The effect of citalopram hydrobromide on 5-HT2A receptors in the impulsive-aggressive dog, as measured with 123I-5-I-R91150 SPECT

Identification and analysis of circRNAs in the prefrontal cortices of wild boar and domestic pig

Domestication caused significant differences in morphology and behavior between wild and domestic pigs. However, the regulatory role of circRNA in this event is unclear. Here, we analyzed circRNA expression patterns in the prefrontal cortices of wild boar and domestic pigs to determine the potential role of circRNAs in domestication. We identified a total of 11,375 circRNAs and found that 349 and 354 circRNAs were up-regulated in wild boar and Rongchang pig, respectively. Functional enrichment analysis showed that host genes of significantly highly-expressed circRNAs in wild boar were significantly enriched in neural synapse-related categories and the categories of 'regulation of defense response (p = 0.028)' and 'neural retina development (p = 4.32 × 10-3)'. Host genes of significantly highly-expressed circRNAs in Rongchang pig were specifically involved in 'chordate embryonic development (p = 2.38 × 10-4)'. Additionally, we constructed circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory axes in wild boar and Rongchang pig and found more regulatory axes in wild boar that potentially regulate synaptic activities. We identified multiple circRNAs that may be related to domesticated characteristics, such as ssc_circ_6179 (ssc_circ_6179-ssc-miR-9847-HRH3, related to aggression) and ssc_circ_3027 (ssc_circ_3027-ssc-miR-4334-5p-HCRTR1, related to attention). This study provides a resource for further investigation of the molecular basis of pig domestication.

Mapping the neurocircuitry of impulsive aggression through the pharmacologic review of anti-impulsive aggressive agents

Impulsive aggression, in contradistinction to premeditated aggression in humans or predatory aggression in animals, corresponds to defensive aggression in animal models. At the core of the neurocircuitry of impulsive aggression, from murine to feline to human species, it is the medial amygdala-mediobasal hypothalamus-dorsal periaqueductal gray pathway. Here, we update current knowledge on the neurocircuitry of impulsive aggression by placing the neurocircuitry and its neurophysiological substrates into the top-down/bottom-up hypothesis of impulsive aggression. We then reverse the neurotranslational approach, which applies neuroscience to developing therapeutic drugs, and apply current understanding of potential mechanisms of anti-impulsive aggression agents to further clarify, at least heuristically and hypothetically, the dynamic biochemical components of the neurocircuitry of impulsive aggression. To do this, we searched the medical literature for studies attempting to clarify the neurobiological and neurochemical effects of the five most widely studied anti-impulsive aggressive agents, particularly as they pertain to the top-down/bottom-up hypothesis. Multiple different mechanisms are discussed, all of which fitting in the hypothesis by way of either promoting the "top-down" part (i.e., enhancing inhibitory neurotransmitters), or suppressing the "bottom-up" part (i.e., decreasing excitatory neurotransmitters). The hypothesis appears consistent with the current psychopharmacological understanding of these agents, as well as to account for the likely multifactorial etiology of the condition. Limitations of the hypothesis and future directions are finally discussed.

Hostility in medication-resistant major depression and comorbid generalized anxiety disorder is related to increased hippocampal-amygdala 5-HT2A receptor density

Major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) are severe and difficult-to-treat psychiatric illnesses with high rates of comorbidity. Although both disorders are treated with serotonergic based psychotropic agents, little is known on the influence of the serotonergic neurotransmitter system on the occurrence of comorbid GAD when clinically depressed. To investigate this poorly understood clinical question, we examined the involvement of frontolimbic post-synaptic 5-HT_2A receptors in 20 medication-resistant depressed (MRD) patients with half of them diagnosed with comorbid GAD with ¹²³I-5-I-R91150 SPECT. To explore whether 5-HT_2A receptor-binding indices (BI) associated with comorbid GAD could be related to distinct psychopathological symptoms, all were assessed with the symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). MRD patients with comorbid GAD displayed significantly higher 5-HT_2A receptor BI in the hippocampal-amygdala complex, compared to MRD patients without GAD. Correlation analyses revealed that the 5-HT_2A receptor BI in these areas were significantly related to the SCL-90-R subscale hostility (HOS), especially for those MRD patients with comorbid GAD. Comorbid MRD-GAD may be characterized with increased hippocampal-amygdala 5-HT_2A receptor BI which could represent enhanced levels in hostility in such kinds of patients. Adapted psychotherapeutic interventions may be warranted.

