1
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Cho Y, Laird MS, Bishop T, Li R, Jazwinska DE, Ruffo E, Lohmueller J, Zervantonakis IK. CAR T cell infiltration and cytotoxic killing within the core of 3D breast cancer spheroids under the control of antigen sensing in microwell arrays. APL Bioeng 2024; 8:036105. [PMID: 39049849 PMCID: PMC11268919 DOI: 10.1063/5.0207941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in blood cancers has intensified efforts to develop CAR T therapies for solid cancers. In the solid tumor microenvironment, CAR T cell trafficking and suppression of cytotoxic killing represent limiting factors for therapeutic efficacy. Here, we present a microwell platform to study CAR T cell interactions with 3D breast tumor spheroids and determine predictors of anti-tumor CAR T cell function. To precisely control antigen sensing, we utilized a switchable adaptor CAR system that covalently attaches to co-administered antibody adaptors and mediates antigen recognition. Following the addition of an anti-HER2 adaptor antibody, primary human CAR T cells exhibited higher infiltration, clustering, and secretion of effector cytokines. By tracking CAR T cell killing in individual spheroids, we showed the suppressive effects of spheroid size and identified the initial CAR T cell to spheroid area ratio as a predictor of cytotoxicity. We demonstrate that larger spheroids exhibit higher hypoxia levels and are infiltrated by CAR T cells with a suppressed activation state, characterized by reduced expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and granzyme B. Spatiotemporal analysis revealed lower CAR T cell numbers and cytotoxicity in the spheroid core compared to the periphery. Finally, increasing CAR T cell seeding density resulted in higher CAR T cell infiltration and cancer cell elimination in the spheroid core. Our findings provide new quantitative insight into CAR T cell function within 3D cancer spheroids. Given its miniaturized nature and live imaging capabilities, our microfabricated system holds promise for screening cellular immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngbin Cho
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Matthew S. Laird
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Teddi Bishop
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Ruxuan Li
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Dorota E. Jazwinska
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
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2
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Liao CY, Engelberts P, Ioan-Facsinay A, Klip JE, Schmidt T, Ruijtenbeek R, Danen EHJ. CD3-engaging bispecific antibodies trigger a paracrine regulated wave of T-cell recruitment for effective tumor killing. Commun Biol 2024; 7:983. [PMID: 39138287 PMCID: PMC11322607 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06682-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of action of bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) directing T-cell immunity to solid tumors is incompletely understood. Here, we screened a series of CD3xHER2 bsAbs using extracellular matrix (ECM) embedded breast cancer tumoroid arrays exposed to healthy donor-derived T-cells. An initial phase of random T-cell movement throughout the ECM (day 1-2), was followed by a bsAb-dependent phase of active T-cell recruitment to tumoroids (day 2-4), and tumoroid killing (day 4-6). Low affinity HER2 or CD3 arms were compensated for by increasing bsAb concentrations. Instead, a bsAb binding a membrane proximal HER2 epitope supported tumor killing whereas a bsAb binding a membrane distal epitope did not, despite similar affinities and intra-tumoroid localization of the bsAbs, and efficacy in 2D co-cultures. Initial T-cell-tumor contact through effective bsAbs triggered a wave of subsequent T-cell recruitment. This critical surge of T-cell recruitment was explained by paracrine signaling and preceded a full-scale T-cell tumor attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Yi Liao
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Janna Eleonora Klip
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Schmidt
- Leiden Institute of Physics, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Erik H J Danen
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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3
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Bidan N, Dunsmore G, Ugrinic M, Bied M, Moreira M, Deloménie C, Ginhoux F, Blériot C, de la Fuente M, Mura S. Multicellular tumor spheroid model to study the multifaceted role of tumor-associated macrophages in PDAC. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2024; 14:2085-2099. [PMID: 38062286 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-023-01479-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
While considerable efforts have been made to develop new therapies, progress in the treatment of pancreatic cancer has so far fallen short of patients' expectations. This is due in part to the lack of predictive in vitro models capable of accounting for the heterogeneity of this tumor and its low immunogenicity. To address this point, we have established and characterized a 3D spheroid model of pancreatic cancer composed of tumor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and blood-derived monocytes. The fate of the latter has been followed from their recruitment into the tumor spheroid to their polarization into a tumor-associated macrophage (TAM)-like population, providing evidence for the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment.This 3D model well reproduced the multiple roles of TAMs and their influence on drug sensitivity and cell migration. Furthermore, we observed that lipid-based nanosystems consisting of sphingomyelin and vitamin E could affect the phenotype of macrophages, causing a reduction of characteristic markers of TAMs. Overall, this optimized triple coculture model gives a valuable tool that could find useful application for a more comprehensive understanding of TAM plasticity as well as for more predictive drug screening. This could increase the relevance of preclinical studies and help identify effective treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadège Bidan
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | | | - Martina Ugrinic
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Mathilde Bied
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
| | - Marco Moreira
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
| | - Claudine Deloménie
- Inserm US31, CNRS UAR3679, Ingénierie Et Plateformes Au Service de L'Innovation Thérapeutique (UMS-IPSIT), Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | | | - Camille Blériot
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
- CNRS UMR8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Maria de la Fuente
- Nano-Oncology and Translational Therapeutics Group, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela SERGAS, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center On Oncology (CIBERONC), 28029, Madrid, Spain
- DIVERSA Technologies SL, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Simona Mura
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France.
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4
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Yau JNN, Yempala T, Muthuramalingam RPK, Giustarini G, Teng G, Ang WH, Gibson D, Adriani G, Pastorin G. Fluorescence-Guided Spatial Drug Screening in 3D Colorectal Cancer Spheroids. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2400203. [PMID: 38774999 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202400203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
The limited recapitulation of critical cancer features in 2D cultures causes poor translatability of preclinical results from in vitro assays to in vivo tumor models. This contributes to slow drug development with a low success rate. 3D cultures better recapitulate the tumor microenvironment, enabling more accurate predictions when screening drug candidates and improving the development of chemotherapeutics. Platinum (Pt) (IV) compounds are promising prodrugs designed to reduce the severe systemic toxicity of widely used Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved Pt(II) drugs such as cisplatin. Here, this work presents spatiotemporal evaluations in 3D colorectal cancer (CRC) spheroids of mitochondria-targeting Pt(IV) complexes. CRC spheroids provide a greater pathophysiological recapitulation of in vivo tumors than 2D cultures by a marked upregulation of the ABCG2 chemoresistance marker expression. Furthermore, new 3D-staining protocols are introduced to evaluate the real-time decrease in mitochondria membrane potential (ΔΨ) in CRC spheroids, and a Pt-sensing dye to quantify the Pt mitochondrial accumulation. Finally, this work demonstrates a correlation between in vitro results and the efficacy of the compounds in vivo. Overall, the CRC spheroids represent a fast and cost-effective model to assess the behavior of Pt compounds in vitro and predict their translational potential in CRC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ning Nicolette Yau
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 119077, Singapore
| | - Thirumal Yempala
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
| | - Ram Pravin Kumar Muthuramalingam
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
| | - Giulio Giustarini
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
| | - Germaine Teng
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
| | - Wee Han Ang
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
| | - Dan Gibson
- Institute for Drug Research, School of Pharmacy, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel
| | - Giulia Adriani
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineerin, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117578, Singapore
| | - Giorgia Pastorin
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117544, Singapore
- Integrative Sciences and Engineering Programme, NUS Graduate School, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 119077, Singapore
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5
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Rahman MM, Wells G, Rantala JK, Helleday T, Muthana M, Danson SJ. In-vitro assays for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment and screening for personalized cancer therapy: scopes and challenges. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2024; 20:821-838. [PMID: 38546609 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2024.2336583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunotherapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, but often fail to produce desirable therapeutic outcomes in all patients. Due to the inter-patient heterogeneity and complexity of the tumor microenvironment, personalized treatment approaches are gaining demand. Researchers have long been using a range of in-vitro assays including 2D models, organoid co-cultures, and cancer-on-a-chip platforms for cancer drug screening. A comparative analysis of these assays with their suitability, high-throughput capacity, and clinical translatability is required for optimal translational use. AREAS COVERED The review summarized in-vitro platforms with their comparative advantages and limitations including construction strategies, and translational potential for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment. We also discussed end-point analysis strategies so that researchers can contextualize their usefulness and optimally design experiments for personalized immunotherapy efficacy prediction. EXPERT OPINION Researchers developed several in-vitro platforms that can provide information on personalized immunotherapy efficacy from different angles. Image-based assays are undoubtedly more suitable to gather a wide range of information including cellular morphology and phenotypical behaviors but need significant improvement to overcome issues including background noise, sample preparation difficulty, and long duration of experiment. More studies and clinical trials are needed to resolve these issues and validate the assays before they can be used in real-life scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Marufur Rahman
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Directorate General of Health Services, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Greg Wells
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Juha K Rantala
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Misvik Biology Ltd, Turku, Finland
| | - Thomas Helleday
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Munitta Muthana
- Nanobug Oncology Sheffield, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sarah J Danson
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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6
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Co IL, Fomina A, Nurse M, McGuigan AP. Applications and evolution of 3D cancer-immune cell models. Trends Biotechnol 2024:S0167-7799(24)00155-0. [PMID: 39025680 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2024.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Understanding the highly complex tumor-immune landscape is an important goal for developing novel immune therapies for solid cancers. To this end, 3D cancer-immune models have emerged as patient-relevant in vitro tools for modeling the tumor-immune landscape and the cellular interactions within it. In this review, we provide an overview of the components and applications of 3D cancer-immune models and discuss their evolution from 2015 to 2023. Specifically, we observe trends in primary cell-sourced, T cell-based complex models used for therapy evaluation and biological discovery. Finally, we describe the challenges of implementing 3D cancer-immune models and the opportunities for maximizing their potential for deciphering the complex tumor-immune microenvironment and identifying novel, clinically relevant drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana L Co
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Aleksandra Fomina
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Michelle Nurse
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Alison P McGuigan
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada; Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St., Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada.
