Cassia alata L: potential role as anthelmintic agent against Hymenolepis diminuta

In vitro and in silico studies of antibacterial activities of secofriedelane derivatives from Senna alata (L) Roxb

In this study, six compounds were obtained from a methanolic extract of air-dried leaves of Senna alata and one of them, a triterpenoid (secofriedelane) named as 7-(2-carboxyethyl)-3, 4b, 6a, 8, 10a, 12a-hexamethyl-8-vinyloctadecahydrochrysene-3-carboxylic acid (5) was isolated for the first time from this plant. Then, its chemical structure was detailed and characterised by FT-IR, 1H and 13C- NMR and ESI-MS. Besides, two chemical-modified derivatives of secofriedelane (5a, 5b) were synthesised by methylation and allylation reactions, respectively, and their in vitro antibacterial activities were also evaluated. The results revealed that all the triterpenes showed, against gram-positive and -negative bacterial strains, good and moderate antibacterial activities with bactericidal effects that were enhanced by the methyl groups and altered with the allyl ones. Moreover, the molecular docking results of 5, 5a and 5b in the DNA gyrase (2XCT) active site showed that triterpene 5 has a good score very close to reference (ciprofloxacin).

In vitro anthelmintic efficacy of Ferulic and Sinapic acid against zoonotic cestode Hymenolepis diminuta (Rudolphi, 1819)

The present study is aimed to investigate potential in vitro anthelmintic efficacy of two phenolic compounds Ferulic acid and Sinapic acid against the parasite H. diminuta. Adult parasites collected from infected rat's intestine (maintained in our laboratory) were treated with 1, 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mg/mL concentrations of both the compounds in RPMI-1640 media containing 1% Tween 20. Further, one group was treated in Praziquantel as a reference drug and another group of parasites were kept as control. The efficacy was evaluated on the basis of motility and mortality of the parasites. The paralyzed worms were further processed for the morphological and ultrastructural studies and observed through light and scanning electron microscopy. A significant dose-dependent efficacy was found in all treatment and decrease in relative movability value was also recorded in all the concentrations of two compounds treated parasites. The time taken for paralysis in 5 mg/mL of Ferulic acid and 10 mg/mL of Sinapic acid were 1.47 ± 0.04 h and 0.88 ± 0.03 h respectively which is accorded with the standard concentration of Praziquantel. Morphological micrographs revealed pronounced distortion and altered topography of scolex and tegument while histological study showed loss of uniform tegumental integrity with folds and cracks in the treated parasites. Further, extensive alteration in the scolex and irrevocable disruption all over the body surface with loss of trapezoid shape, shrinkage of tegument and sloughing off microtriches were observed in electron microscopic study. The study indicated that both the compounds possess strong activity against H. diminuta and further studies are required to understand their detailed mode of action to exploit them as potential alternative candidates for curing helminthiases.

Efficacy of Lactobacillus taiwanensis S29 and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum S27 against tapeworm infection in Swiss Albino rats

Hymenolepis diminuta a zoonotic tapeworm infection in human remains an important cestode model for anthelmintic study as it display common clinical symptoms like other adult human tapeworms during heavy infestation. The use of Lactobacillus as a probiotic is an alternative to drugs which have increased in research and usage considerably during the last decade. The present study aims to determine the anthelmintic efficacy of two probiotics, L. taiwanensis strain S29 and L. plantarum strain S27 against H. diminuta in infected rat. Four groups of animals, each with six numbers were randomly chosen as the negative control (Group I), positive control (infected) (Group II) and the infected treated with two probiotics Group III and Group IV respectively. Another four groups (Group V-VIII) were selected and further subdivided into four sub-groups to investigate the development of larvae to adult during probiotics treatment. Worm burden, egg per gram were determined after treatment with these two probiotics. Furthermore, hematological assays and levels of biochemical markers were estimated, tissue damage was assayed through histological study and intestinal mitochondria detection was done. Worm sustainability reduced about 70-90% and EPG count decreased by 81-94% in probiotics treated groups. A significant level of unsuccessful establishment of larvae was observed in the developmental phase. Improvement in hematological parameter along with some biochemical parameters in the host were significantly observed after treatment with probiotics. The architecture damaged caused in the intestine and mitochondria density due to parasite infection improved significantly as that of control after probiotics treatment.