Similar striatal gene expression profiles in the striatum of the YAC128 and HdhQ150 mouse models of Huntington's disease are not reflected in mutant Huntingtin inclusion prevalence

Background

The YAC128 model of Huntington’s disease (HD) shows substantial deficits in motor, learning and memory tasks and alterations in its transcriptional profile. We examined the changes in the transcriptional profile in the YAC128 mouse model of HD at 6, 12 and 18 months and compared these with those seen in other models and human HD caudate.

Results

Differential gene expression by genotype showed that genes related to neuronal function, projection outgrowth and cell adhesion were altered in expression. A Time-course ANOVA revealed that genes downregulated with increased age in wild-type striata were likely to be downregulated in the YAC128 striata. There was a substantial overlap of concordant gene expression changes in the YAC128 striata compared with those in human HD brain. Changes in gene expression over time showed fewer striatal YAC128 RNAs altered in abundance than in the HdhQ150 striata but there was a very marked overlap in transcriptional changes at all time points. Despite the similarities in striatal expression changes at 18 months the HdhQ150 mice showed widespread mHTT and ubiquitin positive inclusion staining in the striatum whereas this was absent in the YAC128 striatum.

Conclusions

The gene expression changes in YAC128 striata show a very closely matched profile to that of HdhQ150 striata and are already significantly different between genotypes by six months of age, implying that the temporal molecular gene expression profiles of these models match very closely, despite differences in the prevalence of brain inclusion formation between the models. The YAC128 gene expression changes appear to correlate well with gene expression differences caused by ageing. A relatively small number of genes showed significant differences in expression between the striata of the two models and these could explain some of the phenotypic differences between the models.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2251-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

PET and SPECT imaging in veterinary medicine

Veterinarians have gained increasing access to positron emission tomography (PET and PET/CT) imaging facilities, allowing them to use this powerful molecular imaging technique for clinical and research applications. SPECT is currently being used more in Europe than in the United States and has been shown to be useful in veterinary oncology and in the evaluation of orthopedic diseases. SPECT brain perfusion and receptor imaging is used to investigate behavioral disorders in animals that have interesting similarities to human psychiatric disorders. This article provides an overview of the potential applications of PET and SPECT. The use of commercially available and investigational PET radiopharmaceuticals in the management of veterinary disease has been discussed. To date, most of the work in this field has utilized the commercially available PET tracer, (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose for oncologic imaging. Normal biodistribution studies in several companion animal species (cats, dogs, and birds) have been published to assist in lesion detection and interpretation for veterinary radiologists and clinicians. Studies evaluating other (18)F-labeled tracers for research applications are underway at several institutions and companion animal models of human diseases are being increasingly recognized for their value in biomarker and therapy development. Although PET and SPECT technologies are in their infancy for clinical veterinary medicine, increasing access to and interest in these applications and other molecular imaging techniques has led to a greater knowledge and collective body of expertise for veterinarians worldwide. Initiation and fostering of physician-veterinarian collaborations are key components to the forward movement of this field.

The effect of prolonged exposure to morphine on canine cerebral 5-HT2A receptors measured with (123)I-R91150 SPECT

Down-stream neuronal alterations, including changes in the 5-HT-2A receptor system, play an important role in the etiology and treatment of depression. The present study examined the effect of prolonged opioid treatment on cerebral 5-HT2A receptors. Cerebral 5-HT2A receptor availability was estimated in seven healthy five-year-old female neutered Beagle dogs pre and post 10-day morphine treatment (oral sustained release morphine 20mg twice daily for 10 days) with (123)I-R-91150, a 5-HT2A selective radioligand, and SPECT. 5-HT2A receptor binding indices (BI) for the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital cortex and the subcortical region were calculated. Statistical analysis was performed using a linear mixed-effect model with treatment as fixed effect and dog as random effect. Morphine treatment significantly (P≤0.05) lowered 5-HT2A BIs in the right and left frontal cortex, the right and left temporal cortex, the right and left parietal cortex, and the subcortical region. The decreased cerebral 5-HT2A receptor availability following prolonged morphine exposure provides further evidence for an interaction between the opioid and serotonergic system.