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7
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Loginova N, Aniskin D, Timashev P, Ulasov I, Kharwar RK. GBM Immunotherapy: Macrophage Impacts. Immunol Invest 2024; 53:730-751. [PMID: 38634572 DOI: 10.1080/08820139.2024.2337022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma (GBM) is an extremely aggressive form of brain tumor with low survival rates. Current treatments such as chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery are problematic due to tumor growth, invasion, and tumor microenvironment. GBM cells are resistant to these standard treatments, and the heterogeneity of the tumor makes it difficult to find a universal approach. Progression of GBM and acquisition of resistance to therapy are due to the complex interplay between tumor cells and the TME. A significant portion of the TME consists of an inflammatory infiltrate, with microglia and macrophages being the predominant cells. METHODS Analysis of the literature data over a course of 5 years suggest that the tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are capable of releasing cytokines and growth factors that promote tumor proliferation, survival, and metastasis while inhibiting immune cell function at the same time. RESULTS Thus, immunosuppressive state, provided with this intensively studied kind of TME cells, is supposed to promote GBM development through TAMs modulation of tumor treatment-resistance and aggressiveness. Therefore, TAMs are an attractive therapeutic target in the treatment of glioblastoma. CONCLUSION This review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest research on the nature of TAMs and the development of therapeutic strategies targeting TAMs, focusing on the variety of macrophage properties, being modulated, as well as molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Loginova
- Group of Experimental Biotherapy and Diagnostics, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, World-Class Research Centre "Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare", I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Denis Aniskin
- Group of Experimental Biotherapy and Diagnostics, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, World-Class Research Centre "Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare", I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Peter Timashev
- World-Class Research Centre "Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare", Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya Ulasov
- Group of Experimental Biotherapy and Diagnostics, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, World-Class Research Centre "Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare", I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Rajesh Kumar Kharwar
- Endocrine Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
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8
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Ren Z, Zhang X, Fu YX. Facts and Hopes on Chimeric Cytokine Agents for Cancer Immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2024; 30:2025-2038. [PMID: 38190116 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-23-1160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Cytokines are key mediators of immune responses that can modulate the antitumor activity of immune cells. Cytokines have been explored as a promising cancer immunotherapy. However, there are several challenges to cytokine therapy, especially a lack of tumor targeting, resulting in high toxicity and limited efficacy. To overcome these limitations, novel approaches have been developed to engineer cytokines with improved properties, such as chimeric cytokines. Chimeric cytokines are fusion proteins that combine different cytokine domains or link cytokines to antibodies (immunocytokines) or other molecules that can target specific receptors or cells. Chimeric cytokines can enhance the selectivity and stability of cytokines, leading to reduced toxicity and improved efficacy. In this review, we focus on two promising cytokines, IL2 and IL15, and summarize the current advances and challenges of chimeric cytokine design and application for cancer immunotherapy. Most of the current approaches focus on increasing the potency of cytokines, but another important goal is to reduce toxicity. Cytokine engineering is promising for cancer immunotherapy as it can enhance tumor targeting while minimizing adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xuhao Zhang
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yang-Xin Fu
- Changping Laboratory, Beijing, China
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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9
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Lamichhane A, Tavana H. Three-Dimensional Tumor Models to Study Cancer Stemness-Mediated Drug Resistance. Cell Mol Bioeng 2024; 17:107-119. [PMID: 38737455 PMCID: PMC11082110 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-024-00798-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Solid tumors often contain genetically different populations of cancer cells, stromal cells, various structural and soluble proteins, and other soluble signaling molecules. The American Cancer society estimated 1,958,310 new cancer cases and 609,820 cancer deaths in the United States in 2023. A major barrier against successful treatment of cancer patients is drug resistance. Gain of stem cell-like states by cancer cells under drug pressure or due to interactions with the tumor microenvironment is a major mechanism that renders therapies ineffective. Identifying approaches to target cancer stem cells is expected to improve treatment outcomes for patients. Most of our understanding of drug resistance and the role of cancer stemness is from monolayer cell cultures. Recent advances in cell culture technologies have enabled developing sophisticated three-dimensional tumor models that facilitate mechanistic studies of cancer drug resistance. This review summarizes the role of cancer stemness in drug resistance and highlights the various tumor models that are used to discover the underlying mechanisms and test potentially novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astha Lamichhane
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325 USA
| | - Hossein Tavana
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325 USA
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10
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Cho Y, Laird M, Bishop T, Li R, Ruffo E, Lohmueller J, Zervantonakis IK. CAR T cell infiltration and cytotoxic killing within the core of 3D breast cancer spheroids under control of antigen sensing in microwell arrays. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.14.585033. [PMID: 38654820 PMCID: PMC11037865 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.14.585033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in blood cancers has intensified efforts to develop CAR T therapies for solid cancers. In the solid tumor microenvironment, CAR T cell trafficking and suppression of cytotoxic killing represent limiting factors for therapeutic efficacy. Here, we present a microwell platform to study CAR T cell interactions with 3D tumor spheroids and determine predictors of anti-tumor CAR T cell function. To precisely control antigen sensing by CAR T cells, we utilized a switchable adaptor CAR system, that instead of directly binding to an antigen of interest, covalently attaches to co-administered antibody adaptors that mediate tumor antigen recognition. Following addition of an anti-HER2 adaptor antibody, primary human CAR T cells exhibited higher infiltration and clustering compared to the no adaptor control. By tracking CAR T cell killing at the individual spheroid level, we showed the suppressive effects of spheroid size and identified the initial CAR T cell : spheroid area ratio as a predictor of cytotoxicity. Spatiotemporal analysis revealed lower CAR T cell numbers and cytotoxicity in the spheroid core compared to the periphery. Finally, increasing CAR T cell seeding density, resulted in higher CAR T cell infiltration and cancer cell elimination in the spheroid core. Our findings provide new quantitative insights into CAR T cell-mediated killing of HER2+ breast tumor cells. Given the miniaturized nature and live imaging capabilities, our microfabricated system holds promise for discovering cell-cell interaction mechanisms that orchestrate antitumor CAR T cell functions and screening cellular immunotherapies in 3D tumor models.
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11
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Kim H, Kim S, Lim H, Chung AJ. Expanding CAR-T cell immunotherapy horizons through microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:1088-1120. [PMID: 38174732 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00622k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, particularly in hematological malignancies. However, their application to solid tumors is limited, and they face challenges in safety, scalability, and cost. To enhance current CAR-T cell therapies, the integration of microfluidic technologies, harnessing their inherent advantages, such as reduced sample consumption, simplicity in operation, cost-effectiveness, automation, and high scalability, has emerged as a powerful solution. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the step-by-step manufacturing process of CAR-T cells, identifies existing difficulties at each production stage, and discusses the successful implementation of microfluidics and related technologies in addressing these challenges. Furthermore, this review investigates the potential of microfluidics-based methodologies in advancing cell-based therapy across various applications, including solid tumors, next-generation CAR constructs, T-cell receptors, and the development of allogeneic "off-the-shelf" CAR products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyelee Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Suyeon Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyunjung Lim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Aram J Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health (PPH), Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, 02841 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
- MxT Biotech, 04785 Seoul, Republic of Korea
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12
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Franzén AS, Boulifa A, Radecke C, Stintzing S, Raftery MJ, Pecher G. Next-Generation CEA-CAR-NK-92 Cells against Solid Tumors: Overcoming Tumor Microenvironment Challenges in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:388. [PMID: 38254876 PMCID: PMC10814835 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16020388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) presents a formidable medical challenge, demanding innovative therapeutic strategies. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) natural killer (NK) cell therapy has emerged as a promising alternative to CAR T-cell therapy for cancer. A suitable tumor antigen target on CRC is carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), given its widespread expression and role in tumorigenesis and metastasis. CEA is known to be prolifically shed from tumor cells in a soluble form, thus hindering CAR recognition of tumors and migration through the TME. We have developed a next-generation CAR construct exclusively targeting cell-associated CEA, incorporating a PD1-checkpoint inhibitor and a CCR4 chemokine receptor to enhance homing and infiltration of the CAR-NK-92 cell line through the TME, and which does not induce fratricidal killing of CAR-NK-92-cells. To evaluate this therapeutic approach, we harnessed intricate 3D multicellular tumor spheroid models (MCTS), which emulate key elements of the TME. Our results demonstrate the effective cytotoxicity of CEA-CAR-NK-92 cells against CRC in colorectal cell lines and MCTS models. Importantly, minimal off-target activity against non-cancerous cell lines underscores the precision of this therapy. Furthermore, the integration of the CCR4 migration receptor augments homing by recognizing target ligands, CCL17 and CCL22. Notably, our CAR design results in no significant trogocytosis-induced fratricide. In summary, the proposed CEA-targeting CAR-NK cell therapy could offer a promising solution for CRC treatment, combining precision and efficacy in a tailored approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Sebastian Franzén
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Abdelhadi Boulifa
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa Radecke
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Stintzing
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin J. Raftery
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriele Pecher
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Competence Center of Immuno-Oncology and Translational Cell Therapy (KITZ), Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor Immunology, CCM, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Nayak P, Bentivoglio V, Varani M, Signore A. Three-Dimensional In Vitro Tumor Spheroid Models for Evaluation of Anticancer Therapy: Recent Updates. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:4846. [PMID: 37835541 PMCID: PMC10571930 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15194846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Advanced tissue engineering processes and regenerative medicine provide modern strategies for fabricating 3D spheroids. Several different 3D cancer models are being developed to study a variety of cancers. Three-dimensional spheroids can correctly replicate some features of solid tumors (such as the secretion of soluble mediators, drug resistance mechanisms, gene expression patterns and physiological responses) better than 2D cell cultures or animal models. Tumor spheroids are also helpful for precisely reproducing the three-dimensional organization and microenvironmental factors of tumors. Because of these unique properties, the potential of 3D cell aggregates has been emphasized, and they have been utilized in in vitro models for the detection of novel anticancer drugs. This review discusses applications of 3D spheroid models in nuclear medicine for diagnosis and therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell and photodynamic therapy and also discusses the establishment of the anticancer activity of nanocarriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi Nayak
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, University Hospital Sant’Andrea, Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, “Sapienza” University of Rome, 00189 Roma, Italy; (V.B.); (M.V.); (A.S.)
