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Okar L, Samuel S, Singh D, Pastrana F, Wang F. A Diagnostically Challenging Case of Recurrent Encephalitis With Impending Herniation. Cureus 2024; 16:e67599. [PMID: 39310481 PMCID: PMC11416798 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.67599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Encephalitis is characterized by inflammation of the brain parenchyma with typical presenting symptoms of altered mental status and seizures. However, diagnostic workup is complex given the multitude of possible etiologies for encephalitis. Further, recurrence of encephalitis is rare, and understanding its risk factors, mechanisms, prognosis, and optimal treatment remains incomplete. Here, we present the case of a 69-year-old woman admitted to our hospital with altered mental status who was diagnosed with encephalitis based on clinical and imaging findings. This case highlights the diagnostic approaches required to obtain the final diagnosis and the treatment plan that resulted in the patient's eventual return to baseline and functional independence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Okar
- Neurology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
| | - Sandra Samuel
- Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
| | - Divya Singh
- Neurology, St. Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| | | | - Fajun Wang
- Neurology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
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Tran XN, Pham ST, Trinh TH, Liu JJ. Predictors of Neurological Disability at Hospital Discharge for Acyclovir-treated Pediatric Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2024:00006454-990000000-00933. [PMID: 38986001 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000004474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) is a rare but serious neurological infection that causes neurological dysfunction. Research is lacking on the clinical predictors of neurological outcomes and the optimal duration of therapy for pediatric HSE patients. In this study of pediatric HSE patients, we identified factors predicting neurological disability at hospital discharge and examined associations of acyclovir therapy duration with neurological outcomes. METHODS This was a retrospective cohort study on 37 children diagnosed with HSE confirmed by polymerase chain reaction at age 1 month to 16 years from 2015 to 2021 in Ho Chi Minh City's Children's Hospital No. 2, Vietnam. For the acyclovir duration analysis, we examined 22 children with negative polymerase chain reaction on day 14 of treatment. Poisson regression was used to obtain the risk ratio and 95% confidence interval. RESULTS The study population consisted of 73% males, with a median age of 14 months (interquartile range: 9-35). Coma at acyclovir treatment, hypotension and the need for mechanical ventilation ≥48 hours significantly predicted neurological disability in the bivariate analysis. There were no significant associations between acyclovir duration (14 vs. 21 days) and neurological outcomes, adjusting for age at diagnosis and pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale score at acyclovir initiation. CONCLUSION We identified significant predictors of neurological disability unaffected by postacyclovir treatment factors. Among patients with negative HSE polymerase chain reaction on day 14, 14 days of acyclovir treatment may be as effective as 21 days. Additional studies on the effects of acyclovir duration are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Ngoc Tran
- From the Department of Critical Care Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital No.2, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- International Health Program, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Son Thai Pham
- Department of Intensive Care and Poison Control, Children's Hospital No.2, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | - Jason J Liu
- International Health Program, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Public Health, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
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3
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Cleaver J, Jeffery K, Klenerman P, Lim M, Handunnetthi L, Irani SR, Handel A. The immunobiology of herpes simplex virus encephalitis and post-viral autoimmunity. Brain 2024; 147:1130-1148. [PMID: 38092513 PMCID: PMC10994539 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awad419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) is the leading cause of non-epidemic encephalitis in the developed world and, despite antiviral therapy, mortality and morbidity is high. The emergence of post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis reveals a new immunological paradigm in autoantibody-mediated disease. A reductionist evaluation of the immunobiological mechanisms in HSE is crucial to dissect the origins of post-viral autoimmunity and supply rational approaches to the selection of immunotherapeutics. Herein, we review the latest evidence behind the phenotypic progression and underlying immunobiology of HSE including the cytokine/chemokine environment, the role of pathogen-recognition receptors, T- and B-cell immunity and relevant inborn errors of immunity. Second, we provide a contemporary review of published patients with post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis from a combined cohort of 110 patients. Third, we integrate novel mechanisms of autoimmunization in deep cervical lymph nodes to explore hypotheses around post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis and challenge these against mechanisms of molecular mimicry and others. Finally, we explore translational concepts where neuroglial surface autoantibodies have been observed with other neuroinfectious diseases and those that generate brain damage including traumatic brain injury, ischaemic stroke and neurodegenerative disease. Overall, the clinical and immunological landscape of HSE is an important and evolving field, from which precision immunotherapeutics could soon emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Cleaver
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Katie Jeffery
- Department of Microbiology, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
- Translational Gastroenterology Unit, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Ming Lim
- Children’s Neurosciences, Evelina London Children’s Hospital at Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, SE1 7EH, UK
- Department Women and Children’s Health, School of Life Course Sciences, King’s College London, London, WC2R 2LS, UK
| | - Lahiru Handunnetthi
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Sarosh R Irani
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Adam Handel
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
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Sun S, Ren J, Zhong Z, Ma X, Shang D, Su C, Zhao X. Case report: Overlapping anti-AMPAR encephalitis with anti-IgLON5 disease post herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1329540. [PMID: 38259458 PMCID: PMC10800422 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1329540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is the result of an autoimmune process that occurs as a rapidly advancing encephalopathy. Autoimmune encephalitis was commonly linked to herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) as the most frequently identified virus. The main areas affected by this invasion are the temporal lobe, frontal lobe, and limbic system. Limbic encephalitis is a highly uncommon occurrence involving anti-alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR) encephalitis and anti-IgLON family member 5 (IgLON5) disease, both belonging to the rare category. As far as we know, this is the first report showing that a patient diagnosed with AMPAR encephalitis overlapped with anti-IgLON5 disease post herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE), which helps to broaden the range of this uncommon autoimmune disease. We recommend autoantibody testing in all patients with HSE, particularly those involving neurological relapses or progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Xianchao Zhao
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
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Maezawa M, Ochi J, Kubota N, Kamoshida T, Fuji M, Tsukada Y. Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis after Recovery from Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Rare Case Report. Intern Med 2023; 62:3515-3518. [PMID: 37779075 PMCID: PMC10749812 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.1790-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
An 85-year-old woman was diagnosed with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The patient was treated with dexamethasone, and the infection was cured. She later developed a low-grade fever and fell unconscious. Positivity for herpes simplex virus deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase chain reaction (HSV-DNA PCR) was detected in the cerebrospinal fluid, so she was diagnosed with HSV encephalitis. The patient was treated with antiviral drugs and recovered from the HSV encephalitis. This case suggests that, in patients with COVID-19 and disorders of consciousness, the possibility of HSV encephalitis should be considered along with COVID-19 encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Maezawa
- Department of Pulmology, Soka Municipal Hospital, Japan
| | - Junichi Ochi
- Department of Pulmology, Soka Municipal Hospital, Japan
| | | | | | - Mayumi Fuji
- Department of Pulmology, Soka Municipal Hospital, Japan
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Liu D, Lin PH, Li HL, Yang J, You Y, Yang X, Jiang LH, Ma CY, Xu LF, Zhang QX, Liao S, Chen H, Yue JJ, Lu YY, Lian C, Liu Y, Wang ZH, Ye JL, Qiu W, Shu YQ, Wang HY, Liu HL, Wang Y, Duan CM, Yang H, Wu XL, Zhang L, Feng HY, Chen H, Zhou HS, Xu QH, Zhao GX, Ou TF, Wang JL, Lu YH, Mao ZF, Gao C, Guo J, Zhang HY, Chen S, Li J, Long YM. Early autoimmunity and outcome in virus encephalitis: a retrospective study based on tissue-based assay. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2023; 94:605-613. [PMID: 37225405 PMCID: PMC10359542 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2022-330626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
To explore the autoimmune response and outcome in the central nervous system (CNS) at the onset of viral infection and correlation between autoantibodies and viruses. METHODS A retrospective observational study was conducted in 121 patients (2016-2021) with a CNS viral infection confirmed via cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) next-generation sequencing (cohort A). Their clinical information was analysed and CSF samples were screened for autoantibodies against monkey cerebellum by tissue-based assay. In situ hybridisation was used to detect Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in brain tissue of 8 patients with glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP)-IgG and nasopharyngeal carcinoma tissue of 2 patients with GFAP-IgG as control (cohort B). RESULTS Among cohort A (male:female=79:42; median age: 42 (14-78) years old), 61 (50.4%) participants had detectable autoantibodies in CSF. Compared with other viruses, EBV increased the odds of having GFAP-IgG (OR 18.22, 95% CI 6.54 to 50.77, p<0.001). In cohort B, EBV was found in the brain tissue from two of eight (25.0%) patients with GFAP-IgG. Autoantibody-positive patients had a higher CSF protein level (median: 1126.00 (281.00-5352.00) vs 700.00 (76.70-2899.00), p<0.001), lower CSF chloride level (mean: 119.80±6.24 vs 122.84±5.26, p=0.005), lower ratios of CSF-glucose/serum-glucose (median: 0.50[0.13-0.94] vs 0.60[0.26-1.23], p=0.003), more meningitis (26/61 (42.6%) vs 12/60 (20.0%), p=0.007) and higher follow-up modified Rankin Scale scores (1 (0-6) vs 0 (0-3), p=0.037) compared with antibody-negative patients. A Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that autoantibody-positive patients experienced significantly worse outcomes (p=0.031). CONCLUSIONS Autoimmune responses are found at the onset of viral encephalitis. EBV in the CNS increases the risk for autoimmunity to GFAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Liu
