Red mold rice extract represses amyloid beta peptide-induced neurotoxicity via potent synergism of anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effect

Does a pickle a day keep Alzheimer's away? Fermented food in Alzheimer's disease: A review

Fermented food is commonly viewed as healthy, mostly due to its probiotic and digestion-enhancing properties and recently it has been examined with regard to the development of new therapeutic and preventive measures for Alzheimer's disease. Fermented food has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and to alter the gut microbiota. However, the exact pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is still unknown and its connections to systemic inflammation and gut dysbiosis, as potential targets of fermented food, require further investigation. Therefore, to sum up the current knowledge, this article reviews recent research on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease with emphasis on the role of the gut-brain axis and studies examining the use of fermented foods. The analysis of the fermented food research includes clinical and preclinical in vivo and in vitro studies. The fermented food studies have shown promising effects on amyloid-β metabolism, inflammation, and cognitive impairment in animals and humans. Fermented food has great potential in developing new approaches to Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Clinical and Preclinical Studies of Fermented Foods and Their Effects on Alzheimer’s Disease

The focus on managing Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is shifting towards prevention through lifestyle modification instead of treatments since the currently available treatment options are only capable of providing symptomatic relief marginally and result in various side effects. Numerous studies have reported that the intake of fermented foods resulted in the successful management of AD. Food fermentation is a biochemical process where the microorganisms metabolize the constituents of raw food materials, giving vastly different organoleptic properties and additional nutritional value, and improved biosafety effects in the final products. The consumption of fermented foods is associated with a wide array of nutraceutical benefits, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, immunomodulatory, and hypocholesterolemic properties. Due to their promising health benefits, fermented food products have a great prospect for commercialization in the food industry. This paper reviews the memory and cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective potential of fermented food products on AD, the recently commercialized fermented food products in the health and food industries, and their limitations. The literature reviewed here demonstrates a growing demand for fermented food products as alternative therapeutic options for the prevention and management of AD.

Monascus purpureus Fermented Product Ameliorates Learning and Memory Impairment in the Amyloid Precursor Protein Transgenic J20 Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease

Evidence suggests that various hallmarks such as amyloid overproduction, tau dysfunction, insulin resistance/diabetic mechanisms, and neuroinflammation are associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This study investigated the bioactive functions of ankaflavin (AK) and monascin (MS) in the fermented product of Monascus purpureus and found their abilities to ameliorate AD by modifying several important pathogenic factors including improved cognitive function, reversed behavioral deficits, reduced hippocampal β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) burden, decreased tau hyper-phosphorylation, and reduced neuroinflammation in the J20 mouse model of AD compared to wild type. Monascus purpureus fermented product (MPFP) was suggested to act as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ agonist and it was compared against the action of a well-known anti-diabetic PPAR-γ agonist rosiglitazone. MPFP could be a promising therapeutic strategy for disease modification in AD.

Monalbidins A-E, Decalins with Potential Cytotoxic Activities from Marine Derived Fungus Monascus albidus BB3

Five new decalins, monalbidins A-E (1, 2 and 7-9), together with 16 known compounds (3-6 and 10-21), were isolated from the AcOEt extract of marine derived fungus Monascus albidus BB3 cultured in GPY medium. Among the known compounds, 1-hydroxymonacolin L (11), dehydromonacolin J (15), 8-O-acetylmonacolin J (19) and O-acetylmonacolin K (21) were separated from natural sources for the first time. Their structures were determined by comprehensive analysis on the 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, UV and IR data, and their absolute configurations were assigned by experimental and calculated ECD data, and X-ray single-crystal diffraction analysis. Monalbidins C and D (7 and 8), monacolin K methyl ester (13), dehydromonacolin L (14), dehydromonacolin K (16), monacolin K (20) and O-acetylmonacolin K (21) showed moderate cytotoxicity against human cancer cell lines SUNE1, HepG2, QGY7701, HCT116 and MDA-MB-231.

A novel aqueous extract from rice fermented with Aspergillus oryzae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae possesses an anti-influenza A virus activity

Human influenza virus infections occur annually worldwide and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. Hence, development of novel anti-influenza drugs is urgently required. Rice Power^® extract developed by the Yushin Brewer Co. Ltd. is a novel aqueous extract of rice obtained via saccharization and fermentation with various microorganisms, such as Aspergillus oryzae, yeast [such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae], and lactic acid bacteria, possessing various biological and pharmacological properties. In our previous experimental screening with thirty types of Rice Power^® extracts, we observed that the 30^th Rice Power^® (Y30) extract promoted the survival of influenza A virus-infected Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Therefore, to identify compounds for the development of novel anti-influenza drugs, we aimed to investigate whether the Y30 extract exhibits anti-influenza A virus activity. In the present study, we demonstrated that the Y30 extract strongly promoted the survival of influenza A H1N1 Puerto Rico 8/34 (A/PR/8/34), California 7/09, or H3N2 Aichi 2/68 (A/Aichi/2/68) viruses-infected MDCK cells and inhibited A/PR/8/34 or A/Aichi/2/68 viruses infection and growth in the co-treatment and pre-infection experiments. The pre-treatment of Y30 extract on MDCK cells did not induce anti-influenza activity in the cell. The Y30 extract did not significantly affect influenza A virus hemagglutination, and neuraminidase and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activities. Interestingly, the electron microscopy experiment revealed that the Y30 extract disrupts the integrity of influenza A virus particles by permeabilizing the viral membrane envelope, suggesting that Y30 extract has a direct virucidal effect against influenza A virus. Furthermore, we observed that compared to the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract, the water extract of Y30 extract considerably promoted the survival of cells infected with A/PR/8/34 virus. These results indicated that more anti-influenza components were present in the water extract of Y30 extract than in the EtOAc extract. Our results highlight the potential of a rice extract fermented with A. oryzae and S. cerevisiae as an anti-influenza medicine and a drug source for the development of anti-influenza compounds.