Anthelmintic evaluation of three ayurvedic formulations: a transmission electron microscopy study in Raillietina sp. (Cestoda)

Ayurveda is one of the ancient traditional medicine systems in India. However, several Ayurvedic medicines lack scientific evidence about their efficacy. This study reports the in vitro anthelmintic effects of three common Ayurvedic formulations, Krimimudgar Ras, Kriminol, and Birangasav on a poultry cestode Raillietina sp., using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Adult cestodes were exposed to different concentrations of Ayurvedic formulations and the paralyzed parasites from the highest concentration (50 mg/mL) of Ayurvedic formulations, the reference anthelmintic praziquantel (PZQ) together with control were picked up and processed for TEM. The TEM studies of control cestode parasites revealed a normal arrangement of microthrix layer, basal lamina, longitudinal muscle layer, and a normal nucleus and mitochondria. Importantly, the cestodes that were exposed to 50 mg/mL concentration of Krimimudgar Ras revealed the most prominent ultrastructural alterations in the body of parasites in the form of a disrupted microthrix layer, basal lamina, muscle layer and mitochondria. The nucleus also appeared dense and irregular in shape with scattered chromatin and disrupted nuclear membrane. Kriminol-treated worms revealed considerably less damage, whereas Birangasav-treated worms revealed destructive effects in microthrix layer, nucleus and mitochondria. Through the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that of the three common Ayurvedic formulations studied, Krimimudgar Ras causes maximum degree of internal alterations in cestode parasites and thus may be considered as a good anthelmintic agent.

Gallic acid and Catechin induce morphological alterations on the zoonotic parasite Hymenolepis diminuta

Tapeworm infections cause insidious and irreversible effects in the infected individuals and some of them have already shown resistance to available drugs. A search for alternative treatment is urgently required. Phenolic compounds are amongst the most researched natural substances for their medicinal use. The present study aims to determine anthelmintic efficacy of two polyphenols Gallic acid and Catechin against the zoonotic rat tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta. Both compounds are potent anti-oxidants and play major roles in combating pathogens, while their anthelmintic property according to our knowledge is yet to be explored. The parasite model H. diminuta was procured from intestine of infected rats raised in our laboratory. Two sets of parasites were treated in vitro with 5, 10, 20 and 40 mg/ml concentrations of each Gallic Acid and Catechin separately, another set of parasites were treated with standard dose of Praziquantel in RPMI 1640, while still another set of worms were kept in RPMI 1640 at 37 ± 10C with 1% Dimethyl sulfoxide as control. Motility and structural alterations were the parameters assessed for anthelmintic efficacy of the compounds. After paralysis the worms were processed for morphological, histological, and ultrastructural study and observed under light and electron microscope. Dose-dependent efficacy was observed in both compounds. Shrinkage of suckers, deformed proglottids and architectural alteration of the tegument were observed throughout the body of treated parasites compared to control. Although in terms of time taken for paralysis and mortality Gallic acid was more effective than Catechin, the degree of morphological aberrations caused were almost similar, except histological alteration was more in Catechin treated worms than in Gallic acid. Nevertheless, both Gallic acid and Catechin are suggested to possess anthelmintic efficacy besides other health benefits but extended studies are required to compare their efficacy.

The complete chloroplast genome of Senna alata (L.) Roxb., an important medicinal plant from the Philippines

Senna alata, a flowering shrub, is widely cultivated in the Philippines for its anti-fungal properties. Despite this, its chloroplast genome is not yet established. We assembled and annotated the complete chloroplast genome of accession from the germplasm collection of the Institute of Crop Science, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, using Illumina sequencing data. The complete cp genome was 159,176-bp long characterized by a large single copy of 88,769 bp, short single-copy of 18,301 bp and a pair of inverted repeat regions of 26,053 bp each. The overall GC content of the chloroplast genome was 36.4%. The plastome comprised 37 tRNA genes, 8 rRNA genes and 78 mRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that S. alata is closely related to S. siamea.

The Tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta as an Important Model Organism in the Experimental Parasitology of the 21st Century

The tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta is a common parasite of the small intestine in rodents but it can also infect humans. Due to its characteristics and ease of maintenance in the laboratory, H. diminuta is also an important model species in studies of cestodiasis, including the search for new drugs, treatments, diagnostics and biochemical processes, as well as its host-parasite interrelationships. A great deal of attention has been devoted to the immune response caused by H. diminuta in the host, and several studies indicate that infection with H. diminuta can reduce the severity of concomitant disease. Here, we present a critical review of the experimental research conducted with the use of H. diminuta as a model organism for over more than two decades (in the 21st century). The present review evaluates the tapeworm H. diminuta as a model organism for studying the molecular biology, biochemistry and immunology aspects of parasitology, as well as certain clinical applications. It also systematizes the latest research on this species. Its findings may contribute to a better understanding of the biology of tapeworms and their adaptation to parasitism, including complex correlations between H. diminuta and invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. It places particular emphasis on its value for the further development of modern experimental parasitology.