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Pei-Hao Lin
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hui-Lu Li
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yong You
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Li-Hong Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Cai-Yu Ma
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lu-Fen Xu
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qing-Xia Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Sha Liao
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Han Chen
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jia-Jia Yue
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yu-Ying Lu
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Molecular Biology of Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Chun Lian
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yin Liu
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhan-Hang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong 999 Brain Hospital, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jin-Long Ye
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong 999 Brain Hospital, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ya-Qing Shu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hai-Yang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Jining No. 1 People's Hospital, Jining, China
| | - Hong-Li Liu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Qinhuangdao, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital and The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chun-Mei Duan
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital and The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Huan Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiu-Ling Wu
- Department of Neurology, Tangshan Gongren Hospital, Tangshan, Hebei, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Hui-Yu Feng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hou-Shi Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Shantou Central Hospital, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qian-Hui Xu
- Department of Neurology, Shenzhen People's Hospital, The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University, The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Gui-Xian Zhao
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Teng-Fei Ou
- Department of Neurology, The Second People's Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Jin-Liang Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second People's Hospital of Foshan, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Yu-Hua Lu
- Department of Neurology, People's Hospital of Chongqing Banan District, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhi-Feng Mao
- Neurimmunology Group, Institution of Kingmed, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Cong Gao
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jun Guo
- Department of Neurology, Tangdu Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hong-Ya Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Shenzhen University General Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Sheng Chen
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - You-Ming Long
- Department of Neurology, Key Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Channelopathies of Guangdong Province and The Ministry of Education of China, Institute of Neuroscience, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Zhang Y, Fang L, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Liang B, Yan C, Li L. A case report of long-delayed diagnosis of pseudorabies virus encephalitis with endophthalmitis: lessons from metagenomic next generation sequencing. BMC Neurol 2023; 23:192. [PMID: 37194001 PMCID: PMC10186779 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-023-03227-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pseudorabies virus (PRV) was thought to only infect animals. Recent studies have shown that it can also infect human. CASE PRESENTATION We report a case of pseudorabies virus encephalitis and endophthalmitis, diagnosed 89 days after onset, confirmed with intraocular fluid metagenomic next generation sequencing (mNGS) after the result of two cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) mNGS tests were negative. Although treatment with intravenous acyclovir, foscarnet sodium, and methylprednisolone improved the symptoms of encephalitis, significant diagnostic delay resulted in permanent visual loss. CONCLUSIONS This case suggests that pseudorabies virus (PRV) DNA in the intraocular fluid may have a higher positivity than that in the CSF. PRV may persist in the intraocular fluid for an extended period and may thus require extended antiviral therapy. Patients with severe encephalitis and PRV should be examined with the focus on pupil reactivity and light reflex. A fundus examination should be performed in patients with a central nervous system infection, specifically, those in a comatose state, to help reduce eye disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China
- Department of Neurology, Rizhao Central Hospital, 66 Wanghai Road, Rizhao, 276800, Shandong, China
| | - Lei Fang
- Department of Neurology, Qingdao Central Hospital, No.127, Siliu South Road, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Yi Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China
- Department of Ultrasonic, Rizhao Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 35 Wanghai Road, Rizhao, 276800, Shandong, China
| | - Yongqing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China
| | - Bing Liang
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China
| | - Chuanzhu Yan
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital(Qingdao), Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 758 Hefei Road, Qingdao, 266035, Shandong, China.
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Hersh N, Ben Zvi H, Goldstein L, Steiner I, Benninger F. Epilepsy following herpes simplex encephalitis - A case series. Epilepsy Res 2023; 192:107137. [PMID: 37060749 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2023.107137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is associated with severe mortality and morbidity. Its incidence is estimated at 1:250 000, and the typical symptomatology of acute disease including headaches, mental state disturbances, confusion, sleepiness, and seizures. The chronic phase of the disease is occasionally characterized by epilepsy and neurological deficits. STUDY RATIONALE The present retrospective single-center study aims to identify risk factors for predicting the development of epilepsy (epileptogenesis) following HSE. METHODS Medical records were screened for patients older than 18 years, hospitalized between January 2005 and September 2019 with a diagnosis of "encephalitis" and "herpes simplex virus, HSV" infection. HSE diagnosis was based on an analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid with positive HSV testing results. RESULTS Twenty-three patients fit our inclusion criteria: fever and behavioral changes, followed by seizures, were reported in 58.3 % of patients. On follow-up (59.7 ± 38.8 months), eight patients (34.8 %) developed epilepsy. Pathological imaging and EEG were correlated with acute symptomatic seizures (ASS). ASS was associated with an 8-fold risk increase to develop post-encephalitis epilepsy (PE). PE was associated with younger age but not with CSF results, imaging, or EEG. CONCLUSION Our retrospective single-center study on PE, following HSE, shows that younger age and ASS were associated with PE. Brain imaging, CSF analysis, and EEG were not associated with the development of epilepsy following HSE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nir Hersh
- Department of Neurology, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Hospital, Petach Tikva, Israel; Neurology Unit, Sanz Medical Center, Laniado Hospital, Netanya, Israel
| | - Haim Ben Zvi
- Department of Neurology, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Hospital, Petach Tikva, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Lilach Goldstein
- Department of Neurology, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Ichilov Hospital, Tel Aviv, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Israel Steiner
- Department of Neurology, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Hospital, Petach Tikva, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Felix Benninger
- Department of Neurology, Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Hospital, Petach Tikva, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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Wan N, Weerakkody S. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis: An atypical presentation of delirium. Clin Case Rep 2023; 11:e7123. [PMID: 36992671 PMCID: PMC10040492 DOI: 10.1002/ccr3.7123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is the most common cause of infectious encephalitis. Our case is of a 75-year-old woman who presented with dysuria and altered mental status. Our case addresses the difficulties in diagnosis and highlights the importance of early recognition of HSE and its associated neurological sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Wan
- Department of General Medicine, Flinders Medical CentreBedford ParkSouth AustraliaAustralia
- Adelaide Medical SchoolUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Sanath Weerakkody
- Department of General Medicine, Flinders Medical CentreBedford ParkSouth AustraliaAustralia
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders UniversityBedford ParkSouth AustraliaAustralia
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Allen C, Rao SJ, Gill K, Wolff M, Haas CJ. Recurrent herpes simplex virus encephalitis with presumptive Human Herpesvirus 6 chromosomal integration. IDCases 2023; 31:e01720. [PMID: 36860284 PMCID: PMC9969062 DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2023.e01720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral encephalitis can lead to encephalopathy, epileptic activity, focal neurological deficits, and death. Prompt recognition and a high index of clinical suspicion can lead to early initiation of appropriate management. We describe an interesting case of a 61-year-old presenting with fever and altered mental status, diagnosed with numerous episodes of viral encephalitis caused by divergent and recurrent viruses. On his initial presentation, lumbar puncture revealed lymphocytic pleocytosis and positivity for Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), and he was treated with ganciclovir. On subsequent admissions, he was diagnosed with recurrent HHV-6 encephalitis as well as Herpes Simplex Virus 1 encephalitis and treated with ganciclovir, foscarnet and acyclovir. Despite prolonged courses of treatment and resolution of symptoms, he continued to have persistently high plasma viral loads of HHV-6, consistent with probable chromosomal integration. In this report, we emphasize the clinical pearl of chromosomally integrated HHV-6 that can present in a patient with persistently high plasma viral loads of HHV-6, that are non-responsive to treatment. Individuals with chromosomally integrated HHV-6 may be more susceptible to other viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Allen
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Health Internal Medicine Residency Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Shiavax J. Rao
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Health Internal Medicine Residency Program, Baltimore, MD, United States,Correspondence to: MedStar Union Memorial Hospital, Department of Medicine, 201 E University Pkwy, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States.
