In vivo anthelmintic activity of Anogeissus leiocarpus Guill & Perr (Combretaceae) against nematodes in naturally infected sheep

Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. (Combretaceae): A review of the traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of African birch

Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr. belongs to the family Combretaceae and is used both by African traditional medical practitioners and livestock rearers to treat diseases such as African trypanosomiasis, animal diarrhoea, asthma, cancer, cough, diabetes, dysentery, erectile dysfunction, fever, giardiasis, helminthiases, meningitis, menstrual disorders, monkeypox, oral infections, poliomyelitis, sickle cell anaemia, snake bites, toothache, urinary schistosomiasis, and yellow fever. Some of these activities have been associated with the presence of polyphenols in the plant which include ellagic acid derivatives, flavonoids, stilbenes, tannins, and triterpenes. Several bioactive molecules have been identified from A. leiocarpus. These include the main active constituents, ellagitannins, ellagic acid derivates, flavonoids and triterpenes. Pharmacological studies have confirmed its antibacterial, antifungal, antihyperglycemic, antihypertensive, antimalarial, antioxidative, antiparasitic, antitumour and anti-ulcer effects. The stem bark has been investigated mainly for biological activities and phytochemistry, and it is the most mentioned plant part highlighted by the traditional users in ethnomedicinal surveys. In vitro and in vivo models, which revealed a wide range of pharmacological actions against parasites causing helminthiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria and trypanosomiasis, have been used to study compounds from A. leiocarpus. Because of its uses in African traditional medicine and veterinary practices, A. leiocarpus has received considerable attention from researchers. The current review provides a comprehensive overview and critical appraisal of scientific reports on A. leiocarpus, covering its traditional uses, pharmacological activities and phytochemistry.

Fractionation Coupled to Molecular Networking: Towards Identification of Anthelmintic Molecules in Terminalia leiocarpa (DC.) Baill

Terminalia leiocarpa is a medicinal plant widely used in ethnoveterinary medicine to treat digestive parasitosis whose extracts were shown to be active against gastrointestinal nematodes of domestic ruminants. The objective of our study was to identify compounds responsible for this activity. Column fractionation was performed, and the activity of the fractions was assessed in vitro on Haemonchus contortus and Caenorhabditis elegans as well as their cytotoxicity on WI38 fibroblasts. Two fractions were the most active on both nematode models and less cytotoxic. LC-MS/MS analysis and manual dereplication coupled to molecular networking allowed identification of the main compounds: ellagic acid and derivatives, gallic acid, astragalin, rutin, quinic acid, and fructose. Other potentially identified compounds such as shikimic acid, 2,3-(S)-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-D-glucose or an isomer, quercetin-3-O-(6-O-galloyl)-β-D-galactopyranoside or an isomer, and a trihydroxylated triterpenoid bearing a sugar as rosamultin are reported in this plant for the first time. Evaluation of the anthelmintic activity of the available major compounds showed that ellagic and gallic acids were the most effective in inhibiting the viability of C. elegans. Their quantification in fractions 8 and 9 indicated the presence of about 8.6 and 7.1 µg/mg ellagic acid and about 9.6 and 2.0 µg/mg gallic acid respectively. These concentrations are not sufficient to justify the activity observed. Ellagic acid derivatives and other compounds that were found to be positively correlated with the anthelmintic activity of the fractions may have additive or synergistic effects when combined, but other unidentified compounds could also be implicated in the observed activity.

Promising effects of herbal compounds against strongyloidiasis: a systematic review

Strongyloidiasis could be a significant global health issue undervalued in several countries, which is caused by Strongyloides spp. Challenges stemming from the use of anthelmintic chemotherapy, such as the development of resistance, the progressive cost of medicines, environmental toxicity of chemicals, and residuals in beast products have increased interest in promoting alternative means of control for the use of plant-based parasite control methods. A study on herbal extracts may offer a less expensive yet equally effective alternative for the prevention and treatment of helminthic multi-resistance. We systematically searched the Web of Sciences, PubMed/MEDLINE, and Scopus databases to explore original publications related to medicinal plants and Strongyloides in English on September 29, 2021. The keywords of medicinal plant, traditional medicine, plant extract, herbal medicine, herbal extract, natural drug, Strongyloides, strongyloidiasis, Strongyloides infection, and helminth were used in our search. Researchers can make use of this review as a quick reference. In this study, we have summarized recent advancements and published investigations on herbal and naturally derived medicines in treating strongyloidiasis undertaken by several researchers worldwide. These medicinal herbs, as well as the active and significant compounds they contain, such as alkaloids, phenolic derivatives, tannins, and terpenes, have been outlined in recent articles. Various studies on herbal remedies to treat strongyloidiasis have been undertaken to date, but further research is still required on moderately effective and low harmful substances.

