Point-of-care-ready nanoscale ISFET arrays for sub-picomolar detection of cytokines in cell cultures

An integrated perspective on measuring cytokines to inform CAR-T bioprocessing

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells are emerging as a generation-defining therapeutic however their manufacture remains a major barrier to meeting increased market demand. Monitoring critical quality attributes (CQAs) and critical process parameters (CPPs) during manufacture would vastly enrich acquired information related to the process and product, providing feedback to enable real-time decision making. Here we identify specific CAR-T cytokines as value-adding analytes and discuss their roles as plausible CPPs and CQAs. High sensitivity sensing technologies which can be easily integrated into manufacture workflows are essential to implement real-time monitoring of these cytokines. We therefore present biosensors as enabling technologies and evaluate recent advancements in cytokine detection in cell cultures, offering promising translatability to CAR-T biomanufacture. Finally, we outline emerging sensing technologies with future promise, and provide an overall outlook on existing gaps to implementation and the optimal sensing platform to enable cytokine monitoring in CAR-T biomanufacture.

Nanowire-based biosensors for solving biomedical problems

The review considers modern achievements and prospects of using nanowire biosensors, principles of their operation, methods of fabrication, and the influence of the Debye effect, which plays a key role in improving the biosensor characteristics. Special attention is paid to the practical application of such biosensors for the detection of a variety of biomolecules, demonstrating their capabilities and potential in the detection of a wide range of biomarkers of various diseases. Nanowire biosensors also show excellent results in such areas as early disease diagnostics, patient health monitoring, and personalized medicine due to their high sensitivity and specificity. Taking into consideration their high efficiency and diverse applications, nanowire-based biosensors demonstrate significant promise for commercialization and widespread application in medicine and related fields, making them an important area for future research and development.

Sensing with Molecularly Imprinted Membranes on Two-Dimensional Solid-Supported Substrates

Molecularly imprinted membranes (MIMs) have been a focal research interest since 1990, representing a breakthrough in the integration of target molecules into membrane structures for cutting-edge sensing applications. This paper traces the developmental history of MIMs, elucidating the diverse methodologies employed in their preparation and characterization on two-dimensional solid-supported substrates. We then explore the principles and diverse applications of MIMs, particularly in the context of emerging technologies encompassing electrochemistry, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and the quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Furthermore, we shed light on the unique features of ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) biosensors that rely on MIMs, with the notable advancements and challenges of point-of-care biochemical sensors highlighted. By providing a comprehensive overview of the latest innovations and future trajectories, this paper aims to inspire further exploration and progress in the field of MIM-driven sensing technologies.

Time-encoded electrical detection of trace RNA biomarker by integrating programmable molecular amplifier on chip

One of the serious challenges facing modern point-of-care (PoC) molecular diagnostic platforms relate to reliable detection of low concentration biomarkers such as nucleic acids or proteins in biological samples. Non-specific analyte-receptor interactions due to competitive binding in the presence of abundant molecules, inefficient mass transport and very low number of analyte molecules in sample volume, in general pose critical hurdles for successful implementation of such PoC platforms for clinical use. Focusing on these specific challenges, this work reports a unique PoC biosensor that combines the advantages of nanoscale biologically-sensitive field-effect transistor arrays (BioFET-arrays) realized in a wafer-scale top-down nanofabrication as high sensitivity electrical transducers with that of sophisticated molecular programs (MPs) customized for selective recognition of analyte miRNAs and amplification resulting in an overall augmentation of signal transduction strategy. The MPs realize a programmable universal molecular amplifier (PUMA) in fluidic matrix on chip and provide a biomarker-triggered exponential release of small nucleic acid sequences easily detected by receptor-modified BioFETs. A common miRNA biomarker LET7a was selected for successful demonstration of this novel biosensor, achieving limit of detection (LoD) down to 10 fM and wide dynamic ranges (10 pM-10 nM) in complex physiological solutions. As the determination of biomarker concentration is implemented by following the electrical signal related to analyte-triggered PUMA in time-domain instead of measuring the threshold shifts of BioFETs, and circumvents direct hybridization of biomarkers at transducer surface, this new strategy also allows for multiple usage (>3 times) of the biosensor platform suggesting exceptional cost-effectiveness for practical use.