Serotonin 2A receptor, serotonin transporter and dopamine transporter alterations in dogs with compulsive behaviour as a promising model for human obsessive-compulsive disorder

Neuro-imaging studies have shown altered, yet often inconsistent, serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). We investigated both serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission in 9 drug-naïve dogs with compulsive behaviour, as a potential model for human OCD. Single photon emission computed tomography was used with (123)I-R91150 and (123)I-FP-CIT, in combination with (99m)Tc-ECD brain perfusion co-registration, to measure the serotonin (5-HT) 2A receptor, dopamine transporter (DAT) and serotonin transporter (SERT) availability. Fifteen normally behaving dogs were used as reference group. Significantly lower 5-HT2A receptor radioligand availability in frontal and temporal cortices (bilateral) was observed. Further, in 78% of the compulsive dogs abnormal DAT ratios in left and right striatum were demonstrated. Interestingly, both increased and decreased DAT ratios were observed. Finally, significantly lower subcortical perfusion and (hypo)thalamic SERT availability were observed in the compulsive dogs. This study provides evidence for imbalanced serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways in the pathophysiology of compulsions in dogs. The similarities with the altered neurotransmission in human OCD provide construct validity for this non-induced, natural canine model, suggesting its usefulness for future investigations of the pathophysiology of human OCD as well as the effectiveness of psychopharmacological interventions.

Measuring serotonin synthesis: from conventional methods to PET tracers and their (pre)clinical implications

The serotonergic system of the brain is complex, with an extensive innervation pattern covering all brain regions and endowed with at least 15 different receptors (each with their particular distribution patterns), specific reuptake mechanisms and synthetic processes. Many aspects of the functioning of the serotonergic system are still unclear, partially because of the difficulty of measuring physiological processes in the living brain. In this review we give an overview of the conventional methods of measuring serotonin synthesis and methods using positron emission tomography (PET) tracers, more specifically with respect to serotonergic function in affective disorders. Conventional methods are invasive and do not directly measure synthesis rates. Although they may give insight into turnover rates, a more direct measurement may be preferred. PET is a noninvasive technique which can trace metabolic processes, like serotonin synthesis. Tracers developed for this purpose are α-[¹¹C]methyltryptophan ([¹¹C]AMT) and 5-hydroxy-L-[β-¹¹C]tryptophan ([¹¹C]5-HTP). Both tracers have advantages and disadvantages. [¹¹C]AMT can enter the kynurenine pathway under inflammatory conditions (and thus provide a false signal), but this tracer has been used in many studies leading to novel insights regarding antidepressant action. [¹¹C]5-HTP is difficult to produce, but trapping of this compound may better represent serotonin synthesis. AMT and 5-HTP kinetics are differently affected by tryptophan depletion and changes of mood. This may indicate that both tracers are associated with different enzymatic processes. In conclusion, PET with radiolabelled substrates for the serotonergic pathway is the only direct way to detect changes of serotonin synthesis in the living brain.

The effect of increased serotonergic neurotransmission on aggression: a critical meta-analytical review of preclinical studies

RATIONALE

The role of serotonin (5-HT) on aggression has been extensively studied; nonetheless, the role of this neurotransmitter in aggression is still inconclusive.

OBJECTIVES

The current meta-analytical review investigated the role of increased 5-HT neurotransmission in aggression.