| | - Kavneet Gill
- Department of Hospital Medicine, MedStar Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marcos Wolff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, MedStar Franklin Square Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Christopher J. Haas
- Department of Medicine, MedStar Health Internal Medicine Residency Program, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States
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11
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Quade A, Rostasy K, Wickström R, Aydin ÖF, Sartori S, Nosadini M, Knierim E, Kluger G, Korinthenberg R, Stüve B, Waltz S, Leiz S, Häusler M. Autoimmune Encephalitis with Autoantibodies to NMDAR1 following Herpes Encephalitis in Children and Adolescents. Neuropediatrics 2023; 54:14-19. [PMID: 36543183 DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1757706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 is a frequent pathogen causing infectious encephalitis (HSVE). Early treatment with intravenous acyclovir has led to a significant decrease in mortality. However, especially in children, deterioration during or after HSVE may occur without any evidence of HSV reactivation or improvement following repeated antiviral therapy. Here, we report 15 patients (age range 3 months to 15 years) who suffered from autoimmune encephalitis with autoantibodies to NMDAR1 following Herpes encephalitis, presenting with movement abnormalities (young children) or neuropsychiatric symptoms (older children) as major complaints, respectively. The diagnosis was based on positive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and/or serum anti-NMDAR-antibodies with two children showing only positive CSF antibody findings. The time lag between first symptoms and diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis was significantly longer than between first symptoms and diagnosis of HSVE (p <0.01). All patients improved during immunosuppressive treatment, during which plasmapheresis or rituximab treatments were applied in 11 patients, irrespective of their age. Despite immunotherapy, no patients relapsed with HSVE. Early diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune encephalitis after HSVE may be associated with a better outcome so that high clinical awareness and routine testing for anti-NMDAR-antibodies after HSVE seems advisable. If autoimmune encephalitis is suspected, antibody testing should also be performed on CSF if negative in serum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annegret Quade
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neuropediatrics and Social Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Kevin Rostasy
- Department of Paediatric Neurology, Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany
| | - Ronny Wickström
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Division of Neuropediatrics, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | - Ömer Faruk Aydin
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Medical Faculty, Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey
| | - Stefano Sartori
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy and Neuroimmunology Group, Paediatric Research Institute "Città della Speranza," Padova, Italy
| | - Margherita Nosadini
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy and Neuroimmunology Group, Paediatric Research Institute "Città della Speranza," Padova, Italy
| | - Ellen Knierim
- Department of Neuropediatrics, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerhard Kluger
- Clinic for Neuropediatrics and Neurorehabilitation, Epilepsy Center for Children and Adolescents, Schön Klinik, Vogtareuth, Germany.,Research Institute "Rehabilitation-Transition-Palliation," PMU Salzburg, Austria
| | - Rudolf Korinthenberg
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscular Disorders, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Burkhard Stüve
- Department of Neuropediatrics, Children's Hospital Siegen, Germany
| | - Stephan Waltz
- Neuropediatric Department, Children's Hospital Cologne, Germany
| | - Steffen Leiz
- Department of Pediatrics, Neuropediatrics, Klinikum Dritter Orden München - Nymphenburg, Germany
| | - Martin Häusler
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neuropediatrics and Social Pediatrics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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12
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Abstract
After establishing latent infection, some viruses can be reactivated by the alteration of host immunological conditions. First, we reviewed viruses that can cause neuronal damage by reactivation. Then we focused on the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The reactivation leads to neuronal damages through two possible mechanisms; "reactivation of a latent herpes virus" by which viruses can cause direct virus neurotoxicity, and "post-infectious immune inflammatory response" by which a focal reactivation of HSV leads to an inflammatory reaction. The former is radiologically characterized by cortical lesions, the latter is characterized by subcortical white matter lesions. We experienced a female, who underwent the right posterior quadrantectomy and then developed recurrent herpes encephalitis caused by herpes simplex reactivation, which pathologically demonstrated inflammation in the white matter, suggesting a post-infectious immune inflammatory response. The patient was successfully treated with immunosuppressants. The reactivation of the HSV is extremely rare in Japan. Neurologists should recognize this condition because this disorder will increase as epilepsy surgery gains more popularity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyo Shimada
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine
| | - Taiji Tsunemi
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine
- Epilepsy Center, Juntendo University School of Medicine
| | - Yasushi Iimura
- Department of Neurosurgery, Juntendo University School of Medicine
- Epilepsy Center, Juntendo University School of Medicine
| | - Hidenori Sugano
- Department of Neurosurgery, Juntendo University School of Medicine
- Epilepsy Center, Juntendo University School of Medicine
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13
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Mens H, Fjordside L, Gynthersen RMM, Ørbæk MT, Andersen ÅB, Andreasson U, Blennow K, Sellebjerg F, Zetterberg H, Lebech AM. Neurofilament Light in Cerebrospinal Fluid is Associated With Disease Staging in European Lyme Neuroborreliosis. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2022; 14:11795735221098126. [PMID: 35832609 PMCID: PMC9272052 DOI: 10.1177/11795735221098126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Drivers of differences in disease presentation and symptom duration in Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) are currently unknown. Objectives We hypothesized that neurofilament light (NfL) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) would predict disease location and sequelae in a historic LNB cohort. Design Using a cross-sectional design and archived CSF samples from 185 patients diagnosed with LNB, we evaluated the content of NfL in the total cohort and in a subgroup of 84 patients with available clinical and paraclinical information. Methods Individuals were categorized according to disease location: a. Central nervous system (CNS) with stroke (N=3), b. CNS without stroke (N=11), c. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) with cranial nerve palsy (CNP) (N=40) d. PNS without CNP (N=30). Patients with hospital follow-up more than 6 months after completed antibiotic therapy were categorized as having LNB associated sequelae (N=15). Results At diagnosis concentration of NfL exceeded the upper reference level in 60% (105/185), especially among individuals above 30 years. Age-adjusted NfL was not found to be associated with symptom duration. Age-adjusted NfL was significantly higher among individuals with CNS involvement. Category a. (stroke) had significantly higher NfL concentrations in CSF compared to all other categories, category b. (CNS involvement without stroke) had significantly higher values compared to the categories of PNS involvement. We found no significant difference between the categories with PNS involvement (with or without CNP). Significantly higher NfL was found among patients with follow-up in hospital setting. Conclusion Comparison of NfL concentrations between the 4 groups of LNB disease manifestations based on clinical information revealed a hierarchy of neuron damage according to disease location and suggested evolving mechanisms with accelerated injury especially when disease is complicated by stroke. Higher values of NfL among patients with need of follow-up in hospital setting suggest NfL could be useful to identify rehabilitative needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene Mens
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lasse Fjordside
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rosa M M Gynthersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mathilde T Ørbæk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Åse Bengaard Andersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ulf Andreasson
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy, The University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy, The University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Finn Sellebjerg
- Danish Multiple Sclerosis Center, Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy, The University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden.,Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden.,Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong Central College, Hong Kong, China.,Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Anne-Mette Lebech
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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14
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Liao H, Zhang Y, Yue W. Case Report: A Case Report of Neurosyphilis Mimicking Limbic Encephalitis. Front Neurol 2022; 13:862175. [PMID: 35645969 PMCID: PMC9133385 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.862175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurosyphilis (NS) is an infection of the central nervous system caused by Treponema pallidum. It mimics various neurological and psychiatric diseases. In recent years, there have been several NS cases that manifest as limbic encephalitis (LE). Therefore, the diagnosis of neurosyphilis in the early stages is difficult. Here, we present a case of an NS patient who presented with LE manifestation. The 62-year-old woman presented with acute clinical manifestations of gibberish speech, poor memory, and seizures. Brain MRI showed abnormal signals on the right medial temporal lobe. In addition, the patient had a positive serum leucine-rich glioma inactivated 1 (LGI1) antibody with a titer of 1:16. Therefore, an initial diagnosis of anti-LGI1 encephalitis was made. However, further tests carried out showed positive rapid plasma reagin (RPR), and treponema pallidum particle agglutination (TPPA) tests both in the serum and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Therefore, uncertainty arose as to whether the patient had both anti-LGI1 encephalitis and NS or whether the LGI1 antibody and LE manifestations were due to the NS. The patient was initiated on the recommended dose of penicillin G sodium. Following treatment, the patient reported a significant improvement in clinical symptoms, normal signals in the right temporal lobe, and a negative serum LGI1 antibody. These findings suggested that NS induced the LE manifestations and the production of the LGI1 antibody. This case demonstrates that testing syphilis in patients with LE is important and positive autoimmune encephalitis (AE) antibodies in NS patients need to be viewed and interpreted with greater caution.
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15
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Jiang Y, Yao Z, Jiang L, Tan C. Virus reactivation after immunotherapy of anti-NMDAR encephalitis secondary to herpes simplex encephalitis: A case report. Brain Dev 2021; 43:1057-1060. [PMID: 34243963 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2021.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis is the most common cause of sporadic fatal encephalitis. More than half of patients with herpes simplex encephalitis will die and the vast majority of survivors have severe neurologic sequelae without effective antiviral therapy. Some people experience relapses such as secondary anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis despite appropriate antiviral treatment. It is rare that virus reactivation after immunotherapy of anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis. In the present study, we retrospectively review one patient who showed this rare situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Child Development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengxiong Yao
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengbing Tan
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Child Development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Chongqing 400014, People's Republic of China.