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14
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Yau JNN, Adriani G. Three-dimensional heterotypic colorectal cancer spheroid models for evaluation of drug response. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1148930. [PMID: 37469395 PMCID: PMC10352797 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1148930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Improved preclinical tumor models are needed to make treatment screening clinically relevant and address disease mortality. Advancements in 3D cell culture have enabled a greater recapitulation of the architecture and heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). This has enhanced their pathophysiological relevance and enabled more accurate predictions of tumor progression and drug response in patients. An increasing number of 3D CRC spheroid models include cell populations such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), endothelial cells (ECs), immune cells, and gut bacteria to better mimic the in vivo regulation of signaling pathways. Furthermore, cell heterogeneity within the 3D spheroid models enables the identification of new therapeutic targets to develop alternative treatments and test TME-target therapies. In this mini review, we present the advances in mimicking tumor heterogeneity in 3D CRC spheroid models by incorporating CAFs, ECs, immune cells, and gut bacteria. We introduce how, in these models, the diverse cells influence chemoresistance and tumor progression of the CRC spheroids. We also highlight important parameters evaluated during drug screening in the CRC heterocellular spheroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ning Nicolette Yau
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Giulia Adriani
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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15
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Carannante V, Wiklund M, Önfelt B. In vitro models to study natural killer cell dynamics in the tumor microenvironment. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1135148. [PMID: 37457703 PMCID: PMC10338882 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1135148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is revolutionizing cancer therapy. The rapid development of new immunotherapeutic strategies to treat solid tumors is posing new challenges for preclinical research, demanding novel in vitro methods to test treatments. Such methods should meet specific requirements, such as enabling the evaluation of immune cell responses like cytotoxicity or cytokine release, and infiltration into the tumor microenvironment using cancer models representative of the original disease. They should allow high-throughput and high-content analysis, to evaluate the efficacy of treatments and understand immune-evasion processes to facilitate development of new therapeutic targets. Ideally, they should be suitable for personalized immunotherapy testing, providing information for patient stratification. Consequently, the application of in vitro 3-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, such as tumor spheroids and organoids, is rapidly expanding in the immunotherapeutic field, coupled with the development of novel imaging-based techniques and -omic analysis. In this paper, we review the recent advances in the development of in vitro 3D platforms applied to natural killer (NK) cell-based cancer immunotherapy studies, highlighting the benefits and limitations of the current methods, and discuss new concepts and future directions of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Carannante
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Wiklund
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Björn Önfelt
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Science for Life Laboratory, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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16
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Genenger B, McAlary L, Perry JR, Ashford B, Ranson M. Protocol for the generation and automated confocal imaging of whole multi-cellular tumor spheroids. STAR Protoc 2023; 4:102331. [PMID: 37300829 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Multi-cellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) have found widespread use in pre-clinical research. However, their complex three-dimensional structure makes immunofluorescent staining and imaging challenging. Here, we present a protocol for whole spheroid staining and automated imaging using laser-scanning confocal microscopy. We describe steps for cell culture, seeding of spheroids and transfer of MCTS, and adhesion to Ibidi chamber slides. We then detail fixation, immunofluorescent staining based on optimized reagent concentrations and incubation times, and confocal imaging facilitated by glycerol-based optical clearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Genenger
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
| | - Luke McAlary
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Jay R Perry
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Bruce Ashford
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Marie Ranson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
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17
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Prashantha K, Krishnappa A, Muthappa M. 3D bioprinting of gastrointestinal cancer models: A comprehensive review on processing, properties, and therapeutic implications. Biointerphases 2023; 18:020801. [PMID: 36963961 DOI: 10.1116/6.0002372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) malignancies are an important public health problem considering the increased incidence in recent years and the high morbidity and mortality associated with it. GIT malignancies constitute 26% of the global cancer incidence burden and 35% of all cancer-related deaths. Gastrointestinal cancers are complex and heterogenous diseases caused by the interplay of genetic and environmental factors. The tumor microenvironment (TME) of gastrointestinal tract carcinomas is dynamic and complex; it cannot be recapitulated in the basic two-dimensional cell culture systems. In contrast, three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models can mimic the TME more closely, enabling an improved understanding of the microenvironmental cues involved in the various stages of cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. However, the heterogeneity of the TME is incompletely reproduced in these 3D culture models, as they fail to regulate the orientation and interaction of various cell types in a complex architecture. To emulate the TME, 3D bioprinting has emerged as a useful technique to engineer cancer tissue models. Bioprinted cancer tissue models can potentially recapitulate cancer pathology and increase drug resistance in an organ-mimicking 3D environment. In this review, we describe the 3D bioprinting methods, bioinks, characterization of 3D bioprinted constructs, and their application in developing gastrointestinal tumor models that integrate their microenvironment with different cell types and substrates, as well as bioprinting modalities and their application in therapy and drug screening. We review prominent studies on the 3D bioprinted esophageal, hepatobiliary, and colorectal cancer models. In addition, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the cancer microenvironment in printed tumor models, highlights current challenges with respect to their clinical translation, and summarizes future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalappa Prashantha
- Centre for Research and Innovation, Adichunchanagiri School of Natural Sciences, Adichunchanagiri University, BGSIT, B.G. Nagara, Mandya District 571448, Karnataka, India
| | - Amita Krishnappa
- Department of Pathology, Adichunchanagiri Institute of Medicinal Sciences Adichunchanagiri University, B.G. Nagara, Mandya District 571448, Karnataka, India
| | - Malini Muthappa
- Department of Physiology, Adichunchanagiri Institute of Medicinal Sciences Adichunchanagiri University, B.G. Nagara, Mandya District 571448, Karnataka, India
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18
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Promises and challenges for targeting the immunological players in the tumor micro-environment – Critical determinants for NP-based therapy. OPENNANO 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.onano.2023.100134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
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19
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Manduca N, Maccafeo E, De Maria R, Sistigu A, Musella M. 3D cancer models: One step closer to in vitro human studies. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1175503. [PMID: 37114038 PMCID: PMC10126361 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1175503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is the great breakthrough in cancer treatment as it displayed prolonged progression-free survival over conventional therapies, yet, to date, in only a minority of patients. In order to broad cancer immunotherapy clinical applicability some roadblocks need to be overcome, first among all the lack of preclinical models that faithfully depict the local tumor microenvironment (TME), which is known to dramatically affect disease onset, progression and response to therapy. In this review, we provide the reader with a detailed overview of current 3D models developed to mimick the complexity and the dynamics of the TME, with a focus on understanding why the TME is a major target in anticancer therapy. We highlight the advantages and translational potentials of tumor spheroids, organoids and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip models in disease modeling and therapeutic response, while outlining pending challenges and limitations. Thinking forward, we focus on the possibility to integrate the know-hows of micro-engineers, cancer immunologists, pharmaceutical researchers and bioinformaticians to meet the needs of cancer researchers and clinicians interested in using these platforms with high fidelity for patient-tailored disease modeling and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Manduca
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Ester Maccafeo
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Ruggero De Maria
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario ‘A. Gemelli’ - Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Sistigu
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Martina Musella, ; ; Antonella Sistigu, ;
| | - Martina Musella
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Martina Musella, ; ; Antonella Sistigu, ;
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20
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Shojaee P, Mornata F, Deutsch A, Locati M, Hatzikirou H. The impact of tumor associated macrophages on tumor biology under the lens of mathematical modelling: A review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1050067. [PMID: 36439180 PMCID: PMC9685623 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1050067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In this article, we review the role of mathematical modelling to elucidate the impact of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in tumor progression and therapy design. We first outline the biology of TAMs, and its current application in tumor therapies, and their experimental methods that provide insights into tumor cell-macrophage interactions. We then focus on the mechanistic mathematical models describing the role of macrophages as drug carriers, the impact of macrophage polarized activation on tumor growth, and the role of tumor microenvironment (TME) parameters on the tumor-macrophage interactions. This review aims to identify the synergies between biological and mathematical approaches that allow us to translate knowledge on fundamental TAMs biology in addressing current clinical challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pejman Shojaee
- Centre for Information Services and High Performance Computing, Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Federica Mornata
- Leukocyte Biology Lab, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Italy
| | - Andreas Deutsch
- Centre for Information Services and High Performance Computing, Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Massimo Locati
- Leukocyte Biology Lab, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Italy
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine, Universitàdegli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Haralampos Hatzikirou
- Centre for Information Services and High Performance Computing, Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Mathematics Department, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Centre (HEIC), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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21