Hymenolepis diminuta Reduce Lactic Acid Bacterial Load and Induce Dysbiosis in the Early Infection of the Probiotic Colonization of Swiss Albino Rat

Tapeworm infection continues to be an important cause of morbidity worldwide. Recent metagenomics studies have established a link between gut microbiota and parasite infection. The identification of gut probiotics is of foremost importance to explore its relationship and function with the parasite in the host. In this study, the gut content of hosts infected with tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta and non-infected host gut were disected out to determine their Lactic acid bacterial (LAB) population in MRS agar and microbial community was analysed by metagenomics. The bacterial count was calculated on a bacterial counting chamber and their morphology was determined microscopically and biochemically. Further, to determine the safety profile antibiotic resistance test, antimicrobial, hemolytic activity, and adhesion capability were calculated. We found six dominant probiotic strains and a decrease in LAB load from 1.7-2.3 × 10⁷ CFU/mL in the uninfected group to a range of 8.4 × 10⁵ CFU/mL to 3.2 × 10⁵ CFU/mL in the infected groups with respect to an increase in the parasite number from 10-18. In addition, we found a depletion in the probiotic relative abundance of Lactobacillus and an enrichment in potentially pathogenic Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria, and Streptococcus. Phylogenetic analysis of the six probiotics revealed a close similarity with different strains of L. brevis, L. johnsonii, L. taiwansis, L. reuteri, L. plantarum, and L. pentosus. Thus, this study suggests that the parasite inhibits probiotic colonization in the gut during its early establishment of infection inside the host.

Effect of Senna plant on the mitochondrial activity of Hymenolepis diminuta

The peculiarity of energy metabolism in helminths is the ability to undergo transition from aerobic to anaerobic under low oxygen tension. during its adult stage. Fumarate reductase and succinate dehydrogenase of mitochondria are the two enzymes responsible during this transition and adaptation to this hypoxic environment. Earlier we had reported that three species of Senna plant, S. alata, S. alexandrina and S. occidentalis altered the morphology, ionic concentration and neurotransmission of the cestode parasite Hymenolepis diminuta. The present study aimed at exploring the mechanism of leaf extracts of the three plant species of Senna on the mitochondrial activity of the parasite that chiefly involve the NADH-fumarate reductase system which is the terminal step in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase succinate pathway. The structure of mitochondria was observed through electron microsopy and its density was detected through confocal microscopy, spectroflourimetry and spectrophotometry, while enzyme activities were assayed through native gel and spectrophotometric assays. Praziquantel was tested on the parasites as a reference drug to compare its effects with that of the plant extracts. The mitochondria architecture was altered, and enzymes activity decraeased by 60% in all three plant species of Senna treated parasites which suggested that these three Senna species posses potent chemotherapeutic properties.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12639-021-01415-9.

Hydroethanolic Extracts of Senna alata Leaves Possess Antimalarial Effects and Reverses Haematological and Biochemical Pertubation in Plasmodium berghei-infected Mice

The current work investigated the chemical profile, antimalarial potential and capacity of hydroethanolic Senna alata extract (SAE) to reverse hematological and biochemical pertubation in Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Results of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids and cardiac glycosides. Total phenolic and flavonoid content was estimated to be 45.29 ± 2.34 mg GAE/g and 25.22 ± 2.26 mg QE/g respectively. In vitro analysis of the extract also confirmed its antioxidant property. Results of the test for prophylaxis of P. berghei indicated that SAE suppressed parasitemia significantly in treated groups in a dose dependent manner when compared with negative control group. Similarly, SAE improved the mean survival time (MST) and packed cell volume (PCV) of infected mice. The test for curative effect showed that SAE significantly suppressed parasitemia to 4.50 ± 1.05% compared to untreated group 29.83 ± 3.49%. Results of liver and kidney functions indices of treated animals indicated that whereas infection with P. berghei caused increase in the levels of AST, ALT, ALP, urea and creatinine, treatment with SAE significantly reversed the perturbation. Similarly, infected mice were dyslipidemic with concomitant increased activity of HMG CoA reductase and decreased activity of antioxidant enzymes with increase in lipid peroxides levels. However, these alterations were significantly reversed by administration of SAE. Results of this study shows that Senna alata possess antimalarial activity and therefore justify the traditional use of plant for the treatment of malaria.

A Brief Overview of Potential Treatments for Viral Diseases Using Natural Plant Compounds: The Case of SARS-Cov

The COVID-19 pandemic, as well as the more general global increase in viral diseases, has led researchers to look to the plant kingdom as a potential source for antiviral compounds. Since ancient times, herbal medicines have been extensively applied in the treatment and prevention of various infectious diseases in different traditional systems. The purpose of this review is to highlight the potential antiviral activity of plant compounds as effective and reliable agents against viral infections, especially by viruses from the coronavirus group. Various antiviral mechanisms shown by crude plant extracts and plant-derived bioactive compounds are discussed. The understanding of the action mechanisms of complex plant extract and isolated plant-derived compounds will help pave the way towards the combat of this life-threatening disease. Further, molecular docking studies, in silico analyses of extracted compounds, and future prospects are included. The in vitro production of antiviral chemical compounds from plants using molecular pharming is also considered. Notably, hairy root cultures represent a promising and sustainable way to obtain a range of biologically active compounds that may be applied in the development of novel antiviral agents.

