed triple-target inhibition, the best compound being 9-(2-methoxybenzyl)-1-methyl-3-(prop-2-ynyl)-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro pyrimido [1,2-f]purine-2,4(1H,3H)-dione (19g, Ki A1: 0.605 μM, Ki A2A: 0.417 μM, IC(50) MAO-B: 1.80 μM). Compounds inhibiting several different targets involved in neurodegeneration may exhibit additive or even synergistic effects in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Koch
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, 53121 Bonn, Germany
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Neural substrates underlying effort computation in schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2649-65. [PMID: 24035741 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The lack of initiative, drive or effort in patients with schizophrenia is linked to marked functional impairments. However, our assessment of effort and motivation is crude, relying on clinical rating scales based largely on patient recall. In order to better understand the neurobiology of effort in schizophrenia, we need more rigorous measurements of this construct. In the behavioural neuroscience literature, decades of work has been carried out developing various paradigms to examine the neural underpinnings of an animal's willingness to expend effort for a reward. Here, we shall review this literature on the nature of paradigms used in rodents to assess effort, as well as those used in humans. Next, the neurobiology of these effort-based decisions will be discussed. We shall then review what is known about effort in schizophrenia, and what might be inferred from experiments done in other human populations. Lastly, we shall discuss future directions of research that may assist in shedding light on the neurobiology of effort cost computations in schizophrenia.
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Birbeck JA, Mathews TA. Simultaneous Detection of Monoamine and Purine Molecules Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode. Anal Chem 2013; 85:7398-404. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4013144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johnna A. Birbeck
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, 5101 Cass Avenue, Detroit,
Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Tiffany A. Mathews
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, 5101 Cass Avenue, Detroit,
Michigan 48202, United States
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Nunes EJ, Randall PA, Podurgiel S, Correa M, Salamone JD. Nucleus accumbens neurotransmission and effort-related choice behavior in food motivation: effects of drugs acting on dopamine, adenosine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2015-25. [PMID: 23583616 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mesolimbic dopamine (DA) is a critical component of the brain circuitry regulating behavioral activation and effort-related processes. Although nucleus accumbens (NAc) DA depletions or antagonism leave aspects of appetite and primary food motivation intact, rats with impaired DA transmission reallocate their instrumental behavior away from food-reinforced tasks with high response requirements, and instead select less effortful food-seeking behaviors. Previous work showed that adenosine A2A antagonists can reverse the effects of DA D2 antagonists on effort-related choice, and that stimulation of adenosine A2A receptors produces behavioral effects that are similar to those induced by DA antagonism. The present review summarizes the literature on the role of NAc DA and adenosine in effort-related processes, and also presents original data on the effects of local stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in NAc core. Local injections of the muscarinic agonist pilocarpine directly into NAc core produces shifts in effort-related choice behavior similar to those induced by DA antagonism or A2A receptor stimulation, decreasing lever pressing but increasing chow intake in rats responding on a concurrent fixed ratio/chow feeding choice task. In contrast, injections into a neostriatal control site dorsal to the NAc were ineffective. The actions of pilocarpine on this task were attenuated by co-administration of the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine. Thus, drugs that act on DA, adenosine A2A, and muscarinic receptors regulate effort-related choice behavior, which may have implications for the treatment of psychiatric symptoms such as psychomotor slowing, fatigue or anergia that can be observed in depression and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Nunes
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
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Pardo M, López-Cruz L, Valverde O, Ledent C, Baqi Y, Müller CE, Salamone JD, Correa M. Effect of subtype-selective adenosine receptor antagonists on basal or haloperidol-regulated striatal function: studies of exploratory locomotion and c-Fos immunoreactivity in outbred and A(2A)R KO mice. Behav Brain Res 2013; 247:217-26. [PMID: 23557694 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral activation is regulated by dopamine (DA) in striatal areas. At low doses, while typical antipsychotic drugs produce psychomotor slowing, psychostimulants promote exploration. Minor stimulants such as caffeine, which act as adenosine receptor antagonists, can also potentiate behavioral activation. Striatal areas are rich in adenosine and DA receptors, and adenosine A2A receptors are mainly expressed in the striatum where they are co-localized with DA D2 receptors. Adenosine antagonists with different receptor-selectivity profiles were used to study spontaneous or haloperidol-impaired exploration and c-Fos expression in different striatal areas. Because A2A antagonists were expected to be more selective for reversing the effects of the D2 antagonist haloperidol, A2A receptor knockout (A2ARKO) mice were also assessed. CD1 and A2ARKO male mice were tested in an open field and in a running wheel. Only the A1/A2A receptor antagonist theophylline (5.0-15.0 mg/kg) and the A2A antagonist MSX-3 (2.0 mg/kg) increased spontaneous locomotion and rearing. Co-administration of theophylline (10.0-15.0 mg/kg), and MSX-3 (1.0-3.0 mg/kg) reversed haloperidol-induced suppression of locomotion. The A1 antagonist CPT was only marginally effective in reversing the effects of haloperidol. Although adenosine antagonists did not affect c-Fos expression on their own, theophylline and MSX-3, but not CPT, attenuated haloperidol induction of c-Fos expression. A2ARKO mice were resistant to the behavioral effects of haloperidol at intermediate doses (0.1 mg/kg) in the open field and in the running wheel. A2A receptors are important for regulating behavioral activation, and interact with D2 receptors in striatal areas to regulate neural processes involved in exploratory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pardo