[Doctor, Do You Know Red Yeast Rice?]

Doctor, Do You Know Red Yeast Rice? Abstract. We present cases of patients with high total cholesterol who wanted to use an alternative therapy for lowering cholesterol. An improvement in the lipid profile was found in all patients, and all tolerated the product made from red rice yeast very well. No side effects were observed. The patients who take red fermented rice consciously choose an alternative agent in the field of phytotherapy because they already have to take several conventional medicines and are no longer willing to use an additional drug of this kind. Another reason is that they no longer want to put up with the side effects they suffered from when using a common lipid-lowering drug.

Isolation and characterization of ergosterol from Monascus anka for anti-lipid peroxidation properties

Unbalanced lipid peroxidation damages the human body, and is associated with the formation of tumors, infections, inflammations, autoimmune diseases, and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, food and drugs that contain anti-lipid peroxidation active substances, can help to protect against these negative health impacts. We observed lipid peroxidation inhibition in the metabolites of fermented Monascus anka, in media with Dendrobium nobile Lindl. The anti-lipid peroxidation ability of the extracts was strongest in ethyl acetate, so this was selected for further purifications. A crystal with strong antioxidant properties was obtained by column chromatography. Based on its spectroscopic analysis by Electron Bombardment Ion Source and Mass Spectrometry (EI-MS), ¹H-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹H-NMR), and ¹³C-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹³C-NMR), the isolated crystal was identified as ergosterol. The inhibition rates of the lipid peroxide due to the ergosterol were 57.42%, at 2μg/mL in vitro. Simultaneously, the survival rates of the damaged cells treated with 0.3mmol/L H₂O₂ were significantly improved with the ergosterol, up to 43.88% (200μg/mL) and 46.64% (400μg/mL), compared to 36.47% for the injured cells. The survival rate of the cells was 78.32% (400μg/mL), with ergosterol as a prevention. Cell injury can increase the level of intracellular ROS, but its levels in the damaged cells were reduced after the ergosterol treatments, and the reduction increased with the increasing concentrations. A 400μg/mL concentration resulted in the lowest fluorescence intensity; 33421.11 AU below the normal level. Ergosterol significantly reduced the ROS levels, to reduce the cell damage. Ergosterol from Monascus anka was thus found to have strong anti-lipid peroxidation and antioxidant capabilities, and the ability to protect and repair damaged cells. It may consequently serve as a potential natural antioxidant and will play an important role in human anti-lipid peroxide.

Effects of Chinese medicines on monacolin K production and related genes transcription of Monascus ruber in red mold rice fermentation

Monacolin K (MK) is a secondary metabolite synthesized by polyketide synthases of Monascus spp. In this study, the combined supplementation of three medicines, including Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (CRP), Fructus crataegi (FC), and Radix Angelicae Dahuricae (RAD), were mixed with nonglutinous rice and were optimized by response surface methodology to enhance the production of MK in fermented red mold rice (RMR). Under the optimum condition, MK production achieved 3.60 mg/g, which was 41.18% higher than RMR without medicines. The improved MK production was mainly caused by the up-regulated transcription level of mokA, mokB, mokF, mokH, mokI, and mplaeA. Meanwhile, the inhibitory effect of Poria cocos (PC) on MK production (only 0.436 mg/g) was caused by significantly down-regulated transcription of six tested genes. Therefore, this study is beneficial for better understanding of the possible mechanism of enhanced MK production by optimization of fermentation conditions.

Monarubins A-C from the Marine Shellfish-Associated Fungus Monascus ruber BB5

Three new compounds, monarubins A-C (1, 6 and 13), together with ten known compounds, including four alkaloids (2-5), two isocoumarins (7 and 8) and four polyketides (9-12), were isolated from marine shellfish-associated fungus Monascus ruber BB5. The structures were determined on the basis of the 1D and 2D NMR, MS, UV and IR data. The absolute configurations of compounds 3, 6 and 13 were determined by ECD calculations. The NMR data of compounds deoxyhydroxyaspergillic acid (3) and 2-hydroxy-6-(1-hydroxy-1-methylpropyl)-3-sec-buthylpyrazine (4) were first reported. All of the isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell lines CNE1, CNE2, SUNE1 and HONE1 and hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines QGY7701 and HepG2. Monarubin B (6) displayed potent cytotoxicities against the cancer cell lines HepG2 and QGY7701 with IC₅₀ values of 1.72 and 0.71 μΜ, respectively; lunatinin (7) showed moderate cytotoxic activities against the cancer cell lines HepG2, QGY7701 and SUNE1 with the IC₅₀ values of 9.60, 7.12 and 28.12 μΜ, respectively.