Production stages, microbiological risk and benefits on health of herbal teas

Plants have been used to prepare herbal infusions for centuries. Production of herbal tea consists of several steps, beginning with harvesting, cleaning form residues, drying, storage of herb in a suitable material, grinding, and blending. Te plants grow in different regions and climatic conditions, varying by their physical properties. They are consumed for different purposes and due to their chemical constituents. Many of them have therapeutic effects. Besides their various benefits and even antimicrobial effects, they also carry some microorganisms. Thus, the botanical characteristics and effects on the health of frequently consumed herbal teas and recommendations on their consumption with considered microbial risks are reviewed in this article.

Alatains A and B, unique hetero-dimeric polyphenols from Cassia alata and their anti-tobacco mosaic virus activity

Two structurally unique polyphenols, alatains A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the bark of Cassia alata. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. Compounds 1 and 2 represent a new type of hetero-dimeric polyphenols with a C-14-C-5' linkage, biogenetically formed by an unusual intermolecular oxidative phenol-coupling reaction between a chromone unit and an isocoumarin moiety. Moreover, compounds 1 and 2 showed significant anti-tobacco mosaic virus (anti-TMV) inhibition IC50 values of 18.8 and 11.4 μM, respectively. Alatains A and B also exhibited promising protective effects on TMV infection of the host plants (Nicotiana tabacum) with the inhibition rates of 54.6% and 69.7% at the concentration of 20 μM, respectively. The results provided a new structural template for potential anti-TMV agent discovery.

Chemical constituents, usage and pharmacological activity of Cassia alata

Cassia alata or locally known as Ketepeng Cina (Indonesia) and Gelenggang (Malaysia) has been used as a traditional medicine to treat various diseases, especially skin diseases. In addition, C. alata has been reported to have potential anti allergic, anti inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antifungal. Metabolite compounds that have been isolated from C. alata include flavones, flavonols, flavonoids glycosides, alatinon, alanonal and β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside. The compounds have been isolated mainly from the leaves. Further identification is needed to discover the secondary metabolites from other parts of the plant such as seed, flower and bark which are reported to have potent antibacterial and antifungal activity. Therefore, this article highlights the secondary metabolites and biological activity of this plant which has been shown to have pharmacological properties against selected diseases.

Ethnobotanical Description and Biological Activities of Senna alata

Senna alata is a medicinal herb of Leguminosae family. It is distributed in the tropical and humid regions. The plant is traditionally used in the treatment of typhoid, diabetes, malaria, asthma, ringworms, tinea infections, scabies, blotch, herpes, and eczema. The review is aimed at unveiling the ethnobotanical description and pharmacological activities of S. alata. Different parts of the plant are reported in folk medicine as therapeutic substances for remediation of diverse diseases and infections. The extracts and isolated compounds displayed pronounced pharmacological activities. Display of antibacterial, antioxidant, antifungal, dermatophytic, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antilipogenic, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antimalarial, anthelmintic, and antiviral activities could be due to the array of secondary metabolites such as tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, anthraquinone, saponins, phenolics, cannabinoid alkaloids, 1,8-cineole, caryophyllene, limonene, α-selinene, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, cinnamic acid, pyrazol-5-ol, methaqualone, isoquinoline, quinones, reducing sugars, steroids, and volatile oils present in different parts of the plant. The review divulges the ethnobotanical and pharmacological activities of the plant and also justifies the ethnomedical claims. The significant medicinal value of this plant necessitates a scientific adventure into the bioactive metabolites which constitute various extracts.

Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Senna alata bark extract and its antimicrobial mechanism through enhancement of bacterial membrane degradation

Biological synthesis of nanomaterials has been increasingly gaining popularity due to its eco-friendly nature and cost-effectiveness. This study aimed to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using Senna alata bark extract as reducing and capping agents, and to evaluate their antimicrobial activities. AgNPs was characterized using UV-vis spectrophotometry, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The formation of AgNPs was monitored by recording the surface plasmon resonance peak observed at 425 nm. High-resolution TEM images elucidated the formation of spherical AgNPs with an average diameter of 10-30 nm. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) revealed the presence of silver. The functional groups of biomolecules present in the extract and their interaction with AgNPs were identified through FTIR analysis. Biosynthesized AgNPs displayed antimicrobial activity against different microorganisms, including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi, as indicated by the diameter of inhibition zones between 11.37 and 14.87 mm. Minimum inhibitory concentration of AgNPs for the tested microorganisms was in the range from 31.25 to 125 μg/mL. Potassium leakage is a primary indicator of membrane damage which is a significant mode of action of AgNPs against the tested microorganisms. The amount of potassium ions leaked from the microbial cells after 4 h contact time ranged between 0.97 and 3.05 ppm. Morphological changes were observed in all AgNPs-treated microorganisms. The green synthesized AgNPs with high antimicrobial activity has potential to be used in food packaging and biomedical research areas.