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Chhetri D, Vengadassalapathy S, Venkadassalapathy S, Balachandran V, Umapathy VR, Veeraraghavan VP, Jayaraman S, Patil S, Iyaswamy A, Palaniyandi K, Gnanasampanthapandian D. Pleiotropic effects of DCLK1 in cancer and cancer stem cells. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:965730. [PMID: 36250024 PMCID: PMC9560780 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.965730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Doublecortin-like kinase 1 (DCLK1), a protein molecule, has been identified as a tumor stem cell marker in the cancer cells of gastrointestinal, pancreas, and human colon. DCLK1 expression in cancers, such as breast carcinoma, lung carcinoma, hepatic cell carcinoma, tuft cells, and human cholangiocarcinoma, has shown a way to target the DCLK1 gene and downregulate its expression. Several studies have discussed the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation along with neoplastic cell arrest when the DCLK1 gene, which is expressed in both cancer and normal cells, was targeted successfully. In addition, previous studies have shown that DCLK1 plays a vital role in various cancer metastases. The correlation of DCLK1 with numerous stem cell receptors, signaling pathways, and genes suggests its direct or an indirect role in promoting tumorigenesis. Moreover, the impact of DCLK1 was found to be related to the functioning of an oncogene. The downregulation of DCLK1 expression by using targeted strategies, such as embracing the use of siRNA, miRNA, CRISPR/Cas9 technology, nanomolecules, specific monoclonal antibodies, and silencing the pathways regulated by DCLK1, has shown promising results in both in vitro and in vivo studies on gastrointestinal (GI) cancers. In this review, we will discuss about the present understanding of DCLK1 and its role in the progression of GI cancer and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyashree Chhetri
- Cancer Science Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Srinivasan Vengadassalapathy
- Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, India
| | | | - Varadharaju Balachandran
- Department of Physiology, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - Vidhya Rekha Umapathy
- Department of Public Health Dentistry, Sree Balaji Dental College and Hospital, Chennai, India
| | - Vishnu Priya Veeraraghavan
- Department of Biochemistry, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - Selvaraj Jayaraman
- Department of Biochemistry, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - Shankargouda Patil
- College of Dental Medicine, Roseman University of Health Sciences, South Jordan, UT, United States
| | - Ashok Iyaswamy
- Centre for Parkinsons Disease Research, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kanagaraj Palaniyandi
- Cancer Science Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
- *Correspondence: Kanagaraj Palaniyandi, ; Dhanavathy Gnanasampanthapandian,
| | - Dhanavathy Gnanasampanthapandian
- Cancer Science Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
- *Correspondence: Kanagaraj Palaniyandi, ; Dhanavathy Gnanasampanthapandian,
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22
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Targeted immunotherapy against distinct cancer-associated fibroblasts overcomes treatment resistance in refractory HER2+ breast tumors. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5310. [PMID: 36085201 PMCID: PMC9463158 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32782-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
About 50% of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)+ breast cancer patients do not benefit from HER2-targeted therapy and almost 20% of them relapse after treatment. Here, we conduct a detailed analysis of two independent cohorts of HER2+ breast cancer patients treated with trastuzumab to elucidate the mechanisms of resistance to anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies. In addition, we develop a fully humanized immunocompetent model of HER2+ breast cancer recapitulating ex vivo the biological processes that associate with patients’ response to treatment. Thanks to these two approaches, we uncover a population of TGF-beta-activated cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) specific from tumors resistant to therapy. The presence of this cellular subset related to previously described myofibroblastic (CAF-S1) and podoplanin+ CAF subtypes in breast cancer associates with low IL2 activity. Correspondingly, we find that stroma-targeted stimulation of IL2 pathway in unresponsive tumors restores trastuzumab anti-cancer efficiency. Overall, our study underscores the therapeutic potential of exploiting the tumor microenvironment to identify and overcome mechanisms of resistance to anti-cancer treatment. A substantial proportion of HER2+ breast cancer patients do not benefit from HER2-targeted therapy. Here, the authors identify a population of cancer-associated fibroblasts involved in the suppression of trastuzumab-induced ADCC that can be pharmacologically targeted to raise treatment effectiveness in unresponsive tumors.
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23
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In vitro 2D and 3D cancer models to evaluate compounds that modulate macrophage polarization. Cell Immunol 2022; 378:104574. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2022.104574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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24
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Lugand L, Mestrallet G, Laboureur R, Dumont C, Bouhidel F, Djouadou M, Masson-Lecomte A, Desgrandchamps F, Culine S, Carosella ED, Rouas-Freiss N, LeMaoult J. Methods for Establishing a Renal Cell Carcinoma Tumor Spheroid Model With Immune Infiltration for Immunotherapeutic Studies. Front Oncol 2022; 12:898732. [PMID: 35965544 PMCID: PMC9366089 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.898732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor spheroids play an increasingly important role in cancer research. Their ability to recapitulate crucial features of tumor biology that are lost in the classically used 2D models along with their relative simplicity and handiness have made them the most studied 3D tumor model. Their application as a theranostic tool or as a means to study tumor-host interaction is now well-established in various cancers. However, their use in the field of Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC) remains very limited. The aim of this work is to present methods to implement a basic RCC spheroid model. These methods cover the steps from RCC tumor dissociation to spheroid infiltration by immune cells. We present a protocol for RCC dissociation using Liberase TM and introduce a culture medium containing Epithelial Growth Factor and Hydrocortisone allowing for faster growth of RCC primary cells. We show that the liquid overlay technique allows for the formation of spheroids from cell lines and from primary cultures. We present a method using morphological criteria to select a homogeneous spheroid population based on a Fiji macro. We then show that spheroids can be infiltrated by PBMCs after activation with OKT3 or IL-15. Finally, we provide an example of application by implementing an immune spheroid killing assay allowing observing increased spheroid destruction after treatment with PD-1 inhibitors. Thus the straightforward methods presented here allow for efficient spheroid formation for a simple RCC 3D model that can be standardized and infused with immune cells to study immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Lugand
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Guillaume Mestrallet
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Rebecca Laboureur
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Clement Dumont
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
- Department of Medical Oncology, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP.Nord - Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Fatiha Bouhidel
- Service d’Anatomopathologie Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP.Nord - Université de Paris, Laboratory of Pathology, UMR-S728, Paris, France
| | - Malika Djouadou
- Department of Urology, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP.Nord - Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | | | - Francois Desgrandchamps
- Department of Urology, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP.Nord - Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Stephane Culine
- Department of Medical Oncology, Saint-Louis Hospital, AP-HP.Nord - Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Edgardo D. Carosella
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Rouas-Freiss
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
| | - Joel LeMaoult
- Hemato-Immunology Research Department, CEA, DRF-Francois Jacob Institute, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France - U976 HIPI Unit, IRSL, Paris University, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Joel LeMaoult,
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25
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Mackenzie NJ, Nicholls C, Templeton AR, Perera MPJ, Jeffery PL, Zimmermann K, Kulasinghe A, Kenna TJ, Vela I, Williams ED, Thomas PB. Modelling the tumor immune microenvironment for precision immunotherapy. CLINICAL & TRANSLATIONAL IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 11:e1400. [PMID: 35782339 PMCID: PMC9234475 DOI: 10.1002/cti2.1400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Mackenzie
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Clarissa Nicholls
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Abby R Templeton
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Mahasha PJ Perera
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre – Queensland (APCRC‐Q) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Department of Urology Princess Alexandra Hospital Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Penny L Jeffery
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre – Queensland (APCRC‐Q) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Kate Zimmermann
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Immunology and Infection Control School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Microbiome Research School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Arutha Kulasinghe
- University of Queensland Diamantina Institute The University of Queensland Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Tony J Kenna
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Immunology and Infection Control School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Microbiome Research School of Biomedical Sciences Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Ian Vela
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre – Queensland (APCRC‐Q) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Department of Urology Princess Alexandra Hospital Woolloongabba QLD Australia
| | - Elizabeth D Williams
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre – Queensland (APCRC‐Q) Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Patrick B Thomas
- School of Biomedical Sciences at Translational Research Institute (TRI) Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Queensland Bladder Cancer Initiative (QBCI) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Centre for Personalised Analysis of Cancers (CPAC) Brisbane QLD Australia
- Australian Prostate Cancer Research Centre – Queensland (APCRC‐Q) Brisbane QLD Australia
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Zhang J, Tavakoli H, Ma L, Li X, Han L, Li X. Immunotherapy discovery on tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms that recapitulate the tumor microenvironment. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 187:114365. [PMID: 35667465 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has achieved remarkable success over the past decade by modulating patients' own immune systems and unleashing pre-existing immunity. However, only a minority of cancer patients across different cancer types are able to benefit from immunotherapy treatment; moreover, among those small portions of patients with response, intrinsic and acquired resistance remains a persistent challenge. Because the tumor microenvironment (TME) is well recognized to play a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and the suppression of the immune system and responses to immunotherapy, understanding the interactions between the TME and the immune system is a pivotal step in developing novel and efficient cancer immunotherapies. With unique features such as low reagent consumption, dynamic and precise fluid control, versatile structures and function designs, and 3D cell co-culture, microfluidic tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms that recapitulate key factors of the TME and the immune contexture have emerged as innovative reliable tools to investigate how tumors regulate their TME to counteract antitumor immunity and the mechanism of tumor resistance to immunotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we focus on recent advances in tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms for studying the interaction between the TME and the immune system. We first review different factors of the TME that recent microfluidic in vitro systems reproduce to generate advanced tools to imitate the crosstalk between the TME and the immune system. Then, we discuss their applications in the assessment of different immunotherapies' efficacy using tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms. Finally, we present an overview and the outlook of engineered microfluidic platforms in investigating the interactions between cancer and immune systems, and the adoption of patient-on-a-chip models in clinical applications toward personalized immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Hamed Tavakoli
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Lei Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Xiaochun Li
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
| | - Lichun Han
- Xi'an Daxing Hospital, Xi'an 710016, China
| | - XiuJun Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA; Border Biomedical Research Center, Forensic Science, & Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 West University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA.