Effect of Red Yeast Rice on Cognitive Functioning in Schizophrenia: Data From a Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Cognitive deficits (CDs) in schizophrenia affect poor outcome and real-world community functioning. Because redox imbalance has been implicated, among other factors, in the pathophysiology of CDs, antioxidant compounds may have a beneficial effect in their treatment. Red yeast rice (RYR), besides its lipid-lowering effect, exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory.

METHODS

Thirty-five schizophrenia outpatients (age range, 18-60 years) on stable antipsychotic treatment and assessed by neuropsychological (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test [WCST], Verbal Fluency, and Stroop task) and psychodiagnostic instruments (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) received RYR at daily dosage of 200 mg/d (total monacolin K/capsule content, 11.88 mg) for 12 weeks.

RESULTS

Red yeast rice supplementation significantly improved WCST "perseverative errors" (P = 0.015), "total errors" (P = 0.017, P = 0.001), and phonemic fluency test (P = 0.008); a trend for improvement on other WCST variables ("nonperseverative errors," "perseverative responses," and "categories") was observed. Effect sizes, according to Cohen's suggestions, were small in all explored cognitive dimensions. There were no significant change in clinical symptoms and no subject-reported adverse effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite several limitations (open design, lack of a control group, short period of observation, small sample size, mode of controlling patients' compliance, the lack of assessment of patients' functional improvement), results suggest that RYR supplementation may be a potentially promising strategy for addressing CDs in schizophrenia; further randomized, placebo-controlled studies are needed to better evaluate the potential role of RYR for the treatment of CDs in schizophrenia.

Pharmacognostical Sources of Popular Medicine To Treat Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

A large number of classical and recently discovered plants are indicated in preventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease (AD).

OBJECTIVE

Name of plants with their anti-AD effects are important for their further use and investigation.

METHOD

A short overview of AD is given; anti-Alzheimer plants are given in a Table.

RESULTS

Various medicinal plants are listed here as sources of popular medicines to be used in cases when patients are afraid of developing and/or suffer from AD. Some of these plants have been used for centuries. The major sources in the literature, over one hundred of references are given for plants that show beneficial effect on the progress of AD.

CONCLUSION

Plant extracts are widely used addition to the synthetic drugs approved by various administrative authorities to stop/slow down the progress of symptoms of AD.

Effect of Monascus-Fermented Soybean Extracts on Antioxidant and Skin Aging-Related Enzymes Inhibitory Activities

We investigated the in vitro inhibitory activity against skin aging-related enzymes and antioxidant activity of Monascus-fermented soybean extracts (MFSEs) obtained by using different solvents. The highest Trolox equivalent (TE) antioxidant capacity (3.13±0.06 mM TE/g) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (2.79±0.09 mM TE/g) of MFSEs were evaluated for the methanol and 80% ethanol extracts, respectively. The antioxidant capacities increased with increasing concentration (0.5~50 mg/mL). In addition, the methanol and 80% ethanol extracts showed an effective inhibition against tyrosinase, hyaluronidase, and elastase compared with those of acetone and hot water extracts (P<0.05). Results indicate that the inhibitory activities against skin aging-related enzymes and antioxidant properties provide evidence for the nutricosmetic potentials of Monascus-fermented soybeans.

Beneficial Effects of Monascus sp. KCCM 10093 Pigments and Derivatives: A Mini Review

The production of Monascus pigments and related byproducts, via microbial fermentation, has been broadly utilized as coloring by traditional food industries and as a natural textile dye. In addition to these traditional purposes, Monascus pigments have been recently favored for a variety of commercial and academic purposes. Pigments and derivatives formed during Monascus fermentation have pharmaceutical and clinical properties that can counteract common diseases, including obesity, type-2 diabetes, and cancer. Various research attempts have investigated the optimum conditions for this derived compound synthesis, as well as the still-unknown bio-functional effects. Recently, several studies were conducted using Monascus sp. KCCM 10093 and its derivatives. These experimental outcomes potentially reflect the bio-functional features of Monascus sp. KCCM 10093. However, no publication to date provides an overview of Monascus sp. KCCM 10093's unique metabolite products, functionalities, or biological pathways. In order to develop profitable commercial applications of Monascus sp. KCCM 10093, it is necessary not only to conduct continuous research, but also to systematically organize previous Monascus studies. The goals of this review are to investigate the current derivatives of Monascus sp. KCCM 10093 pigments-some of which have demonstrated newly-identified functionality-and the relevant uses of these molecules for pharmaceutical or nutraceutical purposes.