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
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Dopaminergic modulation of effort-related choice behavior as assessed by a progressive ratio chow feeding choice task: pharmacological studies and the role of individual differences. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47934. [PMID: 23110135 PMCID: PMC3478264 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesolimbic dopamine (DA) is involved in behavioral activation and effort-related processes. Rats with impaired DA transmission reallocate their instrumental behavior away from food-reinforced tasks with high response requirements, and instead select less effortful food-seeking behaviors. In the present study, the effects of several drug treatments were assessed using a progressive ratio (PROG)/chow feeding concurrent choice task. With this task, rats can lever press on a PROG schedule reinforced by a preferred high-carbohydrate food pellet, or alternatively approach and consume the less-preferred but concurrently available laboratory chow. Rats pass through each ratio level 15 times, after which the ratio requirement is incremented by one additional response. The DA D2 antagonist haloperidol (0.025–0.1 mg/kg) reduced number of lever presses and highest ratio achieved but did not reduce chow intake. In contrast, the adenosine A2A antagonist MSX-3 increased lever presses and highest ratio achieved, but decreased chow consumption. The cannabinoid CB1 inverse agonist and putative appetite suppressant AM251 decreased lever presses, highest ratio achieved, and chow intake; this effect was similar to that produced by pre-feeding. Furthermore, DA-related signal transduction activity (pDARPP-32(Thr34) expression) was greater in nucleus accumbens core of high responders (rats with high lever pressing output) compared to low responders. Thus, the effects of DA antagonism differed greatly from those produced by pre-feeding or reduced CB1 transmission, and it appears unlikely that haloperidol reduces PROG responding because of a general reduction in primary food motivation or the unconditioned reinforcing properties of food. Furthermore, accumbens core signal transduction activity is related to individual differences in work output.
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41
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Salamone JD, Correa M, Nunes EJ, Randall PA, Pardo M. The behavioral pharmacology of effort-related choice behavior: dopamine, adenosine and beyond. J Exp Anal Behav 2012; 97:125-46. [PMID: 22287808 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2012.97-125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
For many years, it has been suggested that drugs that interfere with dopamine (DA) transmission alter the "rewarding" impact of primary reinforcers such as food. Research and theory related to the functions of mesolimbic DA are undergoing a substantial conceptual restructuring, with the traditional emphasis on hedonia and primary reward yielding to other concepts and lines of inquiry. The present review is focused upon the involvement of nucleus accumbens DA in effort-related choice behavior. Viewed from the framework of behavioral economics, the effects of accumbens DA depletions and antagonism on food-reinforced behavior are highly dependent upon the work requirements of the instrumental task, and DA-depleted rats show a heightened sensitivity to response costs, especially ratio requirements. Moreover, interference with accumbens DA transmission exerts a powerful influence over effort-related choice behavior. Rats with accumbens DA depletions or antagonism reallocate their instrumental behavior away from food-reinforced tasks that have high response requirements, and show increased selection of low reinforcement/low cost options. Nucleus accumbens DA and adenosine interact in the regulation of effort-related functions, and other brain structures (anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, ventral pallidum) also are involved. Studies of the brain systems regulating effort-based processes may have implications for understanding drug abuse, as well as symptoms such as psychomotor slowing, fatigue or anergia in depression and other neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Salamone
- Dept. of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA.
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42
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Caffeine increases psychomotor performance on the effort expenditure for rewards task. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 102:526-31. [PMID: 22750066 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical studies suggest that cost/benefit decision-making involves interactions between adenosine and dopamine (DA). In rats, DA depletion decreases willingness to incur effort costs, while adenosine antagonism reverses these effects, likely by increasing DA transmission. Caffeine is a non-selective adenosine antagonist commonly used to facilitate effortful tasks, and thus may affect decisions involving effort costs in humans. The current study examined acute effects of 200 mg of caffeine on willingness to exert effort for monetary rewards at varying levels of reward value and reward probability, in young adult light caffeine users. Based on previous findings with amphetamine, we predicted that caffeine would increase willingness to exert effort. At separate sessions, 23 healthy normal adults received placebo or 200 mg caffeine under counterbalanced double-blind conditions, then completed the effort expenditure for rewards task (EEfRT). Measures of subjective and cardiovascular effects were obtained at regular intervals. Caffeine produced small but significant subjective and cardiovascular effects, and sped psychomotor performance on the EEfRT. Caffeine did not alter willingness to exert effort, except in high cardiovascular responders to caffeine, in whom it decreased willingness to exert effort. These results were contrary to our predictions, but consistent with rodent studies suggesting that moderate doses of caffeine alone do not affect effort, but rather only influence effort in the context of DA antagonism. Our results demonstrate that psychomotor speeding and decisional effects on the EEfRT are dissociable, providing additional evidence for the EEfRT as a specific measure of effort-based decision-making. This study provides a starting point for exploring contributions of the adenosine system to motivation in humans.