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16
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Whitfield T, Fernandez C, Davies K, Defres S, Griffiths M, Hooper C, Tangney R, Burnside G, Rosala-Hallas A, Moore P, Das K, Zuckerman M, Parkes L, Keller S, Roberts N, Easton A, Touati S, Kneen R, Stahl JP, Solomon T. Protocol for DexEnceph: a randomised controlled trial of dexamethasone therapy in adults with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. BMJ Open 2021; 11:e041808. [PMID: 34301646 PMCID: PMC8728349 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-041808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis is a rare severe form of brain inflammation that commonly leaves survivors and their families with devastating long-term consequences. The virus particularly targets the temporal lobe of the brain causing debilitating problems in memory, especially verbal memory. It is postulated that immunomodulation with the corticosteroid, dexamethasone, could improve outcomes by reducing brain swelling. However, there are concerns (so far not observed) that such immunosuppression might facilitate increased viral replication with resultant worsening of disease. A previous trail closed early because of slow recruitment. METHOD DexEnceph is a pragmatic multicentre, randomised, controlled, open-label, observer-blind trial to determine whether adults with HSV encephalitis who receive dexamethasone alongside standard antiviral treatment with aciclovir for have improved clinical outcomes compared with those who receive standard treatment alone. Overall, 90 patients with HSV encephalitis are being recruited from a target of 45 recruiting sites; patients are randomised 1:1 to the dexamethasone or control arms of the study. The primary outcome measured is verbal memory as assessed by the Weschler Memory Scale fourth edition Auditory Memory Index at 26 weeks after randomisation. Secondary outcomes are measured up to 72 weeks include additional neuropsychological, clinical and functional outcomes as well as comparison of neuroimaging findings. Patient safety monitoring occurs throughout and includes the detection of HSV DNA in cerebrospinal fluid 2 weeks after randomisation, which is indicative of ongoing viral replication. Innovative methods are being used to ensure recrutiment targets are met for this rare disease. DISCUSSION DexEnceph aims to be the first completed randomised controlled trial of corticosteroid therapy in HSV encephalitis. The results will provide evidence for future practice in managing adults with the condition and has the potential to improve outcomes . ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION The trial has ethical approval from the UK National Research Ethics Committee (Liverpool Central, REF: 15/NW/0545, 10 August 2015). Protocol V.2.1, July 2019. The results will be published and presented as soon as possible on completion. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS ISRCTN11774734, EUDRACT 2015-001609-16.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Whitfield
- Department of Clinical Infection, Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Cristina Fernandez
- Department of Clinical Infection, Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kelly Davies
- Clinical Trials Research Centre, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sylviane Defres
- Department of Clinical Infection, Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- PLEASE REMOVE THIS ADDRESS ENTRY, X, X, X
- Tropical and Infectious Diseases Unit, Liverpool University Hospitals Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael Griffiths
- Department of Clinical Infection, Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- Neurology Department, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Merseyside, UK
| | - Cory Hooper
- Department of Clinical Infection, Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Rebecca Tangney
- Pharmacy Department, Liverpool University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Girvan Burnside
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Anna Rosala-Hallas
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Perry Moore
- Deptment of Clinical Neuropsychology, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kumar Das
- Neuroradiology Department, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK
| | - Mark Zuckerman
- South London Specialist Virology Centre, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, London, UK
| | - Laura Parkes
- Division of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Simon Keller
- Pharmacy Department, Liverpool University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Neil Roberts
- The Queen's Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ava Easton
- The Encephalitis Society, Malton, North Yorkshire, UK
| | - Saber Touati
- Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, CHU Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, Rhône-Alpes, France
| | - Rachel Kneen
- Department of Neurology, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK
- REMOVE THI ADDRESS, XXXXX, XXX, XXX
| | - J P Stahl
- Infectious Diseases Department, University of Grenoble, Grenoble, UK
| | - Tom Solomon
- Department of Neurology, Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Institute of Infection Ecology and Veterinary Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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17
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Catroux M, Garcia M, Lévêque N, Page P, Moal GL, Boutolleau D, Roblot F, Burrel S. Post-herpetic encephalitis cerebral abscess: Viral reactivation or latency site within central nervous system? Curr Res Transl Med 2021; 69:103297. [PMID: 34139602 DOI: 10.1016/j.retram.2021.103297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Herpetic encephalitis results from central nervous system invasion by herpes simplex virus. We report the case of a man who developed a cerebral abscess fifteen months after initial Herpetic encephalitis. Retrospectively, antiviral should not have been associated with antibiotics during abscess episode, as transcriptomic analysis reported no viral reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Catroux
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Department, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France.
| | - Magali Garcia
- Virology and Mycobacteriology Department, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France; EA 4331, LITEC, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France.
| | - Nicolas Lévêque
- Virology and Mycobacteriology Department, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France; EA 4331, LITEC, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France.
| | - Philippe Page
- Department of Neurosurgery, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France.
| | - Gwenael Le Moal
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Department, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France.
| | - David Boutolleau
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique (iPLESP), and AP-HP, University Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière - Charles-Foix, National Reference Center for Herpesviruses, Virology Department, Paris, France.
| | - France Roblot
- Tropical Infectious Diseases Department, Poitiers University Hospital, Poitiers, France.
| | - Sonia Burrel
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique (iPLESP), and AP-HP, University Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière - Charles-Foix, National Reference Center for Herpesviruses, Virology Department, Paris, France.
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18
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Blackburn KM, Wang C. Post-infectious neurological disorders. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2020; 13:1756286420952901. [PMID: 32944082 PMCID: PMC7466892 DOI: 10.1177/1756286420952901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A multitude of environmental factors can result in breakdown of immune tolerance in susceptible hosts. Infectious pathogens are among the most important environmental triggers in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity. Certain autoimmune disorders have a strong association with specific infections. Several neurological autoimmune disorders are thought to occur through post-infectious mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the proposed mechanisms underlying pathogen-induced autoimmunity, and highlight the clinical presentation and treatment of several post-infectious autoimmune neurological disorders. We also highlight post-infectious neurological disorders in the setting of recent outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle M. Blackburn
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Cynthia Wang
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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19
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Kogawa S, Oi J, Hashi M. [A case of herpes simplex virus encephalitis recurring after a seven-year interval]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2020; 60:461-465. [PMID: 32536661 DOI: 10.5692/clinicalneurol.60.cn-001407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In January 2008, a 59-year-old man with a history of diabetes mellitus was admitted to our hospital with herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis of his right temporal lobe, which was diagnosed by PCR testing of his cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). He was treated with intravenous acyclovir for three weeks and made a full recovery. On discharge, his CSF was negative for HSV on PCR testing. Seven years later, in March 2015, the man was readmitted to our hospital with fever, disorientation, and nominal dysphasia. Diffusion-weighted MRI of his head revealed a high-intensity area in his left temporal lobe. Testing of his CSF revealed a moderately increased monocyte count and HSV on PCR testing, so he was diagnosed with recurrent HSV encephalitis. He was treated with intravenous acyclovir for three weeks. On discharge, his CSF was negative for HSV on PCR testing, but he had mild residual amnesia. There have been few reports of HSV encephalitis with viral reactivation recurring after a long remission period in adults. This case illustrates the need for prolonged follow up of individuals with HSV encephalitis in order to detect recurrences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuro Kogawa
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kohka Public Hospital
| | - Jiro Oi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kohka Public Hospital
| | - Makiko Hashi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kohka Public Hospital
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20
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Autoimmune encephalitis is increasingly recognized and must be distinguished from infectious forms of encephalitis. Moreover, physicians should be aware of infectious triggers of autoimmune encephalitis and of infectious complications associated with treatment. RECENT FINDINGS Recent epidemiological studies suggest that the incidence of autoimmune encephalitis may rival that of infectious encephalitis. Although distinguishing autoimmune from infectious forms of encephalitis on clinical grounds can be challenging, recently proposed diagnostic criteria can provide some assistance. There has been an explosion in our knowledge of autoimmune encephalitis associated with antibodies to neuronal cell surface antigens, and two of the most common forms, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and anti-LGI1 encephalitis, are typically associated with distinctive clinical features. Although tumors have long been known to trigger autoimmune encephalitis, it has been recently recognized that herpes simplex encephalitis may trigger the generation of antineuronal autoantibodies resulting in an autoimmune neurologic relapse. Both first and second-line therapies for autoimmune encephalitis are associated with infectious complications, whereas emerging treatments, including anakinra and tocilizumab, may also result in increased susceptibility to certain infections. SUMMARY The diagnosis and management of autoimmune encephalitis is complex, and awareness of diagnostic criteria and modalities, typical clinical syndromes, infectious triggers of disease, and infectious complications of therapies is critical in optimizing care for affected patients.
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21
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Brás A, André A, Sá L, Carvalho J, Matos A, Gens H, Nzwalo H. Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis Following Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis: 2 Cases From Portugal. Neurohospitalist 2020; 10:133-138. [PMID: 32373278 DOI: 10.1177/1941874419870987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE) usually presents as a monophasic disease. Symptomatic HSVE relapsing with seizures, encephalopathy, or involuntary movements associated with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis have been recently reported. We report 2 cases of adult post-HSVE anti-NMDAR encephalitis from Portugal. Two female patients aged 50 years and 30 years were diagnosed with herpes simplex virus type 2 and type 1 encephalitis, respectively. After the initial improvement with specific treatment and despite virologic negativization, both patients suffered clinical, electroencephalographic, and imaging deterioration. The autoimmune encephalitis hypothesis was confirmed with the demonstration of anti-NMDAR antibodies in both cerebrospinal fluid and serum. Both responded to human immunoglobulin and methylprednisolone, with progressive gain of autonomy along the follow-up period. Thymectomy for thymic hyperplasia diagnosed during follow-up was performed in 1 patient. Although being rare, post-HSVE anti-NMDAR encephalitis should be considered in all cases of symptomatic recrudescence after HSVE, since adequate immune-modulating treatment improves the outcome. The role of thyme hyperplasia in autoimmune encephalitis pathogenesis needs better understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Brás
- Neurology Department, University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana André
- Neurology Department, Algarve Hospital University Center, Faro, Portugal
| | - Laura Sá
- Infectious Disease Department, Algarve Hospital University Center, Faro, Portugal
| | - João Carvalho
- Neurology Department, University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Anabela Matos
- Neurology Department, University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Helena Gens
- Neurology Department, University and Hospital Center of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Hipólito Nzwalo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
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22
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Figlerowicz M, Mazur-Melewska K, Kemnitz P, Mania A. Pediatric postviral autoimmune disorders of the CNS. Future Virol 2020. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2019-0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Infections caused by various viruses, mainly belonging to the Herpesviridae family, can trigger the autoimmune process in the CNS in children. This can break brain immune tolerance and induce many molecular and cellular pathways of the immune response. This can lead to the appearance of neuronal auto-antibodies to intracellular, cell-surface or extracellular synaptic antigens. Children may also display a wide spectrum of neurological problems from encephalitis to obsessive–compulsive or tic disorders. In these cases, patients rarely respond to traditional treatment, based on antiviral or/and symptomatic drugs, but early immunotherapy is very effective. The implementation of routine immune tests in all children with acute neurological disorders should be recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Figlerowicz
- Department of Infectious Diseases & Child Neurology, Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences, Szpitalna Street 27/33, 60-572 Poznań, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Mazur-Melewska
- Department of Infectious Diseases & Child Neurology, Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences, Szpitalna Street 27/33, 60-572 Poznań, Poland
| | - Paweł Kemnitz
- Department of Infectious Diseases & Child Neurology, Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences, Szpitalna Street 27/33, 60-572 Poznań, Poland
| | - Anna Mania
- Department of Infectious Diseases & Child Neurology, Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences, Szpitalna Street 27/33, 60-572 Poznań, Poland
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23
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Chen Y, Chen D, Zhou X, Zhang H, Liao S, Xu Z, Xu P. Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome associated with herpes simplex virus infection: a case report. Int J Neurosci 2020; 131:307-311. [PMID: 32116082 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2020.1737531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome (OMS) is a rare neurological disease that can be associated with autoimmunity, paraneoplastic tumour, infection or unknown aetiology.Methods: We describe a 54-year-old woman who developed severe OMS, with the clinical onset occurring 2 months and 15 days after she experienced dizziness, vomiting and fever related to a herpes simplex virus infection. The patient was treated with hormones and clonazepam, and the symptoms of myoclonus and ataxia disappeared.Results: The patient was followed up for 1 year with no recurrence of symptoms.Conclusions: The case suggests that herpes simplex virus infection is a possible cause of OMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Chen
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Doujia Chen
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Xuejiao Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Haiqing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Shusheng Liao
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Zucai Xu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Ping Xu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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24
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Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) can be responsible for life-threatening HSV encephalitis (HSE). The mortality rate of patients with HSE who do not receive antiviral treatment is 70%, with most survivors suffering from permanent neurological sequelae. The use of intravenous acyclovir together with improved diagnostic technologies such as PCR and magnetic resonance imaging has resulted in a reduction in the mortality rate to close to 20%. However, 70% of surviving patients still do not recover complete neurological functions. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop more effective treatments for a better clinical outcome. It is well recognized that cerebral damage resulting from HSE is caused by viral replication together with an overzealous inflammatory response. Both of these processes constitute potential targets for the development of innovative therapies against HSE. In this review, we discuss recent progress in therapy that may be used to ameliorate the outcome of patients with HSE, with a particular emphasis on immunomodulatory agents. Ideally, the administration of adjunctive immunomodulatory drugs should be initiated during the rise of the inflammatory response, and its duration should be limited in time to reduce undesired effects. This critical time frame should be optimized by the identification of reliable biomarkers of inflammation.