Linoleic acid enhance the production of moncolin K and red pigments in Monascus ruber by activating mokH and mokA, and by accelerating cAMP-PkA pathway

Monacolin K, an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, is a secondary metabolite synthesized by polyketide synthases (PKS) from Monascus ruber. The mokH gene encoding Zn(II)2Cys6 binding protein and mokA gene encoding polyketide synthase are presumed to activate monacolin K production. In this study, linoleic acid could be a quorum sensing signaling molecule to increase monacolin K production in the cyclic AMP(cAMP)-protein kinase A(PKA) signaling pathway. Analysis of the PKA activity and the cAMP concentration shows that linoleic acid could increase cAMP concentration and activate PKA. Analysis of the RT-qPCR products demonstrates that 256μM and 512μM linoleic acid can up-regulate mokH and mokA gene transcript levels. Especially with 512μM linoleic acid addition, linoleic acid increase 1.35 folds of monacolin K production, but 64μM linoleic acid increase 1.94 folds of red pigment production in Monascus ruber. These results show the cAMP-PkA pathway activity can up-regulate mokA and mokH gene, which enhance the yield of Monacolin K.

A Review of Fermented Foods with Beneficial Effects on Brain and Cognitive Function

Around the world, fermentation of foods has been adopted over many generations, primarily due to their commercial significance with enriched flavors and high-profile nutrients. The increasing application of fermented foods is further promoted by recent evidence on their health benefits, beyond the traditionally recognized effects on the digestive system. With recent advances in the understanding of gut-brain interactions, there have also been reports suggesting the fermented food's efficacy, particularly for cognitive function improvements. These results are strengthened by the proposed biological effects of fermented foods, including neuroprotection against neurotoxicity and reactive oxygen species. This paper reviews the beneficial health effects of fermented foods with particular emphasis on cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective effects. With an extensive review of fermented foods and their potential cognitive benefits, this paper may promote commercially feasible applications of fermented foods as natural remedies to cognitive problems.

Increasing anti-Aβ-induced neurotoxicity ability of Antrodia camphorata-fermented product with deep ocean water supplementary

BACKGROUND

Antrodia camphorata is proven to probably inhibit the neurotoxicity of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), known as a risk factor toward the development of Alzheimer's disease. Deep ocean water (DOW), drawn from an ocean depth of more than 200 m, has proven to stimulate the growth and metabolite biosynthesis of fungi owing to its rich minerals and trace elements. Based on these advantages of DOW, this study used statistical response surface methodology (RSM) to investigate the effects of DOW on the growth and anti-Aβ-induced neurocytotoxicity ability of A. camphorata.

RESULTS

The results showed that DOW was useful for increasing the biomass of A. camphorata and enhancing its neuroprotective capability. The anti-Aβ40-induced neurocytotoxicity ability of filtrate was increased via raising the mycelium-secreted components. Furthermore, the anti-Aβ40-induced neurocytotoxicity ability of mycelium was also increased by the DOW-stimulated intracellular antioxidants. Using 80% DOW concentration, initial pH 3.3 and 20% inoculum size as the optimal culture conditions of A. camphorata significantly stimulated the biomass and mycelium-mediated Aβ40-induced cell viability from 302 ± 14 mg per 100 mL and 49.2 ± 2.2% to 452 ± 33 mg per 100 mL and 65.0 ± 7.4% respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that DOW could be used as a promising supplementary for the production of A. camphorata secondary metabolites with strong antioxidant activity to protect neuron cells from damage based on Aβ stimulation cytotoxicity. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dimerumic Acid and Deferricoprogen Activate Ak Mouse Strain Thymoma/Heme Oxygenase-1 Pathways and Prevent Apoptotic Cell Death in 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced SH-SY5Y Cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, which can be modeled using the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to generate oxidative stress. Here, we studied the effects of the antioxidants deferricoprogen (DFC) and dimerumic acid (DMA), produced by rice fermented with Monascus purpureus NTU 568, on 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells and their potential protective mechanisms. DMA and DFC inhibited 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis and cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Molecular analysis demonstrated associated upregulation of the Ak mouse strain thymoma (Akt), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways along with inhibited phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 pathways and altered homodimeric glycoprotein, N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, and immunoglobulin Fc receptor gene expression. These results suggested that the neuroprotection elicited by DMA and DFC against 6-OHDA-induced neurotoxicity was associated with the Akt, MAPK, and HO-1 pathways via regulating the gene expression of NMDA receptor, homodimeric glycoprotein, and immunoglobulin Fc receptor.

Neuroprotective effects of dimerumic acid and deferricoprogen from Monascus purpureus NTU 568-fermented rice against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in differentiated pheochromocytoma PC-12 cells

Context Oxidative stress plays a key role in neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Rice fermented with Monascus purpureus Went (Monascaceae) NTU 568 (red mould rice) was found to contain antioxidants, including dimerumic acid (DMA) and deferricoprogen (DFC). Objective The effects of DMA and DFC on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cytotoxicity and potential protective mechanisms in differentiated PC-12 pheochromocytoma cells were investigated. Materials and methods DMA (0-60 μM) or DFC (0-10 μM) was co-treated with 6-OHDA (200 μM, 24 h exposure) in differentiated PC-12 cells. Cell viability and intercellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein-diacetate (DCFH-DA) assays, respectively. Cell apoptosis was determined by DNA fragmentation analysis and propidium iodide staining by flow cytometry. Western blot analysis was used to measure the levels of cell protein expression. Results DMA and DFC significantly increased cell viability to 72% and 81% in 6-OHDA-induced differentiated PC-12 cell cultures, respectively. Furthermore, DMA and DFC reduced 6-OHDA-induced formation of extracellular and intercellular ROS by 25% and 20%, respectively, and decreased NADPH oxidase-2 expression in differentiated PC-12 cells. DMA and DFC inhibited 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis and decreased activation of caspase-3 via regulation of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and Bcl-2 protein expression in differentiated PC-12 cells. Conclusion DMA and DFC may protect against 6-OHDA toxicity by inhibiting ROS formation and apoptosis. These results showed that the metabolites from M. purpureus NTU 568 fermentation were potential therapeutic agents for PD induced by oxidative damage and should be encouraged for further research.