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The novel adenosine A(2A) antagonist prodrug MSX-4 is effective in animal models related to motivational and motor functions. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 102:477-87. [PMID: 22705392 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine A(2A) and dopamine D2 receptors interact to regulate diverse aspects of ventral and dorsal striatal functions related to motivational and motor processes, and it has been suggested that adenosine A(2A) antagonists could be useful for the treatment of depression, parkinsonism and other disorders. The present experiments were performed to characterize the effects of MSX-4, which is an amino acid ester prodrug of the potent and selective adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist MSX-2, by assessing its ability to reverse pharmacologically induced motivational and motor impairments. In the first group of studies, MSX-4 reversed the effects of the D2 antagonist eticlopride on a concurrent lever pressing/chow feeding task that is used as a measure of effort-related choice behavior. MSX-4 was less potent after intraperitoneal administration than the comparison compound, MSX-3, though both were equally efficacious. With this task, MSX-4 was orally active in the same dose range as MSX-3. MSX-4 also reversed the locomotor suppression induced by eticlopride in the open field, but did not induce anxiogenic effects as measured by the relative amount of interior activity. Behaviorally active doses of MSX-4 also attenuated the increase in c-Fos and pDARPP-32(Thr34) expression in nucleus accumbens core that was induced by injections of eticlopride. In addition, MSX-4 suppressed the oral tremor induced by the anticholinesterase galantamine, which is consistent with an antiparkinsonian profile. These actions of MSX-4 indicate that this compound could have potential utility as a treatment for parkinsonism, as well as some of the motivational symptoms of depression and other disorders.
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44
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A simple method for detection of food foraging behavior in the rat: involvement of NMDA and dopamine receptors in the behavior. Neuroscience 2012; 205:73-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.12.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Revised: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Pardo M, Lopez-Cruz L, Valverde O, Ledent C, Baqi Y, Müller CE, Salamone JD, Correa M. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonism and genetic deletion attenuate the effects of dopamine D2 antagonism on effort-based decision making in mice. Neuropharmacology 2012; 62:2068-77. [PMID: 22261384 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Brain dopamine (DA) and adenosine interact in the regulation of behavioral activation and effort-related processes. In the present studies, a T-maze task was developed in mice for the assessment of effort-related decision making. With this task, the two arms of the maze have different reinforcement densities, and a vertical barrier is positioned in the arm with the higher density (HD), presenting the animal with an effort-related challenge. Under control conditions mice prefer the HD arm, and climb the barrier to obtain the larger amount of food. The DA D(2) receptor antagonist haloperidol decreased selection of the HD arm and increased selection of the arm with the low density of reinforcement. However, the HD arm was still the preferred choice in haloperidol-treated mice trained with barriers in both arms. Pre-feeding the mice to reduce food motivation dramatically increased omissions, an effect that was distinct from the actions of haloperidol. Co-administration of theophylline, a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist, partially reversed the effects of haloperidol. This effect seems to be mediated by the A(2A) receptor but not the A(1) receptor, since the A(2A) antagonist MSX-3, but not the A(1) antagonist CPT, dose dependently reversed the effects of haloperidol on effort-related choice and on c-Fos expression in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens. In addition, adenosine A(2A) receptor knockout mice were resistant to the effects of haloperidol on effort-related choice in the maze. These results indicate that DA D(2) and adenosine A(2A) receptors interact to regulate effort-related decision making and effort expenditure in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Pardo
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain.