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27
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Affolter A, Kern J, Bieback K, Scherl C, Rotter N, Lammert A. Biomarkers and 3D models predicting response to immune checkpoint blockade in head and neck cancer (Review). Int J Oncol 2022; 61:88. [PMID: 35642667 PMCID: PMC9183766 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2022.5378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has evolved into a powerful tool in the fight against a number of types of cancer, including head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC). Although checkpoint inhibition (CPI) has definitely enriched the treatment options for advanced stage HNSCC during the past decade, the percentage of patients responding to treatment is widely varying between 14-32% in second-line setting in recurrent or metastatic HNSCC with a sporadic durability. Clinical response and, consecutively, treatment success remain unpredictable in most of the cases. One potential factor is the expression of target molecules of the tumor allowing cancer cells to acquire therapy resistance mechanisms. Accordingly, analyzing and modeling the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is key to i) stratify subgroups of patients most likely to respond to CPI and ii) to define new combinatorial treatment regimens. Particularly in a heterogeneous disease such as HNSCC, thoroughly studying the interactions and crosstalking between tumor and TME cells is one of the biggest challenges. Sophisticated 3D models are therefore urgently needed to be able to validate such basic science hypotheses and to test novel immuno-oncologic treatment regimens in consideration of the individual biology of each tumor. The present review will first summarize recent findings on immunotherapy, predictive biomarkers, the role of the TME and signaling cascades eliciting during CPI. Second, it will highlight the significance of current promising approaches to establish HNSCC 3D models for new immunotherapies. The results are encouraging and indicate that data obtained from patient-specific tumors in a dish might be finally translated into personalized immuno-oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Affolter
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Johann Kern
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Karen Bieback
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, German Red Cross Blood Donor Service Baden‑Württemberg‑Hessen, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Claudia Scherl
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Nicole Rotter
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anne Lammert
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University, D‑68167 Mannheim, Germany
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28
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Models of Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma Using Bioengineering Approaches. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2022; 175:103724. [DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2022.103724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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29
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Baião A, Dias S, Soares AF, Pereira CL, Oliveira C, Sarmento B. Advances in the use of 3D colorectal cancer models for novel drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:569-580. [PMID: 35343351 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2056162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common and deadly tumors worldwide. CRC in vitro and in vivo models that recapitulate key features of human disease are essential to the development of novel and effective therapeutics. However, two-dimensional (2D) in vitro culture systems are considered too simple and do not represent the complex nature of the human tumor. However, three-dimensional (3D) models have emerged in recent years as more advanced and complex cell culture systems, able to closely resemble key features of human cancer tissues. AREAS COVERED The authors' review the currently established in vitro cell culture models and describe the advances in the development of 3D scaffold-free models to study CRC. The authors also discuss intestinal spheroids and organoids. As well as in vitro models for drug screening and metastatic CRC (mCRC). EXPERT OPINION The ideal CRC in vitro model is not yet established. Spheroid-based 3D models represent one of the most used approaches to recapitulate the tumor environment, overcoming some limitations of 2D models. Mouse and patient-derived organoids are more advanced models that can mimic more closely the characteristics and properties of CRC, with the possibility of including cells derived from patients with metastatic CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Baião
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,INEB, Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,ICBAS, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sofia Dias
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,INEB, Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,ICBAS, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Francisca Soares
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,INEB, Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Leite Pereira
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,INEB, Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Oliveira
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,IPATIMUP, Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine of University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,INEB, Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.,CESPU - Instituto Universitário de Ciências da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
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30
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Fedi A, Vitale C, Giannoni P, Caluori G, Marrella A. Biosensors to Monitor Cell Activity in 3D Hydrogel-Based Tissue Models. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:1517. [PMID: 35214418 PMCID: PMC8879987 DOI: 10.3390/s22041517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) culture models have gained relevant interest in tissue engineering and drug discovery owing to their suitability to reproduce in vitro some key aspects of human tissues and to provide predictive information for in vivo tests. In this context, the use of hydrogels as artificial extracellular matrices is of paramount relevance, since they allow closer recapitulation of (patho)physiological features of human tissues. However, most of the analyses aimed at characterizing these models are based on time-consuming and endpoint assays, which can provide only static and limited data on cellular behavior. On the other hand, biosensing systems could be adopted to measure on-line cellular activity, as currently performed in bi-dimensional, i.e., monolayer, cell culture systems; however, their translation and integration within 3D hydrogel-based systems is not straight forward, due to the geometry and materials properties of these advanced cell culturing approaches. Therefore, researchers have adopted different strategies, through the development of biochemical, electrochemical and optical sensors, but challenges still remain in employing these devices. In this review, after examining recent advances in adapting existing biosensors from traditional cell monolayers to polymeric 3D cells cultures, we will focus on novel designs and outcomes of a range of biosensors specifically developed to provide real-time analysis of hydrogel-based cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Fedi
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), 16149 Genoa, Italy; (A.F.); (C.V.)
- Department of Computer Science, Bioengineering, Robotics and Systems Engineering (DIBRIS), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Vitale
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), 16149 Genoa, Italy; (A.F.); (C.V.)
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy;
| | - Paolo Giannoni
- Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy;
| | - Guido Caluori
- IHU LIRYC, Electrophysiology and Heart Modeling Institute, Fondation Bordeaux Université, 33600 Pessac, France;
- INSERM UMR 1045, Cardiothoracic Research Center of Bordeaux, University of Bordeaux, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Alessandra Marrella
- National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (IEIIT), 16149 Genoa, Italy; (A.F.); (C.V.)
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31
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The use of supercytokines, immunocytokines, engager cytokines, and other synthetic cytokines in immunotherapy. Cell Mol Immunol 2022; 19:192-209. [PMID: 35043005 PMCID: PMC8803834 DOI: 10.1038/s41423-021-00786-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokines exert powerful immunomodulatory effects that are critical to physiology and pathology in humans. The application of natural cytokines in clinical studies has not been clearly established, and there are often problems associated with toxicity or lack of efficacy. The key reasons can be attributed to the pleiotropy of cytokine receptors and undesired activation of off-target cells. With a deeper understanding of the structural principles and functional signals of cytokine-receptor interactions, artificial modification of cytokine signaling through protein engineering and synthetic immunology has become an increasingly feasible and powerful approach. Engineered cytokines are designed to selectively target cells. Herein, the theoretical and experimental evidence of cytokine engineering is reviewed, and the "supercytokines" resulting from structural enhancement and the "immunocytokines" generated by antibody fusion are described. Finally, the "engager cytokines" formed by the crosslinking of cytokines and bispecific immune engagers and other synthetic cytokines formed by nonnatural analogs are also discussed.