The ameliorative effect of Monascus purpureus NTU 568-fermented rice extracts on 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells and the rat model of Parkinson's disease

TheMonascus purpureusNTU 568-fermented rice extract contains antioxidants DMA and DFC, and it could reduce behavioral, neuronal, and biochemical characteristics in 6-OHDA-lesion rats.

Centella asiatica extract protects against amyloid β1-40-induced neurotoxicity in neuronal cells by activating the antioxidative defence system

Centella asiatica (雷公根 léi gōng gēn) is a traditional medicinal herb with high antioxidant activity, which decreases amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition in the brain. At the same time, aggregated Aβ-induced oxidative stress is the trigger in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we investigated the ability of C. asiatica ethanol extract (CAE) to protect PC12 and IMR32 cells from Aβ_1–40-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and concomitant neurotoxicity. Aggregated Aβ_1–40 treatment resulted in reduced cell viability, which can be reversed by cotreatment with 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL CAE. Moreover, CAE eliminated the Aβ_1–40-mediated increase in ROS production. Thus, CAE-mediated protection against aggregated Aβ_1–40-induced neurotoxicity is attributable to modulation of the antioxidative defense system in cells, including the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and levels of glutathione and glutathione disulfide by CAE. This emphasizes the potential therapeutic and preventive value of CAE in the treatment of AD.

Ameliorative effects of Monascus pilosus-fermented black soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) on high-fat diet-induced obesity

The purpose of this study was to examine the antiobesity effects of Monascus pilosus-fermented black soybean (F-BS) in C57BL/6 mice with high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity. F-BS (oral, 0.5 and 1.0 g/kg per body weight, twice per day) ameliorated obesity by reducing body and liver weight increases, and regulating blood glucose and cholesterol levels in C57BL/6 mice fed a control or HFD with oral administration of F-BS for 12 weeks. F-BS suppressed the growth of epididymal, retroperitoneal, and perirenal fat pads by preventing increases in the adipocyte size. Moreover, the levels of blood glucose, total cholesterol, and leptin were significantly lowered by F-BS administration in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicated that F-BS is a beneficial food supplement for preventing obesity, controlling blood glucose, and lowering cholesterol. Future research strategies should address the mechanisms that selectively regulate obesity, including hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia.

Efficient gene targeting in ligase IV-deficient Monascus ruber M7 by perturbing the non-homologous end joining pathway

Inactivating the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway is a well established method to increase gene replacement frequency (GRF) in filamentous fungi because NHEJ is predominant for the repair of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs), while gene targeting is based on homologous recombination (HR). DNA ligase IV, a component of the NHEJ system, is strictly required for the NHEJ in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Neurospora crassa. To enhance the GRF in Monascus ruber M7, we deleted the Mrlig4 gene encoding a homolog of N. crassa DNA ligase IV. The obtained mutant (MrΔlig4) showed no apparent defects in vegetative growth, colony phenotype, microscopic morphology, spore yield, and production of Monascus pigments and citrinin compared with the wild-type strain (M. ruber M7). Gene targeting of ku70 and triA genes revealed that GRF in the MrΔlig4 strain increased four-fold compared with that in the wild-type strain, reached 68 % and 85 %, respectively. Thus, the MrΔlig4 strain is a promising host for efficient genetic manipulation. In addition, the MrΔlig4 strain is more sensitive than M. ruber M7 to a DNA-damaging agent, methyl methanesulfonate.

Preventive effects of Monascus on androgen-related diseases: androgenetic alopecia, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and prostate cancer

Androgen-related diseases impair the well-being of many aging men. Unfortunately, the medications used to treat these diseases have many side effects. Therefore, there is a significant need for the development of novel drugs to treat androgen-related diseases. In this study, we investigated the effects of Monascus cursory extraction (M-CE) on androgen-related diseases, including androgenetic alopecia (AGA), benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer. We found that M-CE suppressed baldness in male B6CBAF1/j mice. Furthermore, M-CE decreased PSA levels, indicating a protective effect of M-CE on testosterone-induced hyperplasia. M-CE also significantly decreased tumor volume and tumor incidence in an N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU)/testosterone-induced rat prostate cancer model and markedly decreased dihydrotestosterone (DHT) but not testosterone. Additionally, PCNA expression was decreased in the prostate of rats treated with M-CE. These results suggest that M-CE could be a new potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of androgen-related diseases.