Anthelmintic Activity, Cytotoxicity, and Phytochemical Screening of Plants Used to Treat Digestive Parasitosis of Small Ruminants in Benin (West Africa)

Simple Summary

In the present study, we explored the anthelmintic activity, cytotoxicity, and chemical composition of the main plants used by small ruminant breeders in Benin to treat digestive parasitosis. The results obtained are relevant in the sense that they will allow a rational use of the plants studied in the control of digestive parasites but also to initiate the process of identification of new anthelmintic molecules in the context of the development of resistance against the most currently used anthelmintic molecules.

Abstract

Medicinal plants continue to be used alone or in combination with veterinary drugs to treat animal ailments, especially in developing countries where livestock farmers often lack access to modern veterinary services and drugs. In addition, digestive parasitosis remain a major constraint for small ruminant livestock. The objective of this study was to screen the anthelmintic activity of the main plants used in the treatment of the digestive parasitosis of small ruminants in Benin. A total of 40 extracts were prepared using the successive maceration of 10 plants in four solvents of increasing polarity. The phytochemical screening of the plants was performed, and the anthelmintic activity of the extracts was evaluated on L3 larvae of Haemonchus contortus. The cytotoxicity of the 40 extracts was determined on WI38 noncancerous fibroblast cells using the MTT assay, and the total phenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and condensed tannin content (CTC) were quantified in the most effective extracts using colorimetric methods. The results show that the plants contained tannins, flavonoids, and triterpenoids which may, in part, justify their anthelmintic activities. All plants gave active extracts at the highest concentration tested (1200 µg/mL). Methanol (MeOH) extracts were, in general, more effective than the hexane (HEX), dichloromethane (DCM), and aqueous (H₂O) ones in inhibiting larval migration, with the MeOH extracts of Terminalia leiocarpa, Adansonia digitata, and Momordica charantia being the most effective. Nevertheless, the MeOH extract of M. charantia was highly cytotoxic at the concentration of 100 µg/mL. The anthelmintic activity of M. charantia, Vitex doniana, and Caesalpinia bonduc was studied on H. contortus for the first time. These results provide scientific information that can be used for better valorization of the anthelmintic potential of the studied plants and to initiate the process of the identification of new anthelmintic molecules.

Plants used in Côte d'Ivoire (West Africa) against ticks: Evaluation for acaricidal activity against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is a tick that is now a real constraint to cattle breeding in many West African countries such as Côte d'Ivoire. Antitick control is difficult because of the cost, ecotoxicity and resistance. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the acaricidal activity of plants used in Côte d'Ivoire for tick infestation control in cattle. Ethanol extracts from 17 plants were tested in vitro on eggs, larvae and adults of two amitraz resistant strains of R. (B.) microplus, using respectively LTT (Larval Tarsal Test), LPT (Larval Packet Test) and AIT (Adult Immersion Test) methods, at concentrations of 5 mg/mL -1 mg/mL. Out of the 22 extracts tested, four showed acaricidal activity against eggs (4 mg/mL) and three against larvae at 5 mg/mL. These extracts inhibited fertility and resulted in adult females mortality. These results give credence to the traditional use of active plants that may be used for plant-based bioacaricide development and R. (B.) microplus control in cattle as well.