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32
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Paterson K, Paterson S, Mulholland T, Coffelt S, Zagnoni M. Assessment of CAR-T cell-mediated cytotoxicity in 3D microfluidic cancer co-culture models for combination therapy. IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 3:86-95. [PMID: 35813488 PMCID: PMC9252335 DOI: 10.1109/ojemb.2022.3178302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy is efficacious against many haematological malignancies, but challenges remain when using this cellular immunotherapy for treating solid tumours. Classical 2D in vitro models fail to recapitulate the complexity of the tumour microenvironment, whilst in vivo models, such as patient-derived xenografts, are costly and labour intensive. Microfluidic technologies can provide miniaturized solutions to assess CAR-T therapies in 3D complex preclinical models of solid tumours. Here, we present a novel microfluidic immunoassay for the evaluation of CAR-T cell cytotoxicity and targeting specificity on 3D spheroids containing cancer cells and stromal cells. Monitoring the interaction between CAR-T cells and spheroid co-cultures, we show that CAR-T cells home towards target-expressing cancer cells and elicit a cytotoxic effect. Testing CAR-T cells in combination therapies, we show that CAR-T cell cytotoxicity is enhanced with anti-PD-L1 therapy and carboplatin chemotherapy. We propose this proof-of-concept microfluidic immunoassay as a material-saving, pre-clinical screening tool for quantification of cell therapy efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla Paterson
- Centre for Microsystems and Photonics, EEE Department, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Sarah Paterson
- ScreenIn3D Limited, Technology and Innovation Centre, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Seth Coffelt
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, UK
| | - Michele Zagnoni
- EEE, Univ Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, G1 1XW
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33
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De Ridder K, Tung N, Werle JT, Karpf L, Awad RM, Bernier A, Ceuppens H, Salmon H, Goyvaerts C. Novel 3D Lung Tumor Spheroids for Oncoimmunological Assays. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202100124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten De Ridder
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy Department of Biomedical Sciences Vrije Universiteit Brussel Laarbeeklaan 103-E 1090 Jette Belgium
| | - Navpreet Tung
- Department of Oncological Sciences The Precision Immunology Institute The Tisch Cancer Institute Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai 1470 Madison Avenue New York NY 10029 USA
| | - Jan-Timon Werle
- Institut Curie INSERM 75005 Paris France
- PSL Research University 75006 Paris France
| | - Léa Karpf
- Department of Oncological Sciences The Precision Immunology Institute The Tisch Cancer Institute Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai 1470 Madison Avenue New York NY 10029 USA
| | - Robin Maximilian Awad
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy Department of Biomedical Sciences Vrije Universiteit Brussel Laarbeeklaan 103-E 1090 Jette Belgium
| | - Annie Bernier
- Institut Curie INSERM 75005 Paris France
- PSL Research University 75006 Paris France
| | - Hannelore Ceuppens
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy Department of Biomedical Sciences Vrije Universiteit Brussel Laarbeeklaan 103-E 1090 Jette Belgium
| | - Hélène Salmon
- Department of Oncological Sciences The Precision Immunology Institute The Tisch Cancer Institute Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai 1470 Madison Avenue New York NY 10029 USA
- Institut Curie INSERM 75005 Paris France
- PSL Research University 75006 Paris France
| | - Cleo Goyvaerts
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Therapy Department of Biomedical Sciences Vrije Universiteit Brussel Laarbeeklaan 103-E 1090 Jette Belgium
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34
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Xie H, Appelt JW, Jenkins RW. Going with the Flow: Modeling the Tumor Microenvironment Using Microfluidic Technology. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13236052. [PMID: 34885161 PMCID: PMC8656483 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13236052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The clinical success of cancer immunotherapy targeting immune checkpoints (e.g., PD-1, CTLA-4) has ushered in a new era of cancer therapeutics aimed at promoting antitumor immunity in hopes of offering durable clinical responses for patients with advanced, metastatic cancer. This success has also reinvigorated interest in developing tumor model systems that recapitulate key features of antitumor immune responses to complement existing in vivo tumor models. Patient-derived tumor models have emerged in recent years to facilitate study of tumor–immune dynamics. Microfluidic technology has enabled development of microphysiologic systems (MPSs) for the evaluation of the tumor microenvironment, which have shown early promise in studying tumor–immune dynamics. Further development of microfluidic-based “tumor-on-a-chip” MPSs to study tumor–immune interactions may overcome several key challenges currently facing tumor immunology. Abstract Recent advances in cancer immunotherapy have led a paradigm shift in the treatment of multiple malignancies with renewed focus on the host immune system and tumor–immune dynamics. However, intrinsic and acquired resistance to immunotherapy limits patient benefits and wider application. Investigations into the mechanisms of response and resistance to immunotherapy have demonstrated key tumor-intrinsic and tumor-extrinsic factors. Studying complex interactions with multiple cell types is necessary to understand the mechanisms of response and resistance to cancer therapies. The lack of model systems that faithfully recapitulate key features of the tumor microenvironment (TME) remains a challenge for cancer researchers. Here, we review recent advances in TME models focusing on the use of microfluidic technology to study and model the TME, including the application of microfluidic technologies to study tumor–immune dynamics and response to cancer therapeutics. We also discuss the limitations of current systems and suggest future directions to utilize this technology to its highest potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Xie
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (H.X.); (J.W.A.)
| | - Jackson W. Appelt
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (H.X.); (J.W.A.)
| | - Russell W. Jenkins
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (H.X.); (J.W.A.)
- Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Program in Therapeutic Sciences, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +617-726-9372; Fax: +844-542-5959
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Wu Y, Zhou Y, Qin X, Liu Y. From cell spheroids to vascularized cancer organoids: Microfluidic tumor-on-a-chip models for preclinical drug evaluations. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2021; 15:061503. [PMID: 34804315 PMCID: PMC8589468 DOI: 10.1063/5.0062697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy is one of the most effective cancer treatments. Starting from the discovery of new molecular entities, it usually takes about 10 years and 2 billion U.S. dollars to bring an effective anti-cancer drug from the benchtop to patients. Due to the physiological differences between animal models and humans, more than 90% of drug candidates failed in phase I clinical trials. Thus, a more efficient drug screening system to identify feasible compounds and pre-exclude less promising drug candidates is strongly desired. For their capability to accurately construct in vitro tumor models derived from human cells to reproduce pathological and physiological processes, microfluidic tumor chips are reliable platforms for preclinical drug screening, personalized medicine, and fundamental oncology research. This review summarizes the recent progress of the microfluidic tumor chip and highlights tumor vascularization strategies. In addition, promising imaging modalities for enhancing data acquisition and machine learning-based image analysis methods to accurately quantify the dynamics of tumor spheroids are introduced. It is believed that the microfluidic tumor chip will serve as a high-throughput, biomimetic, and multi-sensor integrated system for efficient preclinical drug evaluation in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
| | - Yuyuan Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
| | - Xiaochen Qin
- Department of Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
| | - Yaling Liu
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
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Kaur G, Evans DM, Teicher BA, Coussens NP. Complex Tumor Spheroids, a Tissue-Mimicking Tumor Model, for Drug Discovery and Precision Medicine. SLAS DISCOVERY : ADVANCING LIFE SCIENCES R & D 2021; 26:1298-1314. [PMID: 34772287 DOI: 10.1177/24725552211038362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Malignant tumors are complex tissues composed of malignant cells, vascular cells, structural mesenchymal cells including pericytes and carcinoma-associated fibroblasts, infiltrating immune cells, and others, collectively called the tumor stroma. The number of stromal cells in a tumor is often much greater than the number of malignant cells. The physical associations among all these cell types are critical to tumor growth, survival, and response to therapy. Most cell-based screens for cancer drug discovery and precision medicine validation use malignant cells in isolation as monolayers, embedded in a matrix, or as spheroids in suspension. Medium- and high-throughput screening with multiple cell lines requires a scalable, reproducible, robust cell-based assay. Complex spheroids include malignant cells and two normal cell types, human umbilical vein endothelial cells and highly plastic mesenchymal stem cells, which rapidly adapt to the malignant cell microenvironment. The patient-derived pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line, K24384-001-R, was used to explore complex spheroid structure and response to anticancer agents in a 96-well format. We describe the development of the complex spheroid assay as well as the growth and structure of complex spheroids over time. Subsequently, we demonstrate successful assay miniaturization to a 384-well format and robust performance in a high-throughput screen. Implementation of the complex spheroid assay was further demonstrated with 10 well-established pancreatic cell lines. By incorporating both human stromal and tumor components, complex spheroids might provide an improved model for tumor response in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurmeet Kaur
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Beverly A Teicher
- Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Nathan P Coussens
- Molecular Pharmacology Laboratories, Applied and Developmental Research Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
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37
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Understanding and improving cellular immunotherapies against cancer: From cell-manufacturing to tumor-immune models. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 179:114003. [PMID: 34653533 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.114003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is shaped by dynamic metabolic and immune interactions between precancerous and cancerous tumor cells and stromal cells like epithelial cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and hematopoietically-derived immune cells. The metabolic states of the TME, including the hypoxic and acidic niches, influence the immunosuppressive phenotypes of the stromal and immune cells, which confers resistance to both host-mediated tumor killing and therapeutics. Numerous in vitro TME platforms for studying immunotherapies, including cell therapies, are being developed. However, we do not yet understand which immune and stromal components are most critical and how much model complexity is needed to answer specific questions. In addition, scalable sourcing and quality-control of appropriate TME cells for reproducibly manufacturing these platforms remain challenging. In this regard, lessons from the manufacturing of immunomodulatory cell therapies could provide helpful guidance. Although immune cell therapies have shown unprecedented results in hematological cancers and hold promise in solid tumors, their manufacture poses significant scale, cost, and quality control challenges. This review first provides an overview of the in vivo TME, discussing the most influential cell populations in the tumor-immune landscape. Next, we summarize current approaches for cell therapies against cancers and the relevant manufacturing platforms. We then evaluate current immune-tumor models of the TME and immunotherapies, highlighting the complexity, architecture, function, and cell sources. Finally, we present the technical and fundamental knowledge gaps in both cell manufacturing systems and immune-TME models that must be addressed to elucidate the interactions between endogenous tumor immunity and exogenous engineered immunity.