The effect of red yeast rice (Monascus purpureus) in dyslipidemia and other disorders

BACKGROUND

Red Yeast Rice (RYR) is a traditional Chinese food that is fermented and obtained after red yeast (Monascus purpureus) is grown on rice. RYR contains Monacolin K (Lovastatin) and other active ingredients that are thought to play a role in the management of cholesterol levels. Recently, many clinical trials have focused on the uses of RYR, including for dyslipidemia, coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, fatigue, and memory.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this review is to evaluate the effectiveness of RYR on the management of dyslipidemia. The secondary objective is to review studies that focus on the other uses of RYR. The following search terms were used: red yeast rice, Xuezhikang, Hypocol, Cholestin, Monascus purpureus combined with dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, lipid, cardiovascular, coronary, atherosclerosis, diabetes, sugar, bone, osteoporosis, liver, fatigue, memory, Alzheimer's, dementia.

RESULTS

Studies reviewed show that RYR significantly lowered LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol. Effects on triglycerides and HDL cholesterol were also observed in some studies. Compared with statins, RYR was shown to have an equal efficacy to statins when combined with or without other dietary supplements. RYR also appeared to be superior to placebo in preventing nonfatal myocardial infarction, total coronary heart disease events, and total deaths. On the other hand, information on diabetes, osteoporosis, cancer, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, fatigue, and memory are currently limited although in vivo and in vitro studies have shown an effect.

CONCLUSION

Results of RYR clinical trials presented here have limitations and RYR's clinical use should be further investigated before using RYR as one of the alternative treatments for dyslipidemia management, despite the fact that the strongest evidence for RYR use is in dyslipidemia versus other clinical conditions.

Monascuspiloin enhances the radiation sensitivity of human prostate cancer cells by stimulating endoplasmic reticulum stress and inducing autophagy

Prostate cancer is a very common cancer among males. Traditional treatments for prostate cancer have limited efficacy; therefore, new therapeutic strategies and/or new adjuvant drugs must be explored. Red yeast rice (RYR) is a traditional food spice made in Asia by fermenting white rice with Monascus purpureus Went yeast. Accumulating evidence indicates that RYR has antitumor activity. In this study, PC-3 cells (human prostate cancer cells) were used to investigate the anti-cancer effects of ionizing radiation (IR) combined with monascuspiloin (MP, a yellow pigment isolated from Monascus pilosus M93-fermented rice) and to determine the underlying mechanisms of these effects in vitro and in vivo. We found that IR combined with MP showed increased therapeutic efficacy when compared with either treatment alone in PC-3 cells. In addition, the combined treatment enhanced DNA damage and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The combined treatment induced primarily autophagy in PC-3 cells, and the cell death that was induced by the combined treatment was chiefly the result of inhibition of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. In an in vivo study, the combination treatment showed greater anti-tumor growth effects. These novel findings suggest that the combined treatment could be a potential therapeutic strategy for prostate cancer.

Ankaflavin and monascin regulate endothelial adhesion molecules and endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) expression induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)

Previous studies have established that red mold rice can regulate blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and that Monascus -fermented products, including monacolin K, ankaflavin (AF), and monascin (MS), can inhibit expression of adhesion factors such as E-selectin and endothelin-1 to prevent human acute monocytic leukemia cell line THP-1 monocytes from adhering to human aortic endothelial cells. However, it remains unknown whether AF and MS act directly on human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs) to enhance nitric oxide (NO) synthesis through the stimulation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) expression. To address this knowledge gap, this study investigated whether AF and MS directly regulate NO synthesis and attenuate adhesion factor expression induced by treatment with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in HUVECs. The results revealed that both AF and MS (20 μM) treatments promoted increases in eNOS expression and decreases in vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), E-selectin, and endothelin-1 mRNA and protein expression resulting from 12 h of TNF-α treatment. These effects are attributed to the ability of AF and MS to inhibit extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) phosphorylation and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) translocation from the cytoplasm into the nucleus, thereby exerting antihypertensive activity.

Monascus-fermented metabolite monascin suppresses inflammation via PPAR-γ regulation and JNK inactivation in THP-1 monocytes

Fermentation products of the fungus Monascus offer valuable therapeutic benefits and have been used extensively for centuries in Asia. The aim of this study is to investigate the inhibitory effect of the Monascus-fermented metabolite monascin (MS) on the molecular mechanism of ovalbumin (OVA)-induced inflammation in the human THP-1 monocyte cell line. We found that 1, 5, and 25 μM of MS significantly attenuated several proinflammatory mediators, including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression as well as nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) formation caused by OVA stimulation. Further, 5 and 25 μM of MS significantly reduced the generation of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) at both the protein and mRNA levels. MS (5 and 25 μM) decreased OVA-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK), but not that of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) or p38 kinase. We used the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) antagonist GW9662 to show that MS inhibit JNK phosphorylation through increased expression of PPAR-γ. Thus, the metabolites from Monascus fermentation may serve as a dietary source of anti-inflammatory agents.