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25
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The role of infections in autoimmune encephalitides. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2019; 175:420-426. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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26
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HSV-1 encephalitis relapse after epilepsy surgery: a case report and review of the literature. J Neurovirol 2019; 26:138-141. [PMID: 31468470 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-019-00796-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis relapses have been rarely reported, with only few cases occurring after neurosurgical interventions. A young man presented a late herpes simplex encephalitis relapse after left antero-mesial temporal resection for his refractory temporal lobe epilepsy. Eight days after surgery, he developed fever and aphasia. CSF PCR revealed more than 12,000 copies/ml of HSV-1 DNA. Intravenous acyclovir was immediately started with a complete recovery. Postoperative herpes simplex encephalitis can occur as primary infection or as relapse of previous infection. Surgical manipulation of brain parenchyma in the site of a previous infection can act as a trigger for viral reactivation. Early onset of antiviral therapy is fundamental and it is a strong predictor of clinical outcome. Despite no studies on prophylactic treatment with acyclovir in patients with previous herpes simplex encephalitis candidate to neurosurgery are available, we suggest that prophylactic treatment should be recommended.
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27
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Properties the IFN-α Synthesis of Products in Patients with Herpes Virus Infection 1 and 2 type. Fam Med 2019. [DOI: 10.30841/2307-5112.3.2019.178582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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28
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Leng X, Yuan F, Zhao J, Song C, Zhao Z, Zhang Y, Gao Q, Yang F, Jiang W. Long-term seizure outcome in patients with status epilepticus due to acute encephalitis. Seizure 2019; 69:70-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2019.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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29
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Weinstein GM, Small JE. Herpes Simplex Encephalitis. Neuroradiology 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-44549-8.00007-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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30
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Quist-Paulsen E, Aukrust P, Kran AMB, Dunlop O, Ormaasen V, Stiksrud B, Midttun Ø, Ueland T, Ueland PM, Mollnes TE, Dyrhol-Riise AM. High neopterin and IP-10 levels in cerebrospinal fluid are associated with neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites in acute central nervous system infections. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:327. [PMID: 30470234 PMCID: PMC6260858 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1366-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The host response to intruders in the central nervous system (CNS) may be beneficial but could also be harmful and responsible for neurologic symptoms and sequelae in CNS infections. This immune response induces the activation of the kynurenine pathway (KP) with the production of neuroactive metabolites. Herein, we explored cytokine and KP responses in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum in patients with encephalitis, aseptic, and bacterial meningitis. Methods Cytokines were measured in CSF and serum by multiplex assay in adult patients with encephalitis of infectious, autoimmune or unknown etiology (n = 10), aseptic meningitis (ASM, n = 25), acute bacterial meningitis (ABM, n = 6), and disease control patients with similar symptoms but without pleocytosis in CSF (n = 42). Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/ MS) was used to measure KP metabolites in CSF and serum. Results A characteristic pattern of increasing cytokine levels and KP metabolites was found in CSF from encephalitis to ASM, with the highest levels in ABM. In ASM and ABM, most inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), showed markedly elevated levels in CSF compared with serum, indicating production within the CNS. In contrast to most mediators, the highest level of IP-10 was found in the ASM group, suggesting a potential role for IP-10 in aseptic/viral meningitis. Neopterin and IP-10 were associated with marked changes in KP metabolites in CSF with increasing kynurenine/tryptophan ratio reflecting indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity. Neopterin, a marker of IFN-γ activity, was associated with an unfavorable balance between neuroprotective and neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites. Conclusion We show that parenchymal and meningeal inflammations in CNS share a characteristic cytokine profile with a general immune response in the CSF with limited influence from the systemic circulation. IFN-γ activity, assessed by neopterin and IP-10 levels, may play a role in the activation of the KP pathway in these patients, potentially mediating neurotoxic effects. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1366-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Else Quist-Paulsen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal Hospital, P. O. Box 4956 Nydalen, N-0450, Oslo, Norway. .,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Pål Aukrust
- Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.,Section of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Inflammatory Research Center, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Thrombosis Research and Expertise Center, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Anne-Marte Bakken Kran
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Microbiology, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal, Oslo, Norway
| | - Oona Dunlop
- Department of Acute Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vidar Ormaasen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal Hospital, P. O. Box 4956 Nydalen, N-0450, Oslo, Norway
| | - Birgitte Stiksrud
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal Hospital, P. O. Box 4956 Nydalen, N-0450, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Thor Ueland
- Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Inflammatory Research Center, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Thrombosis Research and Expertise Center, Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Tom Eirik Mollnes
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Inflammatory Research Center, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Thrombosis Research and Expertise Center, Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Immunology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Research Laboratory, Nordland Hospital, Bodø, Norway.,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway.,Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Anne Ma Dyrhol-Riise
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevaal Hospital, P. O. Box 4956 Nydalen, N-0450, Oslo, Norway.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,K.G. Jebsen Inflammatory Research Center, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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31
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Johansson E, Lange S, Bergström T, Oshalim M, Lönnroth I, Studahl M. Increased level of compleasomes in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with herpes simplex encephalitis. J Neurovirol 2018; 24:702-711. [PMID: 30094629 PMCID: PMC6280959 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-018-0665-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a common cause of viral encephalitis (HSV-1) characterised by pronounced inflammation and elevated intracranial pressure. We have shown in a rat model that HSV-1 infection causes an interaction between complement factors and proteasomes, leading to formation of proteasome/complement complexes (compleasomes). Exposure of the proteasome regulatory subunit antisecretory factor 1 (AF1) leads to a decrease in intracranial pressure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute and prolonged formation of compleasomes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with HSE. Cerebrospinal fluid samples (n = 55) from 24 HSE patients were analysed for compleasome complexes. Samples from healthy controls (n = 23) and patient controls (n = 27) served as baseline information. Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for proteasomes and their complex formation with complement factor 3 or 4, and Western blot for C3 activation were performed on CSF samples. Increased compleasome formation, both presenting as an initial formation and showing exposure of subunit AF1 in the compleasomes, was found in CSF samples drawn from patients with HSE compared with samples from the control groups (p < 0.0005). The total protein CSF concentration was equal in all groups. The levels were higher in the acute phase compared with late in the disease course (p < 0.0005). Complement 3 breakdown product iC3b was detected in CSF samples of the HSE patients. The early increased formation of compleasomes in CSF suggests that this complex may be involved in host defence against HSE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Johansson
- Clinical Microbiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, PO Box 7193, S-402 34, Gothenburg, Sweden. .,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Stefan Lange
- Clinical Microbiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, PO Box 7193, S-402 34, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Clinical Microbiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, PO Box 7193, S-402 34, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Merna Oshalim
- Clinical Microbiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, PO Box 7193, S-402 34, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ivar Lönnroth
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marie Studahl
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO Box 420, S-405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Diagnosvägen 21, S-416 85, Gothenburg, Sweden
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32
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Autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis: insights into pathogenesis. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17:733-735. [PMID: 30049613 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(18)30279-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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33