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Varrone F, Mandrich L, Caputo E. Melanoma Immunotherapy and Precision Medicine in the Era of Tumor Micro-Tissue Engineering: Where Are We Now and Where Are We Going? Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5788. [PMID: 34830940 PMCID: PMC8616100 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13225788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma still remains a cancer with very poor survival rates, although it is at the forefront of personalized medicine. Most patients show partial responses and disease progressed due to adaptative resistance mechanisms, preventing long-lasting clinical benefits to the current treatments. The response to therapies can be shaped by not only taking into account cancer cell heterogeneity and plasticity, but also by its structural context as well as the cellular component of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we review the recent development in the field of immunotherapy and target-based therapy and how, in the era of tumor micro-tissue engineering, ex-vivo assays could help to enhance our melanoma biology knowledge in its complexity, translating it in the development of successful therapeutic strategies, as well as in the prediction of therapeutic benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luigi Mandrich
- Research Institute on Terrestrial Ecosystem—IRET-CNR Via Pietro Castellino 111, I-80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Emilia Caputo
- Institute of Genetics and Biophysics—IGB-CNR, “A. Buzzati-Traverso”, Via Pietro Castellino 111, I-80131 Naples, Italy
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Modi U, Makwana P, Vasita R. Molecular insights of metastasis and cancer progression derived using 3D cancer spheroid co-culture in vitro platform. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2021; 168:103511. [PMID: 34740822 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2021.103511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The multistep metastasis process is carried out by the combinatorial effect of the stromal cells and the cancerous cells and plays vital role in the cancer progression. The scaffold/physical cues aided 3D cancer spheroid imitates the spatiotemporal organization and physiological properties of the tumor. Understanding the role of the key players in different stages of metastasis, the molecular cross-talk between the stromal cells and the cancer cells contributing in the advancement of the metastasis through 3D cancer spheroid co-culture in vitro platform is the center of discussion in the present review. This state-of-art in vitro platform utilized to study the cancer cell host defence and the role of exosomes in the cross talk leading to cancer progression has been critically examined here. 3D cancer spheroid co-culture technique is the promising next-generation in vitro approach for exploring potent treatments and personalized medicines to combat cancer metastasis leading to cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unnati Modi
- Biomaterials & Biomimetics Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Pooja Makwana
- Biomaterials & Biomimetics Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Rajesh Vasita
- Biomaterials & Biomimetics Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India.
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Leong TKM, Lo WS, Lee WEZ, Tan B, Lee XZ, Lee LWJN, Lee JYJ, Suresh N, Loo LH, Szu E, Yeong J. Leveraging advances in immunopathology and artificial intelligence to analyze in vitro tumor models in composition and space. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 177:113959. [PMID: 34481035 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. Unfortunately, efforts to understand this disease are confounded by the complex, heterogenous tumor microenvironment (TME). Better understanding of the TME could lead to novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic discoveries. One way to achieve this involves in vitro tumor models that recapitulate the in vivo TME composition and spatial arrangement. Here, we review the potential of harnessing in vitro tumor models and artificial intelligence to delineate the TME. This includes (i) identification of novel features, (ii) investigation of higher-order relationships, and (iii) analysis and interpretation of multiomics data in a (iv) holistic, objective, reproducible, and efficient manner, which surpasses previous methods of TME analysis. We also discuss limitations of this approach, namely inadequate datasets, indeterminate biological correlations, ethical concerns, and logistical constraints; finally, we speculate on future avenues of research that could overcome these limitations, ultimately translating to improved clinical outcomes.
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Lee SW, Park SE, Jeong GS. Sporadic cell death in macroscale 3D tumor grafts with high drug resistance by activating cell-ECM interactions. Biofabrication 2021; 13. [PMID: 34496353 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac24dd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the tumor microenvironment (TME), the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a dynamic structure for cell adhesion and cancer cell motility, such as migration and invasion, as well as remodeling. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) promote cancer cell motility, which contributes to inducing drug resistance and thereby acquiring aggressive features. The drug resistance-induced 3Din vitrotumor model can be an effective model for therapeutic strategies for anticancer drugs targeting aggressive cancer cells. Here, we describe highly drug-resistant multicellular tumoroids (MCTs)-ECM tumor grafts under a macroscale dense 3Din vitromodel through a combination of numerous MCTs and a collagen matrix. MCTs-ECM tumor grafts promote the high activity of MMP2 and MMP9 compared to general MCTs and induced cancer cell motility. Then, after the administration of anticancer drugs, the tumor grafts show increased drug resistance, with both the sporadic distribution of necrotic cells and the reduction of apoptotic portions, by activating cancer cell motility. MCTs-ECM tumor graft could be useful as a macroscale tumor graft model for inducing drug resistance by activating cancer cell motility and evaluating the efficacy of anticancer drugs targeting cancer with aggressive features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Woo Lee
- Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Se Eun Park
- Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Gi Seok Jeong
- Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Convergence Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Ando Y, Mariano C, Shen K. Engineered in vitro tumor models for cell-based immunotherapy. Acta Biomater 2021; 132:345-359. [PMID: 33857692 PMCID: PMC8434941 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.03.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy is rapidly evolving as one of the major pillars of cancer treatment. Cell-based immunotherapies, which utilize patient's own immune cells to eliminate cancer cells, have shown great promise in treating a range of malignancies, especially those of hematopoietic origins. However, their performance on a broader spectrum of solid tumor types still fall short of expectations in the clinical stage despite promising preclinical assessments. In this review, we briefly introduce cell-based immunotherapies and the inhibitory mechanisms in tumor microenvironments that may have contributed to this discrepancy. Specifically, a major obstacle to the clinical translation of cell-based immunotherapies is in the lack of preclinical models that can accurately assess the efficacies and mechanisms of these therapies in a (patho-)physiologically relevant manner. Lately, tissue engineering and organ-on-a-chip tools and microphysiological models have allowed for more faithful recapitulation of the tumor microenvironments, by incorporating crucial tumor tissue features such as cellular phenotypes, tissue architecture, extracellular matrix, physical parameters, and their dynamic interactions. This review summarizes the existing engineered tumor models with a focus on tumor immunology and cell-based immunotherapy. We also discuss some key considerations for the future development of engineered tumor models for immunotherapeutics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cell-based immunotherapies have shown great promise in treating hematological malignancies and some epithelial tumors. However, their performance on a broader spectrum of solid tumor types still fall short of expectations. Major obstacles include the inhibitory mechanisms in tumor microenvironments (TME) and the lack of preclinical models that can accurately assess the efficacies and mechanisms of cellular therapies in a (patho-)physiologically relevant manner. In this review, we introduce recent progress in tissue engineering and microphysiological models for more faithful recapitulation of TME for cell-based immunotherapies, and some key considerations for the future development of engineered tumor models. This overview will provide a better understanding on the role of engineered models in accelerating immunotherapeutic discoveries and clinical translations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Ando
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
| | - Chelsea Mariano
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
| | - Keyue Shen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States; Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, United States; USC Stem Cell, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, United States.
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Franchi-Mendes T, Eduardo R, Domenici G, Brito C. 3D Cancer Models: Depicting Cellular Crosstalk within the Tumour Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:4610. [PMID: 34572836 PMCID: PMC8468887 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13184610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumour microenvironment plays a critical role in tumour progression and drug resistance processes. Non-malignant cell players, such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, immune cells and others, interact with each other and with the tumour cells, shaping the disease. Though the role of each cell type and cell communication mechanisms have been progressively studied, the complexity of this cellular network and its role in disease mechanism and therapeutic response are still being unveiled. Animal models have been mainly used, as they can represent systemic interactions and conditions, though they face recognized limitations in translational potential due to interspecies differences. In vitro 3D cancer models can surpass these limitations, by incorporating human cells, including patient-derived ones, and allowing a range of experimental designs with precise control of each tumour microenvironment element. We summarize the role of each tumour microenvironment component and review studies proposing 3D co-culture strategies of tumour cells and non-malignant cell components. Moreover, we discuss the potential of these modelling approaches to uncover potential therapeutic targets in the tumour microenvironment and assess therapeutic efficacy, current bottlenecks and perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Franchi-Mendes
- iBET—Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.F.-M.); (R.E.); (G.D.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo Eduardo
- iBET—Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.F.-M.); (R.E.); (G.D.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Giacomo Domenici
- iBET—Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.F.-M.); (R.E.); (G.D.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Catarina Brito
- iBET—Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.F.-M.); (R.E.); (G.D.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
- The Discoveries Centre for Regenerative and Precision Medicine, Lisbon Campus, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
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Tang LJW, Zaseela A, Toh CCM, Adine C, Aydar AO, Iyer NG, Fong ELS. Engineering stromal heterogeneity in cancer. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 175:113817. [PMID: 34087326 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Based on our exponentially increasing knowledge of stromal heterogeneity from advances in single-cell technologies, the notion that stromal cell types exist as a spectrum of unique subpopulations that have specific functions and spatial distributions in the tumor microenvironment has significant impact on tumor modeling for drug development and personalized drug testing. In this Review, we discuss the importance of incorporating stromal heterogeneity and tumor architecture, and propose an overall approach to guide the reconstruction of stromal heterogeneity in vitro for tumor modeling. These next-generation tumor models may support the development of more precise drugs targeting specific stromal cell subpopulations, as well as enable improved recapitulation of patient tumors in vitro for personalized drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Jia Wei Tang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ayshath Zaseela
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Christabella Adine
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore; The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Abdullah Omer Aydar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - N Gopalakrishna Iyer
- National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore; Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore.