METHODS

Preclinical studies using serotonin reuptake inhibitors, 5-hydroxytryptophan, L-tryptophan, or serotonin (5-HT) to increase 5-HT levels were included in this meta-analysis. An overall effect of serotonin on aggression was calculated, and the role of several moderator variables was analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 218 effect sizes revealed that increased 5-HT had an overall significant inhibitory effect on aggression (r = 0.3). The results showed that increased 5-HT had the strongest inhibitory effect on aggression when (1) a specific strain or species (e.g., Long Evans) was used; (2) aggression was offensive or predatory and/or induced by administration of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine or p-chlorophenylalanine; (3) zimelidine, sertraline, L-tryptophan, citalopram, or 5-HT were used to increase 5-HT; (4) treatment was acute; (5) long chronic treatment durations were used; and (6) time between last injection and behavior testing was within 8 h before or after peak plasma concentration of drug. In contrast, the results revealed that increased-5-HT-facilitated aggression could be predicted when (1) Wistar rats, (2) social isolation or stress to induce aggression, and/or (3) animals treated for less than 3 weeks were used.

CONCLUSIONS

Although 5-HT has an overall inhibitory effect on aggression, the animal's genetic background, drug, treatment time, aggression inducing paradigm, and aggression type are critical variables that influence and modify this effect.

In vivo evaluation in rodents of [(123)I]-3-I-CO as a potential SPECT tracer for the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor

INTRODUCTION

[(123)I]-(4-fluorophenyl)[1-(3-iodophenethyl)piperidin-4-yl]methanone ([(123)I]-3-I-CO) is a potential single photon emission computed tomography tracer with high affinity for the serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor (K(i)=0.51 nM) and good selectivity over other receptor (sub)types. To determine the potential of the radioligand as a 5-HT(2A) tracer, regional brain biodistribution and displacement studies will be performed. The influence of P-glycoprotein blocking on the brain uptake of the radioligand will also be investigated.

METHODS

A regional brain biodistribution study and a displacement study with ketanserin were performed with [(123)I]-3-I-CO. Also, the influence of cyclosporin A (50 mg/kg) on the brain distribution of the radioligand was investigated. For the displacement study, ketanserin (1 mg/kg) was administered 30 min after injection of [(123)I]-3-I-CO.

RESULTS

The initial brain uptake of [(123)I]-3-I-CO was quite high, but a rapid wash-out of radioactivity was observed. Cortex-to-cerebellum binding index ratios were low (1.1 - 1.7), indicating considerable aspecific binding and a low specific 'signal' of the radioligand. Tracer uptake was reduced to the levels in cerebellum (a 60% reduction) after ketanserin displacement. Administration of cyclosporin A resulted in a doubling of the brain radioactivity concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

Although [(123)I]-3-I-CO showed adequate brain uptake and could be displaced by ketanserin, high aspecific binding to brain tissue was responsible for very low cortex-to-cerebellum binding index ratios, possibly limiting the potential of the radioligand as a serotonin 5-HT(2A) receptor tracer. We also demonstrated that [(123)I]-3-I-CO is probably a weak substrate for the P-glycoprotein efflux transporter.

Adolescent anabolic-androgenic steroid exposure alters lateral anterior hypothalamic serotonin-2A receptors in aggressive male hamsters

Chronic anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) treatment during adolescence facilitates offensive aggression in male Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus). Serotonin (5-HT) modulates aggressive behavior and has been shown to be altered after chronic treatment with AAS. Furthermore, 5-HT type 2 receptors have been implicated in the control of aggression. For example, treatment with 5-HT(2A) receptor antagonists suppress the generation of the offensive aggressive phenotype. However, it is unclear whether these receptors are sensitive to adolescent AAS exposure. The current study assessed whether treatment with AAS throughout adolescence influenced the immunohistochemical localization of 5-HT(2A) in areas of the hamster brain implicated in the control of aggression. Hamsters were administered AAS (5.0 mg/kg) each day throughout adolescence, scored for offensive aggression, and then examined for differences in 5-HT(2A)-immunoreactivity (5-HT(2A)-ir). When compared with non-aggressive oil-treated controls, aggressive AAS-treated hamsters showed significant increases in 5-HT(2A)-ir fibers in the lateral portion of the anterior hypothalamus (LAH). Further analysis revealed that AAS treatment also produced a significant increase in the number of cells expressing 5-HT(2A)-ir in the LAH. Together, these results support a role for altered 5-HT(2A) expression and further implicate the LAH as a central brain region important in the control of adolescent AAS-induced offensive aggression.