In vitro and in vivo comparisons of the effects of the fruiting body and mycelium of Antrodia camphorata against amyloid β-protein-induced neurotoxicity and memory impairment

Antrodia camphorata is a particular and precious medicinal mushroom, and its fruiting body was found to provide more efficient protection from oxidative stress and inflammation than its mycelium because of its higher content of triterpenoids, total phenols, and so on. In the previous in vitro studies, the mycelium of A. camphorata is proven to provide strong neuroprotection in neuron cells and suggested to have the potential of protection against neurotoxicity of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) known as the risk factor toward Alzheimer's disease (AD) development. However, the in vivo study and the comparison study with the fruiting body have not yet been investigated. This study compared the effect of the fruiting body and mycelium of A. camphorata on alleviating the Aβ40-induced neurocytotoxicity in the in vitro Aβ-damaged neuron cell model (PC-12 cell treated with Aβ40) and memory impairment in the in vivo AD animal model induced with a continuous brain infusion of Aβ40. In the results of in vitro and in vivo studies, the fruiting body possessed stronger anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory abilities for inhibiting neurocytotoxicity in Aβ40-treated PC-12 cells and Aβ40 accumulation in Aβ40-infused brain than mycelium. Moreover, hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau) protein expression, known as an important AD risk factor, was suppressed by the treatment of fruiting body rather than that of mycelium in the in vitro and in vivo studies. These comparisons supported the reasons why the fruiting body resulted in a more significant improvement effect on working memory ability than mycelium in the AD rats.

Experimental inhibition of fibrillogenesis and neurotoxicity by amyloid-beta (Aβ) and other disease-related peptides/proteins by plant extracts and herbal compounds

Amyloid-β (Aβ) fibrillogenesis and associated cyto/neurotoxicity are major pathological events and hallmarks in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The understanding of Aβ molecular pathogenesis is currently a pharmacological target for rational drug design and discovery based on reduction of Aβ generation, inhibition of Aβ fibrillogenesis and aggregation, enhancement of Aβ clearance and amelioration of associated cytotoxicity. Molecular mechanisms for other amyloidoses, such as transthyretin amyloidosis, AL-amyloidosis, as well as α-synuclein and prion protein are also pharmacological targets for current drug therapy, design and discovery. We report on natural herbal compounds and extracts that are capable binding to and inhibiting different targets associated with AD and other amyloid-associated diseases, providing a basis for future therapeutic strategies. Many herbal compounds, including curcumin, galantamine, quercetin and other polyphenols, are under active investigation and hold considerable potential for future prophylactic and therapeutic treatment against AD and other neurodegenerative diseases, as well as systemic amyloid diseases. A common emerging theme throughout many studies is the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the compounds or herbal extracts under investigation, within the context of the inhibition of cyto/neurotoxicity and anti-amyloid activity.

A Review and Update of Red Yeast Rice

Dyslipidemia is a growing concern causing significant morbidity and mortality. High cholesterol levels increase the risk of individuals developing heart disease, stroke, and other disease states. Dietary modification is the initial approach for treatment, but many patients require statins (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl co-enzyme A reductase inhibitors) to reduce cardiovascular risk. Unfortunately, a number of patients cannot tolerate statins, leading to practitioners searching for alternative regimens. One alternative that has been extensively studied is red yeast rice ( Monascus purpureus), a dietary supplement. In patients with dyslipidemia, red yeast rice was efficacious and safe for short-term use (<16 weeks). Red yeast rice has also been studied head to head with statins and was shown to be noninferior in reducing cholesterol levels and cardiovascular risk. Because of the positive clinical effects seen in dyslipidemia, researchers have begun to study its use in other disease states.

Dimerumic acid inhibits SW620 cell invasion by attenuating H₂O₂-mediated MMP-7 expression via JNK/C-Jun and ERK/C-Fos activation in an AP-1-dependent manner

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the tumor microenvironment play important roles in tumor invasion and metastasis. Recently, ROS have been reported to cause a significant increase in the production and expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-7, which is closely correlated with metastatic colorectal cancer. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the scavenging activity of dimerumic acid (DMA) for H₂O₂ isolated from Monascus-fermented rice to investigate the inhibitory effects of DMA on the invasive potential of SW620 human colon cancer cells, and to explore the mechanisms underlying both these phenomena. Our results showed that increased MMP-7 expression due to H₂O₂ exposure was mediated by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) such as Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK), and p38 kinase. DMA pretreatment suppressed activation of H₂O₂-mediated MAPK pathways and cell invasion. Moreover, H₂O₂-triggered MMP-7 production was demonstrated via JNK/c-Jun and ERK/c-Fos activation in an activating protein 1 (AP-1)-dependent manner. Taken together, these results suggest that DMA suppresses H₂O₂-induced cell invasion by inhibiting AP-1-mediated MMP-7 gene transcription via the JNK/c-Jun and ERK/c-Fos signaling pathways in SW620 human colon cancer cells. Our data suggest that DMA may be useful in minimizing the development of colorectal metastasis. In the future, DMA supplementation may be a beneficial antioxidant to enhance surgical outcomes.

Red mold fermented products and Alzheimer's disease: a review

Alzheimer's disease is seen mainly in individuals over the age of 65, and the morbidity rate increases with age. Regarding the health function of Monascus-fermented red mold rice (RMR), besides hypolipidemic and hypotensive effects, other health functions of RMR such as anti-oxidation, cancer prevention, anti-fatigue, and anti-obesity have also been reported. Many published studies have shown the efficacy of RMR in the prevention of Alzheimer's disease. The current article discusses and provides evidence to support the beneficial potential of RMR in the prevention of Alzheimer's disease by discussing the pathogenic factors of Alzheimer's disease and the secondary metabolites of Monascus.