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46
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Collins LE, Sager TN, Sams AG, Pennarola A, Port RG, Shahriari M, Salamone JD. The novel adenosine A2A antagonist Lu AA47070 reverses the motor and motivational effects produced by dopamine D2 receptor blockade. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 100:498-505. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Penner MR, Mizumori SJY. Neural systems analysis of decision making during goal-directed navigation. Prog Neurobiol 2011; 96:96-135. [PMID: 21964237 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Revised: 08/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The ability to make adaptive decisions during goal-directed navigation is a fundamental and highly evolved behavior that requires continual coordination of perceptions, learning and memory processes, and the planning of behaviors. Here, a neurobiological account for such coordination is provided by integrating current literatures on spatial context analysis and decision-making. This integration includes discussions of our current understanding of the role of the hippocampal system in experience-dependent navigation, how hippocampal information comes to impact midbrain and striatal decision making systems, and finally the role of the striatum in the implementation of behaviors based on recent decisions. These discussions extend across cellular to neural systems levels of analysis. Not only are key findings described, but also fundamental organizing principles within and across neural systems, as well as between neural systems functions and behavior, are emphasized. It is suggested that studying decision making during goal-directed navigation is a powerful model for studying interactive brain systems and their mediation of complex behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marsha R Penner
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, United States
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48
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Burnstock G, Krügel U, Abbracchio MP, Illes P. Purinergic signalling: from normal behaviour to pathological brain function. Prog Neurobiol 2011; 95:229-74. [PMID: 21907261 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Purinergic neurotransmission, involving release of ATP as an efferent neurotransmitter was first proposed in 1972. Later, ATP was recognised as a cotransmitter in peripheral nerves and more recently as a cotransmitter with glutamate, noradrenaline, GABA, acetylcholine and dopamine in the CNS. Both ATP, together with some of its enzymatic breakdown products (ADP and adenosine) and uracil nucleotides are now recognised to act via P2X ion channels and P1 and P2Y G protein-coupled receptors, which are widely expressed in the brain. They mediate both fast signalling in neurotransmission and neuromodulation and long-term (trophic) signalling in cell proliferation, differentiation and death. Purinergic signalling is prominent in neurone-glial cell interactions. In this review we discuss first the evidence implicating purinergic signalling in normal behaviour, including learning and memory, sleep and arousal, locomotor activity and exploration, feeding behaviour and mood and motivation. Then we turn to the involvement of P1 and P2 receptors in pathological brain function; firstly in trauma, ischemia and stroke, then in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's, as well as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Finally, the role of purinergic signalling in neuropsychiatric diseases (including schizophrenia), epilepsy, migraine, cognitive impairment and neuropathic pain will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Burnstock
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre, University College Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London NW3 2PF, UK.
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Synthesis and biological activity of tricyclic cycloalkylimidazo-, pyrimido- and diazepinopurinediones. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 46:3590-607. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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50
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Randall PA, Nunes EJ, Janniere SL, Stopper CM, Farrar AM, Sager TN, Baqi Y, Hockemeyer J, Müller CE, Salamone JD. Stimulant effects of adenosine antagonists on operant behavior: differential actions of selective A2A and A1 antagonists. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 216:173-86. [PMID: 21347642 PMCID: PMC3522121 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2198-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Adenosine A(2A) antagonists can reverse many of the behavioral effects of dopamine antagonists, including actions on instrumental behavior. However, little is known about the effects of selective adenosine antagonists on operant behavior when these drugs are administered alone. OBJECTIVE The present studies were undertaken to investigate the potential for rate-dependent stimulant effects of both selective and nonselective adenosine antagonists. METHODS Six drugs were tested: two nonselective adenosine antagonists (caffeine and theophylline), two adenosine A(1) antagonists (DPCPX and CPT), and two adenosine A(2A) antagonists (istradefylline (KW6002) and MSX-3). Two schedules of reinforcement were employed; a fixed interval 240-s (FI-240 sec) schedule was used to generate low baseline rates of responding and a fixed ratio 20 (FR20) schedule generated high rates. RESULTS Caffeine and theophylline produced rate-dependent effects on lever pressing, increasing responding on the FI-240 sec schedule but decreasing responding on the FR20 schedule. The A(2A) antagonists MSX-3 and istradefylline increased FI-240 sec lever pressing but did not suppress FR20 lever pressing in the dose range tested. In fact, there was a tendency for istradefylline to increase FR20 responding at a moderate dose. A(1) antagonists failed to increase lever pressing rate, but DPCPX decreased FR20 responding at higher doses. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that adenosine A(2A) antagonists enhance operant response rates, but A(1) antagonists do not. The involvement of adenosine A(2A) receptors in regulating aspects of instrumental response output and behavioral activation may have implications for the treatment of effort-related psychiatric dysfunctions, such as psychomotor slowing and anergia in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A. Randall
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Eric J. Nunes
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Simone L. Janniere
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Colin M. Stopper
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Andrew M. Farrar
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
| | - Thomas N. Sager
- Pharmacology Target Research, H. Lundbeck A/S, 9 Ottiliavej, Valby, Copenhagen 2500, Denmark
| | - Younis Baqi
- Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jörg Hockemeyer
- Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christa E. Müller
- Pharma-Zentrum Bonn, Pharmazeutisches Institut, Pharmazeutische Chemie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - John D. Salamone
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, USA
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