Functional Imaging of Neurotransmitters in Hymenolepis diminuta Treated with Senna Plant Through Light and Confocal Microscopy

Previous studies have shown the anthelmintic efficacy of Senna alata, Senna alexandrina and Senna occidentalis on the zoonotic parasite Hymenolepis diminuta through microscopic studies on morphological structure. The present study is based on the light and confocal microscopic studies to understand if Senna extracts affect neurotransmitter activity of the parasites. A standard concentration (40 mg/mL) of the three leaf extracts and one set of 0.005 mg/mL concentration of the reference drug praziquantel were tested against the parasites, keeping another set of parasites in phosphate buffer saline as a control. Histochemical studies were carried out using acetylthiocholine iodide as the substrate and acetylcholinesterase as the marker enzyme for studying the expression of the neurotransmitter of the parasite and the staining intensity was observed under a light microscope. Immunohistochemical studies were carried out using anti serotonin primary antibody and fluorescence tagged secondary antibody and observed using confocal microscopy. Intensity of the stain decreases in treated parasites compared with the control which implies loss of activity of the neurotransmitters. These observations indicated that Senna have a strong anthelmintic effect on the parasite model and thus pose as a potential anthelmintic therapy.

Therapeutic efficacy of Artemisia absinthium against Hymenolepis nana: in vitro and in vivo studies in comparison with the anthelmintic praziquantel

Hymenolepis nana is a common intestinal tapeworm that affects humans. Drugs are available for the treatment of this infection, including praziquantel (PZQ), nitazoxanide and niclosamide. Although the drug of choice is praziquantel, due to its high cure rates, indicators of the development of PZQ resistance by different parasites have begun to appear over recent decades. Therefore, this study was a trial to find an alternative to PZQ by assessing the activity of the crude aqueous extract of the medicinal herb Artemisia absinthium against H. nana. In vitro, the extract was used against adult worms at concentrations of 1 and 5 mg/ml, in comparison with 1 mg/ml of PZQ. The times of worm paralysis and death were determined. Ultrastructural morphological changes were studied using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). For the in vivo study, infected mice were divided into untreated, PZQ-treated and A. absinthium-treated groups (400 mg/kg and 800 mg/kg). Pre- and post-treatment egg counts per gram of faeces (EPG) were performed; then, the reduction percentages of the EPG and worm burden were calculated. The best results were obtained with praziquantel. Artemisia absinthium induced worm paralysis, death and ultrastructural alterations, such as tegumental damage, lipid accumulation, and destruction of the nephridial canal and the intrauterine eggs, in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, significant reductions in the EPG and worm burden were recorded in A. absinthium-treated mice. Although the results obtained with A. absinthium were promising and comparable to PZQ, further studies using different extracts, active ingredients and concentrations against different parasites should be conducted.

In vitro efficacy of latex and purified papain from Carica papaya against Strongyloides venezuelensis eggs and larvae

Latex from Carica papaya is rich in bioactive compounds, especially papain, which may help to control parasitic diseases. This study evaluated the efficacy of latex from C. papaya and purified papain against Strongyloides venezuelensis. The Egg Hatching Test (EHT) and the Larval Motility Test (LMT) using fresh and frozen latex (250mg/mL), lyophilized latex (34mg/mL), and purified papain (2.8 mg/mL) were performed. Albendazole (0.025 mg/mL) and ivermectin (316 ppm) were used as positive controls. EHT and LMT were carried out through the incubation of each solution with S. venezuelensis eggs or larvae (± 100 specimens), and results were analyzed after 48h (EHT) or 24, 48, and 72h (LMT). EHT showed that latex preparations at higher concentrations (1:10 to 1:100) resulted in partial or complete destruction of eggs and larvae inside the eggs. The result from the 1:1,000 dilution was similar to the positive control. LMT showed effectiveness in all the tested dilutions compared to negative controls. Purified papain showed a dose-dependent response in the EHT. Purified papain (2.8 mg/ mL) showed similar results to lyophilized latex at 1:1,000 in the EHT. Latex and purified papain from C. papaya were effective against S. venezuelensis eggs and larvae in vitro, suggesting their potential use as an alternative treatment for strongyloidiasis.