| | - Eliza Li Shan Fong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore; The N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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Pozzi S, Scomparin A, Israeli Dangoor S, Rodriguez Ajamil D, Ofek P, Neufeld L, Krivitsky A, Vaskovich-Koubi D, Kleiner R, Dey P, Koshrovski-Michael S, Reisman N, Satchi-Fainaro R. Meet me halfway: Are in vitro 3D cancer models on the way to replace in vivo models for nanomedicine development? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 175:113760. [PMID: 33838208 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The complexity and diversity of the biochemical processes that occur during tumorigenesis and metastasis are frequently over-simplified in the traditional in vitro cell cultures. Two-dimensional cultures limit researchers' experimental observations and frequently give rise to misleading and contradictory results. Therefore, in order to overcome the limitations of in vitro studies and bridge the translational gap to in vivo applications, 3D models of cancer were developed in the last decades. The three dimensions of the tumor, including its cellular and extracellular microenvironment, are recreated by combining co-cultures of cancer and stromal cells in 3D hydrogel-based growth factors-inclusive scaffolds. More complex 3D cultures, containing functional blood vasculature, can integrate in the system external stimuli (e.g. oxygen and nutrient deprivation, cytokines, growth factors) along with drugs, or other therapeutic compounds. In this scenario, cell signaling pathways, metastatic cascade steps, cell differentiation and self-renewal, tumor-microenvironment interactions, and precision and personalized medicine, are among the wide range of biological applications that can be studied. Here, we discuss a broad variety of strategies exploited by scientists to create in vitro 3D cancer models that resemble as much as possible the biology and patho-physiology of in vivo tumors and predict faithfully the treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Pozzi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Anna Scomparin
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Sahar Israeli Dangoor
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Daniel Rodriguez Ajamil
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Paula Ofek
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Lena Neufeld
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Adva Krivitsky
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Daniella Vaskovich-Koubi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ron Kleiner
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Pradip Dey
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Shani Koshrovski-Michael
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Noa Reisman
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ronit Satchi-Fainaro
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
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Monocyte Infiltration and Differentiation in 3D Multicellular Spheroid Cancer Models. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10080969. [PMID: 34451433 PMCID: PMC8399809 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages often correlate with tumor progression, and therapies targeting immune cells in tumors have emerged as promising treatments. To select effective therapies, we established an in vitro 3D multicellular spheroid model including cancer cells, fibroblasts, and monocytes. We analyzed monocyte infiltration and differentiation in spheroids generated from fibroblasts and either of the cancer cell lines MCF-7, HT-29, PANC-1, or MIA PaCa-2. Monocytes rapidly infiltrated spheroids and differentiated into mature macrophages with diverse phenotypes in a cancer cell line-dependent manner. MIA PaCa-2 spheroids polarized infiltrating monocytes to M2-like macrophages with high CD206 and CD14 expression, whereas monocytes polarized by MCF-7 spheroids displayed an M1-like phenotype. Monocytes in HT-29 and PANC-1 primarily obtained an M2-like phenotype but also showed upregulation of M1 markers. Analysis of the secretion of 43 soluble factors demonstrated that the cytokine profile between spheroid cultures differed considerably depending on the cancer cell line. Secretion of most of the cytokines increased upon the addition of monocytes resulting in a more inflammatory and pro-tumorigenic environment. These multicellular spheroids can be used to recapitulate the tumor microenvironment and the phenotype of tumor-associated macrophages in vitro and provide more realistic 3D cancer models allowing the in vitro screening of immunotherapeutic compounds.
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Baru A, Sharma S, Purakayastha BPD, Khan S, Mazumdar S, Gupta R, Kundu PK, Arora NM. AXTEX-4D: A Three-Dimensional Ex Vivo Platform for Preclinical Investigations of Immunotherapy Agents. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2021; 19:361-372. [PMID: 34319797 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2021.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The latest advancements in oncology are majorly focused on immuno-oncology (I-O) therapies. However, only ∼7% of drugs are being approved from the preclinical discovery phase to phase 1. The most challenging issues in I-O are the development of active and efficient drugs in an economically feasible way and in a comparatively short time for testing and validation. This mandates an urgent need for the upgradation of preclinical screening models that closely mimic the in vivo tumor microenvironment (TME). The established and most common methods for investigating the tumoricidal activity of I-O drugs are either two-dimensional systems or primary tumor cells in standard tissue culture vessels. Unfortunately, they do not mimic the TME. Consequently, the more in vivo-like three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids are quickly becoming the favored model to examine immune cell-mediated responses in reaction to the administration of I-O drugs. Despite many advantages of multicellular spheroids, challenges (e.g., incompatibility of quantitative assays with spheroid platforms) are still involved in the tedious procedures required for the spheroid culture that is holding back the biological community from adapting the well-recognized spheroid tissue models for studying drug delivery more widely. To this end, we have demonstrated the utility of the 3D ex vivo oncology model, developed on our novel AXTEX-4D™ platform to assess therapeutic efficacies of I-O drugs by investigating immune cell proliferation, migration, infiltration, cytokine profiling, and cytotoxicity of tumor tissueoids. The platform eliminates the need for additional biomolecules such as hydrogels and instead relies on the cancer cells themselves to create their own gradients and microenvironmental factors. In effect, the more comprehensive and ex vivo-like immune-oncology model developed on AXTEX-4D platform can be utilized for high-throughput screening of immunotherapeutic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambica Baru
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | - Swati Sharma
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | | | - Sameena Khan
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | - Saumyabrata Mazumdar
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | - Reeshu Gupta
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | - Prabuddha K Kundu
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
| | - Nupur Mehrotra Arora
- Mammalian Cell Culture Lab, Premas Biotech Pvt, Ltd., Sector IV, IMT, Manesar, India
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3D tumor spheroid microarray for high-throughput, high-content natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Commun Biol 2021; 4:893. [PMID: 34290356 PMCID: PMC8295284 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02417-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has emerged as a promising approach to treating several forms of cancer. Use of immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells, along with small molecule drugs and antibodies through antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) has been investigated as a potential combination therapy for some difficult to treat solid tumors. Nevertheless, there remains a need to develop tools that support co-culture of target cancer cells and effector immune cells in a contextually relevant three-dimensional (3D) environment to provide a rapid means to screen for and optimize ADCC-drug combinations. To that end, here we have developed a high throughput 330 micropillar-microwell sandwich platform that enables 3D co-culture of NK92-CD16 cells with pancreatic (MiaPaCa-2) and breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). The platform successfully mimicked hypoxic conditions found in a tumor microenvironment and was used to demonstrate NK-cell mediated cell cytotoxicity in combination with two monoclonal antibodies; Trastuzumab and Atezolizumab. The platform was also used to show dose response behavior of target cancer cells with reduced EC50 values for paclitaxel (an anti-cancer chemotherapeutic) when treated with both NK cells and antibody. Such a platform may be used to develop more personalized cancer therapies using patient-derived cancer cells.
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49
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Maia A, Wiemann S. Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts: Implications for Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3526. [PMID: 34298736 PMCID: PMC8307167 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumour cells do not exist as an isolated entity. Instead, they are surrounded by and closely interact with cells of the environment they are emerged in. The tumour microenvironment (TME) is not static and several factors, including cancer cells and therapies, have been described to modulate several of its components. Fibroblasts are key elements of the TME with the capacity to influence tumour progression, invasion and response to therapy, which makes them attractive targets in cancer treatment. In this review, we focus on fibroblasts and their numerous roles in the TME with a special attention to recent findings describing their heterogeneity and role in therapy response. Furthermore, we explore how different therapies can impact these cells and their communication with cancer cells. Finally, we highlight potential strategies targeting this cell type that can be employed for improving patient outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maia
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, Im Neuenheimer Feld 580, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Wiemann
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Molecular Genome Analysis, Im Neuenheimer Feld 580, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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50
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Three-Dimensional Culture Models to Study Innate Anti-Tumor Immune Response: Advantages and Disadvantages. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13143417. [PMID: 34298630 PMCID: PMC8303518 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Several approaches have shown that the immune response against tumors strongly affects patients' clinical outcome. Thus, the study of anti-tumor immunity is critical to understand and potentiate the mechanisms underlying the elimination of tumor cells. Natural killer (NK) cells are members of innate immunity and represent powerful anti-tumor effectors, able to eliminate tumor cells without a previous sensitization. Thus, the study of their involvement in anti-tumor responses is critical for clinical translation. This analysis has been performed in vitro, co-incubating NK with tumor cells and quantifying the cytotoxic activity of NK cells. In vivo confirmation has been applied to overcome the limits of in vitro testing, however, the innate immunity of mice and humans is different, leading to discrepancies. Different activating receptors on NK cells and counter-ligands on tumor cells are involved in the antitumor response, and innate immunity is strictly dependent on the specific microenvironment where it takes place. Thus, three-dimensional (3D) culture systems, where NK and tumor cells can interact in a tissue-like architecture, have been created. For example, tumor cell spheroids and primary organoids derived from several tumor types, have been used so far to analyze innate immune response, replacing animal models. Herein, we briefly introduce NK cells and analyze and discuss in detail the properties of 3D tumor culture systems and their use for the study of tumor cell interactions with NK cells.
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