Long-term citalopram maintenance in mice: selective reduction of alcohol-heightened aggression

BACKGROUND

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) alleviate many affective disturbances in human clinical populations and are used in animal models to study the influence of serotonin (5-HT) on aggressive behavior and impulsivity.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that long-term SSRI treatment may reduce aggressive behavior escalated by alcohol consumption in mice. Therefore, aggression was tested in male CFW mice to determine whether repeated citalopram (CIT) administration reduces alcohol-heightened aggression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Resident male mice self-administered alcohol by performing an operant response on a panel placed in their home cage that delivered a 6% alcohol solution. Mice repeatedly confronted an intruder 15 min after self-administration of either 1 g/kg alcohol (EtOH) or water (H(2)O). Aggressive behaviors were higher in most mice when tests occurred after EtOH intake relative to H(2)O. Once baseline aggression was established, animals were injected (i.p.) twice daily with 10 mg/kg CIT or saline (SAL) for 32 days. Every 4 days throughout the CIT treatment period, aggressive encounters occurred 6 h after CIT injections, with testing conditions alternating between EtOH and H(2)O intake.

RESULTS

Aggression was only modestly affected by CIT in the first 2 weeks of treatment. However, by day 17 of CIT treatment, alcohol-heightened aggressive behavior was abolished, while baseline aggression remained stable. These data lend support for the role of the 5-HT transporter in the control of alcohol-related aggressive behavior, and the time course of effects suggests that a change in density of 5HT(1A) autoreceptors is necessary before antidepressant drugs produce beneficial outcomes.

Small molecule receptors as imaging targets

The aberrant expression and function of certain receptors in tumours and other diseased tissues make them preferable targets for molecular imaging. PET and SPECT radionuclides can be used to label specific ligands with high affinity for the target receptors. The functional information obtained from imaging these receptors can be used to better understand the systems under investigation and for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This review discusses some of the aspects of receptor imaging with small molecule tracers by PET and SPECT and reviews some of the tracers for the receptor imaging of tumours and brain, heart and lung disorders.

5-HT2A: its role in frontally mediated executive function and related psychopathology

Serotonin (5-HT)2A receptors are widely distributed, with high levels in the frontal cortex, where postsynaptic activation may increase activity in pyramidal glutamatergic neurons and mediate various executive functions. More specifically, reciprocal cortical-raphe pathways may allow the ventral prefrontal cortex to inhibit stress-induced neural activity in the brainstem when stressors are perceived as controllable. However, early adversity and negative attitudes may be associated with higher frontal 5-HT2A receptor levels and greater risk for stress-induced psychopathology, and certain 5-HT2A gene variants have been associated with increased risk for impulsive behavior. Conversely, many antidepressants result in decreased levels of 5-HT2A receptor levels, and blockade of 5-HT2A receptors has proven useful in the treatment of a number of psychiatric disorders.

Variation in the gene encoding the serotonin 2A receptor is associated with outcome of antidepressant treatment

Depressive disorders account for a large and increasing global burden of disease. Although the condition of many patients improves with medication, only a minority experience full remission, and patients whose condition responds to one medication may not have a response to others. Individual variation in antidepressant treatment outcome is, at present, unpredictable but may have a partial genetic basis. We searched for genetic predictors of treatment outcome in 1,953 patients with major depressive disorder who were treated with the antidepressant citalopram in the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives for Depression (STAR*D) study and were prospectively assessed. In a split-sample design, a selection of 68 candidate genes was genotyped, with 768 single-nucleotide-polymorphism markers chosen to detect common genetic variation. We detected significant and reproducible association between treatment outcome and a marker in HTR2A (P range 1 x 10(-6) to 3.7 x 10(-5) in the total sample). Other markers in HTR2A also showed evidence of association with treatment outcome in the total sample. HTR2A encodes the serotonin 2A receptor, which is downregulated by citalopram. Participants who were homozygous for the A allele had an 18% reduction in absolute risk of having no response to treatment, compared with those homozygous for the other allele. The A allele was over six times more frequent in white than in black participants, and treatment was less effective among black participants. The A allele may contribute to racial differences in outcomes of antidepressant treatment. Taken together with prior neurobiological findings, these new genetic data make a compelling case for a key role of HTR2A in the mechanism of antidepressant action.