Senna leaf extracts induced Ca(+2) homeostasis in a zoonotic tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta

Context Plants and plant products have been used in traditional medicine as anthelmintic agents in human and veterinary medicine. Three species of Senna plant, S. alata (L), S. alexandrina (M) and S. occidentalis (L.) Link (Fabaceae) have been shown to have a vermicidal/vermifugal effect on a zoonotic tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta (Rudolphi) (Cyclophyllidean). Objective The present study validates the mode of action of these Senna plants on the parasite. The alcoholic leaf extract was determined to obtain information on the intracellular free calcium concentration level. Materials and methods Hymenolepis diminuta was maintained in Sprague-Dawley rat model for 2 months. Live parasites collected from infected rat intestine were exposed to 40 mg/mL concentration of each plant extracts prepared in phosphate buffer saline at 37 °C, till parasite gets paralyzed. The rate of efflux of calcium from the parasite tissue to the medium and the level of intracellular Ca(2+ )concentration were determined by an atomic absorption spectroscopy. Results This study revealed that exposure of the worms to the plant extract leads to disruption in intracellular calcium homeostasis. A significant increase (44.6% and 25%) of efflux in Ca(2+ )from the tissue to the incubated medium was observed. Senna alata showed high rate of efflux (5.32 mg/g) followed by S. alexandria and S. occidentalis (both 4.6 mg/g) compared with control (3.68 mg/g). Discussion and conclusion These results suggest that leaf extracts caused membrane permeability to Ca(2+ )after vacuolization of the tegument under stress and the extracts may contain compound that can be used as a chemotherapeutic agent.

Senna alexandrina Mill. induced ultrastructural changes on Hymenolepis diminuta

Senna alexandrina Mill. has been used for antimicrobial activity. In the present study, the crude ethanolic extract of the plant and a synthetic compound Sennoside were tested in vitro on Hymenolepis diminuta to evaluate its potential anthelmintic efficacy through ultrastructural changes. Worms were maintained between rat model and beetle and the test parasites were exposed to different concentrations of crude ethanolic leaf extracts of S. alexandrina. Praziquantel was used as a reference drug. Dose dependent efficacy was observed in terms of motility and time of mortality in all treated parasites. Ultrastructural micrography revealed irrevocable destruction all over the body tegument accompanied with sloughing of microtriches and swellings of the basal lamina. Vacuolization of the syncytium along with sparsely cytoplasmic cytons and depletion of parenchymatous layer were observed accompanied by deformities in the cell organelles. Extensive deformities in the tegument indicates that the plant extract alter membrane permeability of the parasite leading to paralysis and subsequent death. Thus, S. alexandrina can be regarded as a potential anthelmintic agent.

Anthelmintic effects of Oroxylum indicum stem bark extract on juvenile and adult stages of Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda), an in vitro and in vivo study

Worldwide, traditional usage of herbal medicines is a common practice to treat various parasitic infections. In India, bark decoction of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. (Bignoniaceae) is used as a traditional medicine to cure intestinal-helminthic infections. This study investigated the anthelmintic efficacy of methanolic bark extract of O. indicum on Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda), using both in vitro and in vivo methods. Utilizing a mini-questionnaire, first, we collected information about the pattern of anthelmintic use of this plant. Later, in vitro efficacy of extract was tested at 10, 20 and 30 mg/ml on both the artificially excysted juveniles and adult H. diminuta worms. Herein, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also utilized to determine the possible effects of extract on tegumental surfaces of juvenile and adult cestode. In vivo, extract was tested at 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg in H. diminuta albino rat model, against juvenile and adult cestode. Praziquantel (PZQ) served as reference drug in anthelmintic assays. The acute toxicity of extract was determined as per the OECD guidelines. The field questionnaire data revealed that 78 % of people in the area use O. indicum stem bark against intestinal helminths, and of these, 75 % of people also believed it highly efficacious anthelmintic remedy. In vitro testing of extract revealed significant effects on juvenile worms, and 30 mg/ml of extract caused mortality of juveniles at the initial period (0.25 ± 0.00 h). Conversely, PZQ (1 mg/ml) showed paralysis and mortality of juvenile cestodes in 0.44 ± 0.04 and 1.11 ± 0.06 h, respectively. As determined by SEM, in vitro exposure to extract showed substantial effects on both juveniles and adult worms in the form of wrinkled scolex, distorted tegument and eroded microtriches. In vivo study revealed better efficacy of extract against juveniles than adult stages of parasite. Treatment of rats with 1000 mg/kg of extract caused 79.3 % reduction in EPG counts and 70.8 % of reduction in worm counts, which compared well to PZQ efficacy. In acute toxicity study, administration of a single oral dose of 2000 mg/kg of extract to mice did not cause any signs of toxicity or mortality within 2-week observation. Hence, the LD50 of extract was estimated to be greater than 2000 mg/kg. In conclusion, the bark extract of O. indicum possesses concentration-dependent effects against the larval and adult H. diminuta worms, and thus the extract holds promise in the control of intestinal helminthiases. This also supports the common belief of people about the reputation of this plant as anthelmintic in traditional medicine. There is a need to standardize the formulations of this plant for their possible use as standardized herbal anthelmintic agents in the future.