Essential oil of Mentha pulegium induces anthelmintic effects and reduces parasite-associated oxidative stress in rodent model

Following the previous findings reported by the present authors on the anthelmintic effect of hydro-ethanolic extract of Mentha pulegium, the volatile constituents of M. pulegium are now assessed in the present study by exploring its anthelmintic and its antioxidant proprieties using in vitro and in vivo assays. Egg hatch assay (EHA) and adult worm's motility assays (AWMA) were used to assess the in vitro activity against Haemonchus. contortus. The in vivo anthelmintic potential was evaluated in mice infected with Heligmosomoides polygyrus using faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and total worm count reduction (TWCR). M. pulegium EO demonstrated 100% inhibition in the EHA at 200 μg/mL (IC50 = 56.36 μg/mL). In the AWM assay, EO achieved total worms paralysis 6 h after treatment exposure. This nematicidal effect was associated to morphological damages observed in the cuticular's worm using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM). At 400 mg/kg, M. pulegium oil showed 75.66% of FECR and 80.23% of TWCR. The antioxidant potential of this plant was also monitored by several in vitro assays: total antioxidant capacity was 205.22 mg GAE/g DW, DPPH quenching effect was IC50 = 140 μg/mL, ABTS activity IC50 = 155 μg/mL and FRAP effect of 660 μg/mL. Regarding the in vivo assay, M. pulegium EO demonstrated a protective effect against oxidative stress by increasing the activity of the endogenous antioxidants (SOD, CAT and GPx) during H. polygyrus infection.

Evaluation of the in vivo anthelmintic properties of Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) as a livestock dewormer against parasitic hematophagous worm Haemonchus contortus infections in different breeds of lambs

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes remain a major constraint on livestock production throughout the world. This study assessed the in vivo efficacy of the powder of Mitragyna inermis leaves in three breeds of lambs, namely, West African dwarf lambs (WAD), West African long-legged lambs (WALL), and F1 lambs (cross of a WALL ram with a WAD ewe), artificially infected with 3000 L3s of Haemonchus contortus in a controlled experiment. Fecal sample examination, serological analysis, and necropsy were carried out to determine the egg count, worm burden, and worm fecundity reduction. A dose of 3.2 g/kg body weight (BW) M. inermis was administered per the oral route for three consecutive days and repeated 2 weeks later. Compared with the control, the powder of M. inermis leaves (> 60%) and albendazole (100%) significantly reduced (p < 0.01) fecal egg counts (FECs) in the three breeds of lambs. The posttreatment reduction in FECs fluctuated from 56.99 to 78.75% for WAD lambs, 38.39 to 66.39% for WALL lambs, and 35.55 to 63.11% for F1 lambs (WALL × WAD). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in packed cell volume values before and after infection. M. inermis reduced the egg-laying capacity of female adult worms by up to 60% and eliminated more than 80% of the adult worms of H. contortus in lambs. Furthermore, albendazole reduced the worm count and fecundity of female worms by greater amounts than M. inermis (100%). The findings of this study showed that M. inermis is a good source of bioactive compounds for drug development. According to this result, a 3.2 g/kg BW dose of the plant could be applied for the control of GI nematodes in small ruminants.

Effective eradication of pinworms (Syphacia obvelata and Aspiculuris tetraptera) with Polygonum cognatum Meissn

Polygonum cognatum Meissn. (Polygonaceae) is a wild edible plant known locally as "solucanotu, madimak" in Turkey and it has been used for various purposes, such as diuretic and antidiabetic, as well to treat oxyuris and worms internally in humans. The present study was carried out to investigate the anthelmintic activity of various extracts were obtained from the aerial parts of P. cognatum in order to justify its traditional usage in Turkish folk medicine. n-Hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts were prepared from the aerial parts of the plant, successively. The anthelmintic potentials of these extracts were evaluated on mice naturally infected with Syphacia obvelata and Aspiculuris tetraptera. Cellophane perianal tape test and fecal flotation test were used for the activity screening. The results were compared with control and reference groups. In addition to all these experiments, the total amount of phenolic compounds and tannin contents thought to be responsible for the activity were evaluated for all extracts. According to the results, it has been found that the methanolic extract reduced the number of S. obvelata (66.8%) and A. tetraptera (73.4%) eggs. Moreover, the methanolic extract include higher amount of total phenolic compound (48.75 ± 0.82 mg of GA/g of extract) and tannin (30.04 ± 0.22 mg TA/g of extract) than n-Hexane (17.21 ± 0.75 mg of GA/g of extract; 6.82 ± 0.41 mg TA/g of extract) and ethyl acetate (25.06 ± 0.94 mg of GA/g of extract; 10.29 ± 0.34 mg TA/g of extract); therefore the anthelmintic activity could be related to these constituents. The present study explored the anthelmintic potential of P. cognatum. Further studies should be conducted into the mechanism of these compounds' against helminths. This study can be an important step in the discovery of new anthelmintic agents.