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Armangue T, Spatola M, Vlagea A, Mattozzi S, Cárceles-Cordon M, Martinez-Heras E, Llufriu S, Muchart J, Erro ME, Abraira L, Moris G, Monros-Giménez L, Corral-Corral Í, Montejo C, Toledo M, Bataller L, Secondi G, Ariño H, Martínez-Hernández E, Juan M, Marcos MA, Alsina L, Saiz A, Rosenfeld MR, Graus F, Dalmau J. Frequency, symptoms, risk factors, and outcomes of autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis: a prospective observational study and retrospective analysis. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17:760-772. [PMID: 30049614 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(18)30244-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 365] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex encephalitis can trigger autoimmune encephalitis that leads to neurological worsening. We aimed to assess the frequency, symptoms, risk factors, and outcomes of this complication. METHODS We did a prospective observational study and retrospective analysis. In the prospective observational part of this study, we included patients with herpes simplex encephalitis diagnosed by neurologists, paediatricians, or infectious disease specialists in 19 secondary and tertiary Spanish centres (Cohort A). Outpatient follow-up was at 2, 6, and 12 months from onset of herpes simplex encephalitis. We studied another group of patients retrospectively, when they developed autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis (Cohort B). We compared demographics and clinical features of patients who developed autoimmune encephalitis with those who did not, and in patients who developed autoimmune encephalitis we compared these features by age group (patients ≤4 years compared with patients >4 years). We also used multivariable binary logistic regression models to assess risk factors for autoimmune encephalitis after herpes simplex encephalitis. FINDINGS Between Jan 1, 2014, and Oct 31, 2017, 54 patients with herpes simplex encephalitis were recruited to Cohort A, and 51 were included in the analysis (median age 50 years [IQR 5-68]). At onset of herpes simplex encephalitis, none of the 51 patients had antibodies to neuronal antigens; during follow-up, 14 (27%) patients developed autoimmune encephalitis and all 14 (100%) had neuronal antibodies (nine [64%] had NMDA receptor [NMDAR] antibodies and five [36%] had other antibodies) at or before onset of symptoms. The other 37 patients did not develop autoimmune encephalitis, although 11 (30%) developed antibodies (n=3 to NMDAR, n=8 to unknown antigens; p<0·001). Antibody detection within 3 weeks of herpes simplex encephalitis was a risk factor for autoimmune encephalitis (odds ratio [OR] 11·5, 95% CI 2·7-48·8; p<0·001). Between Oct 7, 2011, and Oct 31, 2017, there were 48 patients in Cohort B with new-onset or worsening neurological symptoms not caused by herpes simplex virus reactivation (median age 8·8 years [IQR 1·1-44·2]; n=27 male); 44 (92%) patients had antibody-confirmed autoimmune encephalitis (34 had NMDAR antibodies and ten had other antibodies). In both cohorts (n=58 patients with antibody-confirmed autoimmune encephalitis), patients older than 4 years frequently presented with psychosis (18 [58%] of 31; younger children not assessable). Compared with patients older than 4 years, patients aged 4 years or younger (n=27) were more likely to have shorter intervals between onset of herpes simplex encephalitis and onset of autoimmune encephalitis (median 26 days [IQR 24-32] vs 43 days [25-54]; p=0·0073), choreoathetosis (27 [100%] of 27 vs 0 of 31; p<0·001), decreased level of consciousness (26 [96%] of 27 vs seven [23%] of 31; p<0·001), NMDAR antibodies (24 [89%] of 27 vs 19 [61%] of 31; p=0·033), and worse outcome at 1 year (median modified Rankin Scale 4 [IQR 4-4] vs 2 [2-3]; p<0·0010; seizures 12 [63%] of 19 vs three [13%] of 23; p=0·001). INTERPRETATION The results of our prospective study show that autoimmune encephalitis occurred in 27% of patients with herpes simplex encephalitis. It was associated with development of neuronal antibodies and usually presented within 2 months after treatment of herpes simplex encephalitis; the symptoms were age-dependent, and the neurological outcome was worse in young children. Prompt diagnosis is important because patients, primarily those older than 4 years, can respond to immunotherapy. FUNDING Mutua Madrileña Foundation, Fondation de l'Université de Lausanne et Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Instituto Carlos III, CIBERER, National Institutes of Health, Generalitat de Catalunya, Fundació CELLEX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaís Armangue
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Pediatric Neuroimmunology Unit, Neurology Department, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marianna Spatola
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alexandru Vlagea
- Immunology Department, Centre of Biomedical Diagnosis, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Functional Unit of Clinical Immunology, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Simone Mattozzi
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Section of Child Neuropsychiatry, Department of Medical Surgical and Experimental Medicine, University of Sassari (Sassari), Italy
| | - Marc Cárceles-Cordon
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eloy Martinez-Heras
- Laboratory of Advanced Imaging in Neuroimmunological Diseases (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Llufriu
- Laboratory of Advanced Imaging in Neuroimmunological Diseases (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Service of Neurology, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Muchart
- Department of Radiology, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Elena Erro
- Department of Neurology, Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Laura Abraira
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - German Moris
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Luis Monros-Giménez
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitari i Politècnic La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Carmen Montejo
- Service of Neurology, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Toledo
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Luis Bataller
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitari i Politècnic La Fe, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gabriela Secondi
- Pediatric Neuroimmunology Unit, Neurology Department, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Helena Ariño
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eugenia Martínez-Hernández
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manel Juan
- Immunology Department, Centre of Biomedical Diagnosis, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Functional Unit of Clinical Immunology, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Angeles Marcos
- Microbiology Department, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laia Alsina
- Functional Unit of Clinical Immunology, Research Institute of Sant Joan de Déu Children's Hospital, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Saiz
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Service of Neurology, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Myrna R Rosenfeld
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA
| | - Francesc Graus
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Service of Neurology, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Dalmau
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Service of Neurology, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, PA, USA; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.
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Johnson TP, Nath A. Neurological syndromes driven by postinfectious processes or unrecognized persistent infections. Curr Opin Neurol 2018; 31:318-324. [PMID: 29547402 PMCID: PMC11391419 DOI: 10.1097/wco.0000000000000553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The immune system serves a critical role in protecting the host against various pathogens. However, under circumstances, once triggered by the infectious process, it may be detrimental to the host. This may be as a result of nonspecific immune activation or due to a targeted immune response to a specific host antigen. In this opinion piece, we discuss the underlying mechanisms that lead to such an inflammatory or autoimmune syndrome affecting the nervous system. We examine these hypotheses in the context of recent emerging infections to provide mechanistic insight into the clinical manifestations and rationale for immunomodulatory therapy. RECENT FINDINGS Some pathogens endure longer than previously thought. Persistent infections may continue to drive immune responses resulting in chronic inflammation or development of autoimmune processes, resulting in damage to the nervous system. Patients with genetic susceptibilities in immune regulation may be particularly vulnerable to pathogen driven autoimmune responses. SUMMARY The presence of prolonged pathogens may result in chronic immune stimulations that drives immune-mediated neurologic complications. Understanding the burden and mechanisms of these processes is challenging but important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tory P Johnson
- Richard T Johnson Division of Neuroimmunology and Neurological Infections, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
| | - Avindra Nath
- Section of Infections of the Nervous System, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Blackman G, Moran N, Silber E, Symeon C, Brunnhuber F, Mazumder A, Jaffer F, Pollak T. Letter to the Editor: NMDA receptor autoimmunity in mania following HSV encephalitis. Psychol Med 2018; 48:1221-1223. [PMID: 29439749 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291718000053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Graham Blackman
- Department of Psychosis Studies,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London,London,UK
| | - Nicholas Moran
- Department of Neurology,King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust,London,UK
| | - Eli Silber
- Department of Neurology,King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust,London,UK
| | - Christopher Symeon
- Department of Psychosis Studies,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London,London,UK
| | - Franz Brunnhuber
- Department of Neurophysiology,King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust,London,UK
| | - Asif Mazumder
- Department of Neuroradiology,King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust,London,UK
| | - Fatima Jaffer
- Department of Neurology,King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust,London,UK
| | - Thomas Pollak
- Department of Psychosis Studies,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London,London,UK
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Westman G, Sohrabian A, Aurelius E, Ahlm C, Schliamser S, Sund F, Studahl M, Rönnelid J. Clinical significance of IgM and IgA class anti-NMDAR antibodies in herpes simplex encephalitis. J Clin Virol 2018; 103:75-80. [PMID: 29698873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a devastating disease, often leaving patients with severe disabilities. It has been shown that IgG anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibodies appear in approximately 25% of HSE patients and could be associated with impaired recovery of cognitive performance. OBJECTIVES To characterize the prevalence of IgM and IgA anti-NMDAR antibodies in HSE patients, in relation to subsequent development of IgG anti-NMDAR and correlation to cognitive performance. STUDY DESIGN A total of 48 subjects were included from a previously described cohort of patients with HSE verified by HSV-1 PCR. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum samples drawn close to onset of disease, after 14-21 days of iv aciclovir treatment and after 90 days of follow-up, were analyzed for the presence of IgM and IgA anti-NMDAR, and related to IgG anti-NMDAR. Antibody levels were correlated to the recovery of cognitive performance, as estimated by the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (MDRS), for a total of 24 months. RESULTS In total, 27 of 48 (56%) study subjects were anti-NMDAR positive, defined as the presence of IgG (12/48, 25%), IgM (14/48, 29%) or IgA (13/48, 27%) antibodies in CSF and/or serum. IgM or IgA anti-NMDAR did not predict subsequent IgG autoimmunization and did not correlate to cognitive outcome. IgG anti-NMDAR serostatus, but not antibody titers, correlated to impaired recovery of cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS A majority of HSE patients develop IgG, IgM or IgA anti-NMDAR antibodies. However, the predictive value and clinical relevance of non-IgG isotypes remains to be shown in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Westman