Anthelmintic efficacy of cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid from cortex cinnamon essential oil against Dactylogyrus intermedius

Utilization of chemical pesticide to control monogenean diseases is often restricted in many countries due to the development of pesticide resistance and concerns of chemical residues and environmental contamination. Thus, the use of antiparasitic agents from plants has been explored as a possible way for controlling monogenean infections. Extracts from Cinnamomum cassia were investigated under in vivo conditions against Dactylogyrus intermedius in goldfish. The two bioactive compounds, cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid, were identified using nuclear magnetic resonance and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The 48 h median effective concentrations (EC(50)) for these compounds against D. intermedius were 0·57 and 6·32 mg L(-1), respectively. The LD(50) of cinnamaldehyde and cinnamic acid were 13·34 and 59·66 mg L(-1) to goldfish in 48 h acute toxicity tests, respectively. These data confirm that cinnamaldehyde is effective against D. intermedius, and the cinnamaldehyde exhibits potential for the development of a candidate antiparasitic agent.

α-Viniferin-Induced Structural and Functional Alterations in Raillietina echinobothrida, a Poultry Tapeworm

α-Viniferin, an active component of the plant Carex baccans L., is known for its anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. In Northeast India, different tribes traditionally consume C. baccans to control intestinal helminth infections. Therefore, the present study was carried out to assess the extent of tegumental alteration caused by α-viniferin in Raillietina echinobothrida, a widely prevalent poultry helminth in northeast India. Helminths were exposed in vitro to various doses of α-viniferin (50, 100, and 200 µM/mL of physiological buffered saline) and their motility and mortality were recorded. Stereoscan observations on the parasite exposed to the active compound showed extensive distortion and destruction of the surface fine topography of the tegument compared with controls. The compound also caused extensive damage to the tegument by disintegration of microtriches, disorganization of muscle bundles, and loss of cellular organelles combined with distortion and disruption of the plasma membrane, nuclear membrane, nucleolus, mitochondrial membrane, and cristae. Histochemical and biochemical studies carried out parasites exposed to α-viniferin revealed a decline in the activity of vital tegumental enzymes like acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, and adenosine triphosphatase. Extensive structural and functional alterations observed in the treated parasites are indicative of efficient cestocidal activity of the compound.

An ethnopharmacological survey and in vitro confirmation of the ethnopharmacological use of medicinal plants as anthelmintic remedies in the Ashanti region, in the central part of Ghana

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Infections with helminths are still a big problem in many parts of the world. The majority of the people in West Africa treat such infections with medicinal plants related to the local traditional medicine. The present study aims at identifying medicinal plants traditionally used for worm infections in the Ashanti region, Ghana. In vitro screening of selected extracts from plants on which scientific knowledge is limited was to be performed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Validated questionnaires were administered to 50 traditional healers in the Ashanti region, Ghana. Interviews and structured conversations were used to obtain relevant information. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation was performed additionally to structured cross-referencing of the data using SciFinder(®) data base. Selected plant species were used for in vitro testing on anthelmintic activity against the free-living model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

RESULTS

35 plant species were recorded for the use in humans and 6 for the use in animals. Plant material most frequently used were the seeds from Carica papaya, mentioned by nearly all healers. The plausibility of most plants used for treatment of infections with helminths was given in most cases by documentation of potential anthelmintic activity in recent scientific literature. 9 species from plants not or scarcely described in literature for this indication were investigated on in vitro activity. A hydroethanolic (1:1) extract of Combretum mucronatum was most active with a survival rate of nematodes of 89% at 0.1mg/mL and 58% at 1mg/mL respectively (levamisole 16%). Extracts of Paullinia pinnata and Phyllanthus urinaria were also assessed to exhibit a minor (85% and 89% respectively at 1mg/mL), but still significant activity.

CONCLUSION

Traditional use of anthelmintic plants from Ghana can be well rationalized by cross-referencing with published literature and phytochemical/pharmacological plausibility.The in vitro investigations of extracts from Combretum mucronatum, Paullinia pinnata and Phyllanthus urinaria exhibited significant effects against nematodes. The anthelmintic activity of these plants should be investigated in detail for pinpointing the respective lead structures responsible for the activity.