Review on medicinal plants and natural compounds as anti-Onchocerca agents

Onchocerciasis is a filarial vector borne disease which affects several million people mostly in Africa. The therapeutic approach of its control was based on a succession of drugs which always showed limits. The last one: ivermectin is not the least. It was shown to be only microfilaricidal and induced resistance to the human parasite Onchocerca volvulus. The approach using medicinal plants used in traditional medicine is a possible alternative method to cure onchocerciasis. Onchocerca ochengi and Onchocerca gutturosa are the parasite models used to assess anthelmintic activity of potentially anthelmintic plants. Numerous studies assessed the in vitro and/or in vivo anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants. Online electronic databases were consulted to gather publications on in vitro and in vivo studies of anti-Onchocerca activity of plants from 1990 to 2017. Globally, 13 plant families were investigated for anti-Onchocerca activity in 13 studies. The most active species were Anacardium occidentale, Euphorbia hirta and Acacia nilotica each with an LC₅₀ value of 2.76, 6.25 and 1.2 μg/mL, respectively. Polycarpol, voacamine, voacangine, ellagic acid, gallic acid, gentisic acid, 3-O-acetyl aleuritolic acid and (-)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate were the isolated plant compounds with anti-Onchocerca activity. Most of the assessed extract/compounds showed a good safety after in vivo acute toxicity assays and/or in vitro cytotoxicity test. The exception was the ethanol extract of Trichilia emetica, which killed completely and drastically mice at a dose of 3000 mg/kg. Several plant groups of compounds were shown active against Onchocerca sp. such as tannins, alkaloids, triterpenoids and essential oils. Nevertheless, none of the active compounds was subjected to clinical trial, to assessment of its diffusibility through nodular wall or its capability to induce genetic resistance of Onchocerca sp.

Herbal Drugs from Sudan: Traditional Uses and Phytoconstituents

Sudan folklore medicine is characterized by a unique combination of Islamic, Arabic, and African cultures. In poor communities, traditional medicine has remained as the most reasonable source of treatment of several diseases and microbial infections. Although the traditional medicine is accepted in Sudan, to date there is no updated review available, which focuses on most effective and frequently used Sudanese medicinal plants. Thus, this review aims to summarize the published information on the ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants from Sudan, preparation methods, phytochemistry, and ethnopharmacology. The collected data demonstrate that Sudanese medicinal plants have been reported to possess a wide range of traditional medicinal uses including different microbial infections, gastrointestinal disorders, malaria, diabetes, rheumatic pain, respiratory system disorders, jaundice, urinary system inflammations, wounds, cancer, and different microbial infections. In most cases, the pharmacological studies were in agreement with traditional uses. Moreover, several bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, steroids, terpenes, tannins, fatty acids, and essential oils have been identified as active constituents. Although this review demonstrates the importance of ethnomedicine medicines in the treatment of several diseases in Sudan, further researches to validate the therapeutic uses and safety of these plants through phytochemical screening, different biological activity assays, and toxicological studies are still needed.

The genus Anogeissus: A review on ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Anogeissus (axlewood tree, ghatti tree, button tree and chewing stick tree) belongs to Combretaceae, includes eight species that are distributed in Asia and Africa. Plants are used as an ethnomedicine in Asia and Africa to treat various ailments like diabetes, fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, wound healing, skin diseases (eczema, psoriasis), snake and scorpion venom. Based on the traditional knowledge, different phytochemical and pharmacological activities have been at the focus of research. The aim of this review is to provide updated, comprehensive and categorized information on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacological research and toxicity of Anogeissus species in order to identify their therapeutic potential and directs future research opportunities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The relevant data was searched by using the keyword "Anogeissus" in "Scopus", "Google Scholar", "Web of Science", "PubMed", and "ScienceDirect" databases. Plant taxonomy was validated by the databases "The Plant List" and A.J. Scott, 1979.