New bioactive orange pigments with yellow fluorescence from Monascus-fermented dioscorea

Red mold dioscorea (RMD) is a fermented product of Monascus purpureus NTU 568 using dioscorea as culture substrate. To investigate the bioactive components of RMD, six orange pigments including four new azaphilones with yellow fluorescence, monapilol A-D (1-4), and known monascorubrin (5) and rubropunctatin (6) were isolated and characterized. Structural elucidation of new isolates was based on nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) and other spectroscopic analyses. The structures of monapilols (1-4) were similar to those of monascorubrin (5) and rubropunctatin (6); however, the hydroxyl group (8-OH) in compounds 1-4 substituted for the C-8 carbonyl in compounds 5 and 6. Biological evaluation indicated that compounds 1-4 inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Compounds 1-4 also exhibited antiproliferative activities against human laryngeal carcinoma (HEp-2) and human colon adenocarinoma (WiDr).

Beneficial effects of Monascus purpureus NTU 568-fermented products: a review

Monascus-fermented products have been used in food, medicine, and industry dating back over a thousand years in Asian countries. Monascus-fermented products contained several bioactive metabolites such as pigments, polyketide monacolins, dimerumic acid, and γ-aminobutyric acid. Scientific reports showed that Monascus-fermented products proved to be effective for the management of blood cholesterol, diabetes, blood pressure, obesity, Alzheimer's disease, and prevention of cancer development. This review article describes the beneficial effects about using Monascus-fermented products in human beings and animals.

New anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative constituents from fermented red mold rice Monascus purpureus NTU 568

Six azaphilonoid derivatives, including two new blue fluorescent monapurfluores A (1) and B (2), two known pyridine-containing molecules, monascopyridines C (3) and D (4), and two known monasfluores A (5) and B (6), were isolated and characterized from red mold rice fermented by Monascus purpureus NTU 568. Structural elucidation of new isolates was based on nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H- NMR, ¹³C-NMR, COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) and other spectroscopic analyses. Bioactivity evaluation indicated that 1-6 possessed anti-inflammatory activities with dose-dependent relationships for lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide production. Furthermore, 1-4 also showed moderate antiproliferative effects against human laryngeal carcinoma (HEp-2) (IC₅₀ = 14.81~20.06 μg/mL) and human colon adenocarcinoma (WiDr) (IC₅₀ = 12.89~21.14 μg/mL).

Red mold rice promotes neuroprotective sAPPalpha secretion instead of Alzheimer's risk factors and amyloid beta expression in hyperlipidemic Abeta40-infused rats

Amyloid beta (Abeta) peptide is closely related to the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A high-cholesterol or high-energy diet was demonstrated to stimulate Abeta formation and deposition in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) pathway and, oppositely, downregulate the secretion of the neuroprotective soluble APP alpha-fragment (sAPPalpha). Monascus-fermented red mold rice (RMR) including multiple cholesterol-lowering agents, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory agents has been proven to ameliorate Abeta40 infusion-induced memory deficit in our previous study. In this study, the ethanol extract of RMR (RE) and natural RMR were respectively tested for their effect on the mediation of the proteolytic process of APP in cholesterol-treated human neuroblastoma IMR32 cell, as well as their effect on memory and learning ability and the expression of AD risk factors in intracerebroventricular Abeta40-infused hyperlipidemic rats. In the results, RE suppressed cholesterol-raised beta-secretase activity and further resulted in the increase of sAPPalpha secretion in the IMR32 cell. In the animal test, RMR potently reversed the memory deficit in the water maze and passive avoidance tasks. RMR administration could prevent against Abeta40 infusion plus the great damage caused by a high energy diet in hippocampus and cortex involved in the raise of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and reactive oxygen species. The neuroprotection provided by RMR downregulates Abeta40 formation and deposition by suppressing the cholesterol-raised beta-secretase activity and apolipoprotein E expression, as well as mediates the proteolytic process of APP toward neuroprotective sAPPalpha secretion in hippocampus.

Identification of compounds in adlay (Coix lachryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen Stapf) seed hull extracts that inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages

We investigated the effects of adlay seed hull (AH) extracts on the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 macrophages. An AH ethanol extract (AHE) was partitioned into ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water fractions. Silica gel chromatography of the ethyl acetate fraction yielded 15 subfractions: AHE-Ea-A to AHE-Ea-O. Subfractions AHE-Ea-J, AHE-Ea-K, and AHE-Ea-M had anti-inflammatory activities, as they counteracted the increased cellular production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 induced by lipopolysaccharide by down-regulating inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase 2 expression. Eriodictyol (1), the ceramide (2S,3S,4R)-2-[(2'R)-2'-hydroxytetracosanoyl-amino]-1,3,4-octadecanetriol (2), and p-coumaric acid (3) were found in the subfractions, and the first two compounds appeared to be primarily responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity. This is the first time that eriodictyol (1) and this ceramide (2) have been found in AH, and the anti-inflammatory properties of the AHE-Ea fraction can be attributed, at least in part, to the presence of these two compounds.