Unrevealing the connection between real sample analysis and analytical method. The case of cytokines

Cytokines are compounds that belong to a special class of signaling biomolecules that are responsible for several functions in the human body, being involved in cell growth, inflammatory, and neoplastic processes. Thus, they represent valuable biomarkers for diagnosing and drug therapy monitoring certain medical conditions. Because cytokines are secreted in the human body, they can be detected in both conventional samples, such as blood or urine, but also in samples less used in medical practice such as sweat or saliva. As the importance of cytokines was identified, various analytical methods for their determination in biological fluids were reported. The gold standard in cytokine detection is considered the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method and the most recent ones have been considered and compared in this study. It is known that the conventional methods are accompanied by a few disadvantages that new methods of analysis, especially electrochemical sensors, are trying to overcome. Electrochemical sensors proved to be suited for the elaboration of integrated, portable, and wearable sensing devices, which could also facilitate cytokines determination in medical practice.

Biosensors integrated 3D organoid/organ-on-a-chip system: A real-time biomechanical, biophysical, and biochemical monitoring and characterization

As a full-fidelity simulation of human cells, tissues, organs, and even systems at the microscopic scale, Organ-on-a-Chip (OOC) has significant ethical advantages and development potential compared to animal experiments. The need for the design of new drug high-throughput screening platforms and the mechanistic study of human tissues/organs under pathological conditions, the evolving advances in 3D cell biology and engineering, etc., have promoted the updating of technologies in this field, such as the iteration of chip materials and 3D printing, which in turn facilitate the connection of complex multi-organs-on-chips for simulation and the further development of technology-composite new drug high-throughput screening platforms. As the most critical part of organ-on-a-chip design and practical application, verifying the success of organ model modeling, i.e., evaluating various biochemical and physical parameters in OOC devices, is crucial. Therefore, this paper provides a logical and comprehensive review and discussion of the advances in organ-on-a-chip detection and evaluation technologies from a broad perspective, covering the directions of tissue engineering scaffolds, microenvironment, single/multi-organ function, and stimulus-based evaluation, and provides a more comprehensive review of the progress in the significant organ-on-a-chip research areas in the physiological state.

A portable and low-cost centrifugal microfluidic platform for multiplexed colorimetric detection of protein biomarkers

Cytokines play a very important role in our immune system by acting as mediators to put up a coordinated defense against foreign elements in our body. Elevated levels of cytokines in the body can signal to an ongoing response of the immune system to some abnormality. Thus, the quantification of a panel of cytokines can provide valuable information regarding the diagnosis of specific diseases and state of overall health of an individual. Conventional Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is the gold-standard for quantification of cytokines, however the need for trained personnel and expensive equipment limits its application to centralized laboratories only. In this context, there is a lack of simple, low-cost and portable devices which can allow for quantification of panels of cytokines at point-of-care and/or resource limited settings. Here, we report the development of a versatile, low-cost and portable bead-based centrifugal microfluidic platform allowing for multiplexed detection of cytokines with minimal hands-on time and an integrated colorimetric signal readout without the need for any external equipment. As a model, multiplexed colorimetric quantification of three target cytokines i.e., Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and Interleukin-2 (IL-2) was achieved in less than 30 min with limits of detection in ng/mL range. The developed platform was further evaluated using spiked-in plasma samples to test for matrix interference. The ease of use, low-cost and portability of the developed platform highlight its potential to serve as a sample-to-answer solution for detection of cytokine panels in resource limited settings.

A handheld intelligent single-molecule binary bioelectronic system for fast and reliable immunometric point-of-care testing

Molecular tests are highly reliable and sensitive but lack portability and are not simple to use; conversely, easy-to-use antigenic tests still lack high performance. BioScreen combines single-molecule sensitivity and outstanding reliability with ultraportability and simplicity of use. This digital platform is capable of artificial intelligence-based binary classification at the limit of identification of a single marker/virus in 0.1 ml. The diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy reach 99.2% as validated through 240 assays, including a pilot clinical trial. The versatile immunometric system can detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus, spike S1, and immunoglobulin G antigen proteins in saliva, blood serum, and swab. BioScreen has a small footprint comprising a disposable cartridge and a handheld electronic reader connected to a smart device. The sample handling is minimal, and the assay time to result is 21 min. Reliable and sensitive self-testing with an ultraportable and easy-to-use diagnostic system operated directly by a patient holds the potential to revolutionize point-of-care testing and early diagnosis.