Broad spectrum anthelmintic potential of Cassia plants

OBJECTIVE

To study the in vitro anthelmintic efficacy of Cassia alata (C. alata), Cassia angustifolia (C. angustifolia) and Cassia occidentalis (C. occidentalis).

METHODS

Crude ethanol extract from leaves of the three plants were prepared in rotary evaporator and different concentrations (10, 20 and 40 mg/mL) of leaf extracts were used for treatment on different representatives of helminthes (Heterakis gallinarum, Raillietina tetragona and Catatropis sp.) from domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus). Loss of motility and death were monitored frequently.

RESULTS

C. alata showed early paralysis in all worms treated followed by C. angustifolia. C. occidentalis in combination with C. alata together caused early paralysis in all treated worms than the combination of C. alata with C. angustfolia. While Heterakis gallinarum in control survived for (81.33±2.07) h, treated worms lost their motility at (5.71±0.10) h, (6.60±0.86) h and (13.95±0.43) h with C. angustifolia, C. alata and C. occidentalis respectively at a concentration of 40 mg/mL which showed better efficacy than albendazole. Catatropis sp. survival period was (26.49±1.38) h in control, but with plant treatment, it lost its motility in just (0.57±0.08) h, (1.00±0.12) h and (1.47±0.40) h at 40 mg/mL concentration of C. alata, C. angustifolia and C. occidentalis respectively. Raillietina tetragona on the other hand became paralysed at (1.68±0.27) h, (2.95±0.29) h and (4.13±0.31) h with above concentrations treated with three plants respectively, however in control it survived up to (81.93±4.71) h.

CONCLUSIONS

This present study indicated broad spectrum vermifugal activity of all plants tested.

Anthelmintic activities of aporphine from Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. cv. Rosa-plena against Hymenolepis nana

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. cv. Rosa-plena (Nelumbonaceae), commonly known as lotus, is a perennial aquatic plant grown and consumed throughout Asia. All parts of N. nucifera have been used for various medicinal purposes in oriental medicine. From the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. cv. Rosa-plena (an aquatic plant), liriodenine (1), lysicamine (2), (−)-anonaine (3), (-)-asimilobine (4), (-)-caaverine (5), (-)-N-methylasimilobine (6), (-)-nuciferine (7), (-)-nornuciferine (8), (-)-roemerine (9), 7-hydroxydehydronuciferine (10) and cepharadione B (11) were isolated and identification and anthelmintic activities of aporphine was evaluated against Anisakis simplex and Hymenolepis nana. This study found that the above constituents killed H. nana or reduced their spontaneous movements (oscillation/peristalsis). However, the above constituents at various concentrations demonstrated no larvicidal effect or ability to halt spontaneous parasite movement for 72 h against A. simplex, respectively. In addition, according to an assay of cestocidal activity against H. nana and nematocidal activity against A. simplex, we found that the above compounds showed greater lethal efficacy on H. nana than against A. simplex. Further investigation showed that these above constituents have effects against peroxyl radicals under cestocidal effect. Together, these findings suggest that these constituents of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. cv. Rosa-plena might be used as anthelmintic agents against H. nana.

Antioxidant, anti-adipocyte differentiation, antitumor activity and anthelmintic activities against Anisakis simplex and Hymenolepis nana of yakuchinone A from Alpinia oxyphylla

Background

Alpinia oxyphylla is a common remedy in traditional Chinese medicine. Yakuchinone A is a major constituent of A. oxyphylla and exhibits anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antibacterial, and gastric protective activities.

Methods

Antioxidant and antitumor characteristics of yakuchinone A in skin cancer cells as well as novel mechanisms for the inhibition of adipocyte differentiation, cestocidal activities against Hymenolepis nana adults, and nematocidal activities against Anisakis simplex larvae are investigated.

Results

Yakuchinone A presents the ability of the removal of DPPH·and ABTS⁺ free radicals and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Yakuchinone A suppresses intracellular lipid accumulation during adipocyte differentiation in 3 T3-L1 cells and the expressions of leptin and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Yakuchinone A induces apoptosis and inhibits cell proliferation in skin cancer cells. The inhibition of cell growth by yakuchinone A is more significant for non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) cells than for melanoma (A375 and B16) and noncancerous (HaCaT and BNLCL2) cells. Treatment BCC cells with yakuchinone A shows down-regulation of Bcl-2, up-regulation of Bax, and an increase in cleavage poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). This suggests that yakuchinone A induces BCC cells apoptosis through the Bcl-2-mediated signaling pathway. The anthelmintic activities of yakuchinone A for A. simplex are better than for H. nana.

Conclusions

In this work, yakuchinone A exhibits antioxidative properties, anti-adipocyte differentiation, antitumor activity, and anthelmintic activities against A. simplex and H. nana.