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Azita Sohrabian
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elisabeth Aurelius
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden; Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
| | - Clas Ahlm
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Silvia Schliamser
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Sund
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marie Studahl
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Johan Rönnelid
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Li Y, Li H, Wen B, Zhang J, Li S, Xie Y, Lv X, Qu X, Huang R, Liu W. Cytokine expression profile in hospitalized children with herpes simplex virus-1 infection. Future Virol 2017. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2017-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aim: We aim to demonstrate the cytokine expression profile of children with herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection. Methods: One hundred eighty three children with acute encephalitis were enrolled in this study. Out of those with HSV-1, multiple cytokines were measured. Results: Cytokine analysis of 13 HSV-1-infected patients revealed that IL-8 and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor accumulated at significantly higher levels than macrophage inflammatory protein-1β in the cerebrospinal fluid. Additionally, IFN-γ in serum and cerebrospinal fluid was positively correlated with course of illness, while IL-10 in cerebrospinal fluid was negatively correlated with course of illness. Conclusion: Granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor, IL-8, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β, IFN-γ and IL-10 are involved in the HSV-1 immune response and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Li
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Haipeng Li
- Department of Neurology, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Chenzhou, Hunan 423000, China
| | - Bo Wen
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Shuochi Li
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Yuee Xie
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Xinjun Lv
- National Institute of Viral Disease Control & Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaowang Qu
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
| | - Renbin Huang
- Department of Neurology, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, Chenzhou, Hunan 423000, China
| | - Wenpei Liu
- Translational Medicine Institute, The First People's Hospital of Chenzhou, University of South China, Chenzhou, Hunan, China
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Kothur K, Gill D, Wong M, Mohammad SS, Bandodkar S, Arbunckle S, Wienholt L, Dale RC. Cerebrospinal fluid cyto-/chemokine profile during acute herpes simplex virus induced anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis and in chronic neurological sequelae. Dev Med Child Neurol 2017; 59:806-814. [PMID: 28439892 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
AIM To examine the cytokine/chemokine profile of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during acute herpes simplex virus-induced N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) autoimmunity and in chronic/relapsing post-herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) neurological syndromes. METHOD We measured longitudinal serial CSF cyto-/chemokines (n=34) and a glial marker (calcium-binding astroglial protein, S100B) in one patient during acute HSE and subsequent anti-NMDAR encephalitis, and compared the results with those from two patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis without preceding HSE. We also compared cyto-/chemokines in cross-sectional CSF samples from three children with previous HSE who had ongoing chronic or relapsing neurological symptoms (2yr 9 mo-16y after HSE) with those in a group of children having non-inflammatory neurological conditions (n=20). RESULTS Acute HSE showed elevation of a broad range of all T-helper-subset-related cyto-/chemokines and S100B whereas the post-HSE anti-NMDAR encephalitis phase showed persistent elevation of two of five T-helper-1 (chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 9 [CXCL9], CXCL10), three of five predominantly B-cell (CXCL13, CCL19, a proliferation-inducing ligand [APRIL])-mediated cyto-/chemokines, and interferon-α. The post-HSE anti-NMDAR encephalitis inflammatory response was more pronounced than anti-NMDAR encephalitis. All three chronic post-HSE cases showed persistent elevation of CXCL9, CXCL10, and interferon-α, and there was histopathological evidence of chronic lymphocytic inflammation in one biopsied case 7 years after HSE. Two of three chronic cases showed a modest response to immune therapy. INTERPRETATION HSE-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis is a complex and pronounced inflammatory syndrome. There is persistent CSF upregulation of cyto-/chemokines in chronic or relapsing post-HSE neurological symptoms, which may be modifiable with immune therapy. The elevated cyto-/chemokines may be targets of monoclonal therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Kothur
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Deepak Gill
- The T.Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Melanie Wong
- Department of Clinical Immunology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Shekeeb S Mohammad
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sushil Bandodkar
- Department of Biochemistry, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Susan Arbunckle
- Department of Pathology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Louise Wienholt
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Russell C Dale
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Nosadini M, Mohammad SS, Corazza F, Ruga EM, Kothur K, Perilongo G, Frigo AC, Toldo I, Dale RC, Sartori S. Herpes simplex virus-induced anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a systematic literature review with analysis of 43 cases. Dev Med Child Neurol 2017; 59:796-805. [PMID: 28439890 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
AIM To conduct a systematic literature review on patients with biphasic disease with herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis followed by anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis. METHOD We conducted a case report and systematic literature review (up to 10 December 2016), focused on differences between herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) and anti-NMDAR encephalitis phases, age-related characteristics of HSV-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis, and therapy. For statistical analyses, McNemar's test, Fisher's test, and Wilcoxon rank sum test were used (two-tailed significance level set at 5%). RESULTS Forty-three patients with biphasic disease were identified (31 children). Latency between HSE and anti-NMDAR encephalitis was significantly shorter in children than adults (median 24 vs 40.5d; p=0.006). Compared with HSE, anti-NMDAR encephalitis was characterized by significantly higher frequency of movement disorder (2.5% vs 75% respectively; p<0.001), and significantly lower rate of seizures (70% vs 30% respectively; p=0.001). Compared with adults, during anti-NMDAR encephalitis children had significantly more movement disorders (86.7% children vs 40% adults; p=0.006), fewer psychiatric symptoms (41.9% children vs 90.0% adults; p=0.025), and a slightly higher median modified Rankin Scale score (5 in children vs 4 in adults; p=0.015). During anti-NMDAR encephalitis, 84.6 per cent of patients received aciclovir (for ≤7d in 22.7%; long-term antivirals in 18.0% only), and 92.7 per cent immune therapy, but none had recurrence of HSE clinically or using cerebrospinal fluid HSV polymerase chain reaction (median follow-up 7mo). INTERPRETATION Our review suggests that movement disorder may help differentiate clinically an episode of HSV-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis from HSE relapse. Compared with adults, children have shorter latency between HSE and anti-NMDAR encephalitis and, during anti-NMDAR encephalitis, more movement disorder, fewer psychiatric symptoms, and slightly more severe disease. According to our results, immune therapy given for HSV-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis does not predispose patients to HSE recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Nosadini
- Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Shekeeb S Mohammad
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Francesco Corazza
- Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Ezia Maria Ruga
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Kavitha Kothur
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Anna Chiara Frigo
- Department of Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Sciences, Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Public Health Unit, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Irene Toldo
- Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Russell C Dale
- Neuroimmunology Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Stefano Sartori
- Paediatric Neurology and Neurophysiology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University Hospital of Padua, Padua, Italy
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Anti-N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor Encephalitis: A Severe, Potentially Reversible Autoimmune Encephalitis. Mediators Inflamm 2017; 2017:6361479. [PMID: 28698711 PMCID: PMC5494059 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6361479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is potentially lethal, but it is also a treatable autoimmune disorder characterized by prominent psychiatric and neurologic symptoms. It is often accompanied with teratoma or other neoplasm, especially in female patients. Anti-NMDAR antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum are characteristic features of the disease, thereby suggesting a pathogenic role in the disease. Here, we summarize recent studies that have clearly documented that both clinical manifestations and the antibodies may contribute to early diagnosis and multidisciplinary care. The clinical course of the disorder is reversible and the relapse could occur in some patients. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis coexisting with demyelinating disorders makes the diagnosis more complex; thus, clinicians should be aware of the overlapping diseases.