Large-Area Interfaces for Single-Molecule Label-free Bioelectronic Detection

Bioelectronic transducing surfaces that are nanometric in size have been the main route to detect single molecules. Though enabling the study of rarer events, such methodologies are not suited to assay at concentrations below the nanomolar level. Bioelectronic field-effect-transistors with a wide (μm²-mm²) transducing interface are also assumed to be not suited, because the molecule to be detected is orders of magnitude smaller than the transducing surface. Indeed, it is like seeing changes on the surface of a one-kilometer-wide pond when a droplet of water falls on it. However, it is a fact that a number of large-area transistors have been shown to detect at a limit of detection lower than femtomolar; they are also fast and hence innately suitable for point-of-care applications. This review critically discusses key elements, such as sensing materials, FET-structures, and target molecules that can be selectively assayed. The amplification effects enabling extremely sensitive large-area bioelectronic sensing are also addressed.

Point-of-care detection of cytokines in cytokine storm management and beyond: Significance and challenges

Cytokines are signaling molecules between cells in immune system. Cytokine storm, due to the sudden acute increase in levels of pro-inflammatory circulating cytokines, can result in disease severity and major-organ damage. Thus, there is urgent need to develop rapid, sensitive, and specific methods for monitoring of cytokines in biology and medicine. Undoubtedly, point-of-care testing (POCT) will provide clinical significance in disease early diagnosis, management, and prevention. This review aims to summarize and discuss the latest technologies for detection of cytokines with a focus on POCT. The overview of diseases resulting from imbalanced cytokine levels, such as COVID-19, sepsis and other cytokine release syndromes are presented. The clinical cut-off levels of cytokine as biomarkers for different diseases are summarized. The challenges and perspectives on the development of cytokine POCT devices are also proposed and discussed. Cytokine POCT devices are expected to be the ongoing spotlight of disease management and prevention during COVID-19 pandemic and also the post COVID-19 pandemic era.

Process Variability in Top-Down Fabrication of Silicon Nanowire-Based Biosensor Arrays

Silicon nanowire field-effect transistors (SiNW-FET) have been studied as ultra-high sensitive sensors for the detection of biomolecules, metal ions, gas molecules and as an interface for biological systems due to their remarkable electronic properties. "Bottom-up" or "top-down" approaches that are used for the fabrication of SiNW-FET sensors have their respective limitations in terms of technology development. The "bottom-up" approach allows the synthesis of silicon nanowires (SiNW) in the range from a few nm to hundreds of nm in diameter. However, it is technologically challenging to realize reproducible bottom-up devices on a large scale for clinical biosensing applications. The top-down approach involves state-of-the-art lithography and nanofabrication techniques to cast SiNW down to a few 10s of nanometers in diameter out of high-quality Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) wafers in a controlled environment, enabling the large-scale fabrication of sensors for a myriad of applications. The possibility of their wafer-scale integration in standard semiconductor processes makes SiNW-FETs one of the most promising candidates for the next generation of biosensor platforms for applications in healthcare and medicine. Although advanced fabrication techniques are employed for fabricating SiNW, the sensor-to-sensor variation in the fabrication processes is one of the limiting factors for a large-scale production towards commercial applications. To provide a detailed overview of the technical aspects responsible for this sensor-to-sensor variation, we critically review and discuss the fundamental aspects that could lead to such a sensor-to-sensor variation, focusing on fabrication parameters and processes described in the state-of-the-art literature. Furthermore, we discuss the impact of functionalization aspects, surface modification, and system integration of the SiNW-FET biosensors on post-fabrication-induced sensor-to-sensor variations for biosensing experiments.