RESULTS

This review discusses the current knowledge of the ethnobotany, phytochemistry and in vitro as well as in vivo pharmacological evaluations carried out on the extracts and isolated main active constituents of Anogeissus genus. Among eight species, most of the phytochemical and pharmacological studies were performed on four species. About 55 secondary metabolites are isolated from the genus. Stem bark, leaf, seed, fruit, root of the plants are used for the treatment of several health disorders such as diabetes, fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, wound healing, skin diseases (eczema, psoriasis), snake and scorpion venom. Gum ghatti obtained from Anogeissus latifolia is used after delivery as tonic and in spermatorrhoea. Many phytochemical investigations on this genus confirmed that it is rich in phenolic compounds. Modern pharmacology research has confirmed that the crude extracts or the isolated active compounds of the genus Anogeissus possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, wound healing, antiulcer, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetics, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, antiparasitic and neuroprotective effects.

CONCLUSIONS

This review confirms that some Anogeissus species have emerged as a good source of the traditional medicine for wound healing, inflammation, skin diseases, microbial infection and diabetes. Many traditional uses of Anogeissus species have now been validated by modern pharmacology research. Intensive investigations of all the species of Anogeissus regarding phytochemical and pharmacological properties, especially their mechanism of action, safety and efficacy could be the future research interests before starting clinical trials.

In vitro and in vivo action of Piptadenia viridiflora (Kunth) Benth against Haemonchus contortus in sheep

Anthelminthic resistant populations of Haemonchus contortus are a major problem in sheep rearing, but plant extracts may offer viable alternative treatments. In our preliminary studies, Piptadenia viridiflora was frequently selected by sheep grazing in the Cerrado. The present research evaluated its in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity. The HPLC chromatograms of P. viridiflora aqueous extract (AE) and ethanolic extract (EE) showed the presence of flavonoids. The total condensed tannin (proanthocyanidin) was 0.2 and 1.01% in AE and EE, respectively. In an egg hatching inhibition (EHI) test, the LC90 of AE was 2.4mg/mL, and, of EE, was 2.1mg/mL. After tannin extraction, higher EHI and lower LC90 were observed. In a larval development inhibition test, the LC90 of AE was 13.66mg/g of fecal culture. The highest dose of AE administered to mice (203.0mg/kg bw) was well tolerated, suggesting low toxicity. In vivo, AE was orally administered to lambs at 283mg/kg bw, and, at weeks one, two, and three post-treatment, the mean fecal egg count (FEC) was significantly lower than in untreated lambs (P<0.05). Blood parameters were normal and similar in untreated and treated sheep. For all lamb groups, the mean total serum protein was significantly higher at week two post-treatment than at other evaluated periods (P<0.05). Piptadenia viridiflora extracts had low condensed tannin content and exhibited high anthelminthic efficacy in vitro and significantly reduced FEC. Tannins were not shown to be the principal components affecting EHI, hence it is necessary to isolate and characterize the principal active P. viridiflora compounds, and to assess their possible synergism.

Anthelmintic activity of Indigofera tinctoria against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep

Aim:

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes are considered as a major constraint for successful sheep production. Control of these parasites heavily relies on the use of chemical anthelmintics. Over the past decades, the development of anthelmintic resistance to various groups of anthelmintics and problem of drug residues in animal products has awakened interest in medicinal plants as an alternative source of anthelmintics. Hence, this study was undertaken to evaluate the anthelmintic efficacy of Indigofera tinctoria by scientifically validated in vitro and in vivo tests approved by the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology.

Materials and Methods:

In vitro assays such as egg hatch assay for ovicidal and larval migration inhibition and larval development assay for larvicidal properties were used to investigate in vitro effect of extracts on strongyle egg and larvae, respectively. Fecal egg count reduction test was conducted in vivo to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of the extracts administered orally at dose rates of 125, 250, 500 mg/kg to sheep naturally infected with mixed GI nematodes.

Results:

Ethanolic extract of I. tinctoria demonstrated significant (p<0.01) inhibition on egg hatching at concentrations of 40 mg/ml and 80 mg/ml. In in vivo assay, the ethanolic extract of I. tinctoria reduced the fecal egg count ranging between 30.82% and 47.78% at various doses (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg). Although there was a slight variation, all the hematological parameters were within the normal range reported for sheep. Except for alanine transaminase, the overall mean of all the serum biochemical profile was within the normal range for sheep.

Conclusion:

Based on the results obtained by in vitro and in vivo assay, the ethanolic extract of I. tinctoria possesses anthelmintic activity and could replace the chemical anthelmintics used presently.