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Sili U, Tavsanli ME, Tufan A. Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis in Geriatric Patients. CURRENT GERIATRICS REPORTS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13670-017-0198-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The goal of this review is to provide an update on current thinking regarding herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE), emphasizing new information about pathogenesis, diagnosis, and immune responses. Specific questions to be addressed are the following: (1) Is there a genetic predisposition to HSE? (2) What clinical approaches have the greatest impact on improving the long-term outcomes in patients with HSE? And (3) are there immune-mediated mechanisms that may account for relapsing HSE? RECENT FINDINGS Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR 3) plays an important role in innate immune responses, including generation of interferons. Multiple single-gene errors in TLR 3 interferon pathways have recently been described in children that result in increased susceptibility to HSE. Conversely, studies in both animal models and humans indicate that both cytolytic viral replication and immune-mediated responses (including cytotoxic T lymphocytes and immune mechanisms mediated by TLR 2) contribute to the pathology of HSV, suggesting possible new therapeutic approaches. In terms of treatment, data clearly indicate that a longer duration between onset of symptoms and initiation of effective antiviral therapy correlates directly with less favorable clinical outcome. Recurrent or relapsing HSE may occasionally occur, but recent observations indicate that many instances of "relapsing HSE", especially in children, are more often anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis triggered by the antecedent HSV infection. Innate immune responses are critical for defense against HSV; genetic defects in this system may predispose patients to HSE. During acute HSE, exuberant immune responses may contribute to the CNS pathology, suggesting that selective immunosuppressive therapy, coupled with potent antiviral drugs, may eventually play a role in the therapeutic management of HSV. While overall clinical outcomes of HSE remain suboptimal, the initiation of high-dose acyclovir therapy as early as possible in the course of the illness provides the best chance for a patient to survive with minimal neurologic damage. Distinguishing relapsing HSE from autoimmune anti-NMDAR antibody encephalitis is critically important because therapeutic approaches will be very different.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Gnann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Medical University of South Carolina, 135 Rutledge Avenue, MSC 752, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
| | - Richard J Whitley
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, 303 CHB, 1600 7th Ave. S, Birmingham, AL, 35233-1711, USA
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Defres S, Keller SS, Das K, Vidyasagar R, Parkes LM, Burnside G, Griffiths M, Kopelman M, Roberts N, Solomon T. A Feasibility Study of Quantifying Longitudinal Brain Changes in Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Encephalitis Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Stereology. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170215. [PMID: 28125598 PMCID: PMC5268482 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess whether it is feasible to quantify acute change in temporal lobe volume and total oedema volumes in herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis as a preliminary to a trial of corticosteroid therapy. METHODS The study analysed serially acquired magnetic resonance images (MRI), of patients with acute HSV encephalitis who had neuroimaging repeated within four weeks of the first scan. We performed volumetric measurements of the left and right temporal lobes and of cerebral oedema visible on T2 weighted Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR) images using stereology in conjunction with point counting. RESULTS Temporal lobe volumes increased on average by 1.6% (standard deviation (SD 11%) in five patients who had not received corticosteroid therapy and decreased in two patients who had received corticosteroids by 8.5%. FLAIR hyperintensity volumes increased by 9% in patients not receiving treatment with corticosteroids and decreased by 29% in the two patients that had received corticosteroids. CONCLUSIONS This study has shown it is feasible to quantify acute change in temporal lobe and total oedema volumes in HSV encephalitis and suggests a potential resolution of swelling in response to corticosteroid therapy. These techniques could be used as part of a randomized control trial to investigate the efficacy of corticosteroids for treating HSV encephalitis in conjunction with assessing clinical outcomes and could be of potential value in helping to predict the clinical outcomes of patients with HSV encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylviane Defres
- Clinical Infection, microbiology and immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Tropical and Infectious diseases Unit, Liverpool and Broadgreen University Hospital Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- NIHR HPRU in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool, Institute of infection and Global Health, Waterhouse Building, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Simon S. Keller
- The Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- The Department of Neuroradiology, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Kumar Das
- The Department of Neuroradiology, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Rishma Vidyasagar
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and mental health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura M. Parkes
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Girvan Burnside
- The department of Biostatistics, Institute of translational medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Griffiths
- Clinical Infection, microbiology and immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Kopelman
- Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Roberts
- Medical Physics and Imaging Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Solomon
- Clinical Infection, microbiology and immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- NIHR HPRU in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool, Institute of infection and Global Health, Waterhouse Building, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- The Department of Neuroradiology, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Galli J, Clardy SL, Piquet AL. NMDAR Encephalitis Following Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2017; 19:1. [DOI: 10.1007/s11908-017-0556-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Westman G, Studahl M, Ahlm C, Eriksson BM, Persson B, Rönnelid J, Schliamser S, Aurelius E. N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor autoimmunity affects cognitive performance in herpes simplex encephalitis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22:934-940. [PMID: 27497810 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the prevalence and temporal development of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) autoantibodies in relation to neurocognitive performance in patients with herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE). METHODS This prospective observational study enrolled a total of 49 HSE patients within a randomized controlled trial of valacyclovir. Cerebrospinal fluid and serum samples were drawn in the initial stage of disease, after 2 to 3 weeks and after 3 months. Anti-NMDAR IgG was detected with HEK293 cells transfected with plasmids encoding the NMDA NR1 type glutamate receptor. A batch of neurocognitive tests, including the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (MDRS), Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), Reaction Level Scale (RLS85), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and National Institutes of Health (NIH) stroke scale, was performed during 24 months' follow-up. RESULTS Anti-NMDAR IgG was detected in 12 of 49 participants. None were antibody positive in the initial stage of disease. In ten of 12 positive cases, specific antibodies were detectable only after 3 months. Notably, the development of NMDAR autoantibodies was associated with significantly impaired recovery of neurocognitive performance. After 24 months' follow-up, the median increase in MDRS total score was 1.5 vs. 10 points in antibody-positive and -negative participants (p=0.018). CONCLUSIONS Anti-NMDAR autoimmunity is a common complication to HSE that develops within 3 months after onset of disease. The association to impaired neurocognitive recovery could have therapeutical implications, as central nervous system autoimmunity is potentially responsive to immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Westman
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - M Studahl
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - C Ahlm
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - B M Eriksson
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - B Persson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Rönnelid
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - S Schliamser
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - E Aurelius
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden
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Geoghegan S, Walsh A, King MD, Lynch B, Webb D, Twomey E, Ronan Leahy T, Butler K, Gavin P. Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antibody Mediated Neurologic Relapse Post Herpes Simplex Encephalitis: A Case Series. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2016; 35:e258-61. [PMID: 27171680 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000001205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Despite the advent of antiviral therapy, herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) remains a devastating condition with significant morbidity and mortality. Neurologic relapse after initial improvement is generally attributed to herpes simplex virus reactivation. In 2013, inflammation caused by anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies was reported in association with cases of neurologic relapse after herpes simplex encephalitis. We present 3 such cases and discuss diagnostic and management dilemmas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Geoghegan
- From the *Departments of Paediatric Infectious Disease and Immunology, †Paediatric Neurology and ‡Paediatric Radiology, Children's University Hospital Temple Street, Dublin, Ireland; §Departments of Paediatric Infectious Disease and Immunology and ¶Paediatric Neurology, Our Lady's Children's Hospital Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland; and ‖Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Medical Sciences University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Bradshaw MJ, Venkatesan A. Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Encephalitis in Adults: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:493-508. [PMID: 27106239 PMCID: PMC4965403 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-016-0433-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpetic infections have plagued humanity for thousands of years, but only recently have advances in antiviral medications and supportive treatments equipped physicians to combat the most severe manifestations of disease. Prompt recognition and treatment can be life-saving in the care of patients with herpes simplex-1 virus encephalitis, the most commonly identified cause of sporadic encephalitis worldwide. Clinicians should be able to recognize the clinical signs and symptoms of the infection and familiarize themselves with a rational diagnostic approach and therapeutic modalities, as early recognition and treatment are key to improving outcomes. Clinicians should also be vigilant for the development of acute complications, including cerebral edema and status epilepticus, as well as chronic complications, including the development of autoimmune encephalitis associated with antibodies to the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor and other neuronal cell surface and synaptic epitopes. Herein, we review the pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, and clinical and radiological features of herpes simplex virus-1 encephalitis in adults, including a discussion of the most common complications and their treatment. While great progress has been made in the treatment of this life-threatening infection, a majority of patients will not return to their previous neurologic baseline, indicating the need for further research efforts aimed at improving the long-term sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Bradshaw
- Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Arun Venkatesan
- Division of Neuroimmunology & Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Menendez CM, Jinkins JK, Carr DJJ. Resident T Cells Are Unable To Control Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Activity in the Brain Ependymal Region during Latency. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:1262-75. [PMID: 27357149 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
HSV type 1 (HSV-1) is one of the leading etiologies of sporadic viral encephalitis. Early antiviral intervention is crucial to the survival of herpes simplex encephalitis patients; however, many survivors suffer from long-term neurologic deficits. It is currently understood that HSV-1 establishes a latent infection within sensory peripheral neurons throughout the life of the host. However, the tissue residence of latent virus, other than in sensory neurons, and the potential pathogenic consequences of latency remain enigmatic. In the current study, we characterized the lytic and latent infection of HSV-1 in the CNS in comparison with the peripheral nervous system following ocular infection in mice. We used RT-PCR to detect latency-associated transcripts and HSV-1 lytic cycle genes within the brain stem, the ependyma (EP), containing the limbic and cortical areas, which also harbor neural progenitor cells, in comparison with the trigeminal ganglia. Unexpectedly, HSV-1 lytic genes, usually identified during acute infection, are uniquely expressed in the EP 60 d postinfection when animals are no longer suffering from encephalitis. An inflammatory response was also mounted in the EP by the maintenance of resident memory T cells. However, EP T cells were incapable of controlling HSV-1 infection ex vivo and secreted less IFN-γ, which correlated with expression of a variety of exhaustion-related inhibitory markers. Collectively, our data suggest that the persistent viral lytic gene expression during latency is the cause of the chronic inflammatory response leading to the exhaustion of the resident T cells in the EP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandra M Menendez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104; and
| | - Jeremy K Jinkins
- Department of Ophthalmology, Dean A. McGee Eye Institute, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
| | - Daniel J J Carr
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104; and Department of Ophthalmology, Dean A. McGee Eye Institute, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104
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Von Willebrand Factor Gene Variants Associate with Herpes simplex Encephalitis. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155832. [PMID: 27224245 PMCID: PMC4880288 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a rare complication of Herpes simplex virus type-1 infection. It results in severe parenchymal damage in the brain. Although viral latency in neurons is very common in the population, it remains unclear why certain individuals develop HSE. Here we explore potential host genetic variants predisposing to HSE. In order to investigate this we used a rat HSE model comparing the HSE susceptible SHR (Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats) with the asymptomatic infection of BN (Brown Norway). Notably, both strains have HSV-1 spread to the CNS at four days after infection. A genome wide linkage analysis of 29 infected HXB/BXH RILs (recombinant inbred lines-generated from the prior two strains), displayed variable susceptibility to HSE enabling the definition of a significant QTL (quantitative trait locus) named Hse6 towards the end of chromosome 4 (160.89-174Mb) containing the Vwf (von Willebrand factor) gene. This was the only gene in the QTL with both cis-regulation in the brain and included several non-synonymous SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism). Intriguingly, in human chromosome 12 several SNPs within the intronic region between exon 43 and 44 of the VWF gene were associated with human HSE pathogenesis. In particular, rs917859 is nominally associated with an odds ratio of 1.5 (95% CI 1.11-2.02; p-value = 0.008) after genotyping in 115 HSE cases and 428 controls. Although there are possibly several genetic and environmental factors involved in development of HSE, our study identifies variants of the VWF gene as candidates for susceptibility in experimental and human HSE.
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