Protein carbonylation in food and nutrition: a concise update

Multi-response kinetic study of Maillard reaction hazards in the glucose-lysine model system

BACKGROUND

Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML), Nε-carboxyethyllysine (CEL) and α-aminoadipic acid (AAA) are important foodborne hazards and their intake can cause a variety of diseases in humans. It is extremely important to investigate the formation mechanism of CML, CEL and AAA, as well as their association with each other when aiming to control their production.

RESULTS

A multi-response kinetic model was developed within the glucose-lysine Maillard reaction model system. The concentrations of glucose, lysine, glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), CML, CEL and AAA were quantified at different temperature (100-160 °C) and at different intervals (0-60 min). The experimental data were fitted to the proposed model to calculate kinetic parameters for the corresponding steps. The results indicated that the production of CML was primarily relied on the direct oxidative cleavage of the Amadori product, rather than the reaction between GO and Lys, whereas CEL and AAA were generated through the reaction of MGO with Lys. Significantly, the reaction between α-dicarbonyl compounds and Lys preferentially generated CML and CEL, resulting in the lower concentrations of AAA compared to CML and CEL.

CONCLUSION

The multi-response kinetic model developed in the present study can be applied well to the Maillard reaction. The relationship between the formation mechanisms of CML, CEL and AAA is also explained. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mitochondrial sirtuin 3 and role of natural compounds: the effect of post-translational modifications on cellular metabolism

Sirtuins (SIRTs) are a family of proteins with enzymatic activity. In particular, they are a family of class III NAD+-dependent histone deacetylases and ADP-ribosyltransferases. NAD+-dependent deac(et)ylase activities catalyzed by sirtuin include ac(et)ylation, propionylation, butyrylation, crotonylation, manylation, and succinylation. Specifically, human SIRT3 is a 399 amino acid protein with two functional domains: a large Rossmann folding motif and NAD+ binding, and a small complex helix and zinc-binding motif. SIRT3 is widely expressed in mitochondria-rich tissues and is involved in maintaining mitochondrial integrity, homeostasis, and function. Moreover, SIRT3 regulates related diseases, such as aging, hepatic, kidney, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular disease, metabolic diseases, and cancer development. In particular, one of the most significant and damaging post-translational modifications is irreversible protein oxidation, i.e. carbonylation. This process is induced explicitly by increased ROS production due to mitochondrial dysfunction. SIRT3 is carbonylated by 4-hydroxynonenal at the level of Cys280. The carbonylation induces conformational changes in the active site, resulting in allosteric inhibition of SIRT3 activity and loss of the ability to deacetylate and regulate antioxidant enzyme activity. Phytochemicals and, in particular, polyphenols, thanks to their strong antioxidant activity, are natural compounds with a positive regulatory action on SIRT3 in various pathologies. Indeed, the enzymatic SIRT3 activity is modulated, for example, by different natural polyphenol classes, including resveratrol and the bergamot polyphenolic fraction. Thus, this review aims to elucidate the mechanisms by which phytochemicals can interact with SIRT3, resulting in post-translational modifications that regulate cellular metabolism.

Myofibrillar protein lipoxidation in fish induced by linoleic acid and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal: Insights from LC-MS/MS analysis

The oxidation of fish lipids and proteins is interconnected. The LOX (lipoxygenase)-catalyzed LA (linoleic acid) oxidation system on MPs (myofibrillar proteins) was established in vitro, to investigate the impact of lipoxidation on the physicochemical properties of fish MPs. By detecting HNE (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal) concentration during LA oxidation, the HNE treatment system was established to investigate the role of HNE in this process. In addition, the site specificity of modification on MPs was detected utilizing LC-MS/MS. Both treatments could induce sidechain modification, increase particle size, and cause loss of nutritional value through the reduction in amino acid content of MPs. The HNE group is more likely to alter the MPs' surface hydrophobicity compared to the LA group. By increasing the exposure of modification sites in MPs, the HNE group has more types and number of modifications compared to the LA group. LA group mainly induced the modification of single oxygen addition on MPs instead, which accounted for over 50 % of all modifications. The LA group induced a more pronounced reduction in the solubility of MPs as compared to the HNE group. In conclusion, HNE binding had a high susceptibility to Lys on MPs. Protein aggregation, peptide chain fragmentation, and decreased solubility occurred in the LA group mainly induced by peroxide generated during lipid oxidation or the unreacted LA instead of HNE. This study fills in the mechanism of lipoxidation on protein oxidation in fish and sheds light on the HNE modification sites of MPs, paving the way for the development of oxidation control technology.

Effect of Germination on Seed Protein Quality and Secondary Metabolites and Potential Modulation by Pulsed Electric Field Treatment

Plant-based foods are being increasingly favored to feed the ever-growing population, but these need to exhibit improved nutritional value in terms of protein quality and digestibility to be considered a useful alternative to animal-based foods. Germination is essential for plant growth and represents a viable method through which the protein quality of plants can be further improved. However, it will be a challenge to maintain efficient rates of germination in a changing climate when seeds are sown. In the context of the indoor germination of seeds for food, consumption, or processing purposes, a more efficient and sustainable process is desired. Therefore, novel techniques to facilitate seed germination are required. Pulsed electric fields (PEF) treatment of seeds results in the permeabilization of the cell membrane, allowing water to be taken up more quickly and triggering biochemical changes to the macromolecules in the seed during germination. Therefore, PEF could be a chemical-free approach to induce a stress response in seeds, leading to the production of secondary metabolites known to exert beneficial effects on human health. However, this application of PEF, though promising, requires further research to optimize its impact on the protein and bioactive compounds in germinating seeds.

Tracking protein aggregation behaviour and emulsifying properties induced by structural alterations in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) myofibrillar protein during long-term frozen storage

The effect of ultrasound-assisted immersion freezing (UIF), air freezing (AF), and immersion freezing (IF) on the protein structure, aggregation, and emulsifying properties of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) myofibrillar protein during frozen storage were evaluated in the present study. The result showed that, compared with AF and IF samples, UIF sample had higher reactive/total sulfhydryl, protein solubility, and lower protein turbidity (P < 0.05), indicating that UIF was beneficial to inhibit protein oxidation and aggregation induced by frozen storage. UIF inhibited the alteration of secondary structure and tertiary structure during frozen storage. Meanwhile, UIF sample had higher emulsifying activity index, and smaller emulsion droplet diameter than AF and IF samples (P < 0.05), suggesting that UIF was beneficial for maintaining the emulsifying properties of protein during storage. In general, UIF is a potential and effective method to suppress the decrease in protein emulsifying properties during long-term frozen storage.

Changes in Novel Biomarkers for Protein Oxidation in Pork Patties under Different Cooking Methods

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of different biomarkers to identify the levels of protein oxidation in pork patties induced by assorted cooking methods. To achieve this purpose, pork patties prepared from longissimus dorsi were cooked using three methods (frying, steaming, and roasting) at different internal temperatures (60, 70, 80, and 90 °C). Traditional biomarkers including total carbonyl and total thiol and novel biomarkers including α-aminoadipic semialdehyde (AAS) and lysinonorleucine (LNL) were determined. Results demonstrated that total thiol and AAS were the most successful biomarkers in distinguishing the three cooking methods in relation to protein oxidation, with AAS being the most sensitive. Moreover, as indicated by the biomarkers of total thiol and AAS, frying caused the highest level of protein oxidation, while steaming resulted in the lowest level when pork patties were cooked to the internal temperatures of 70 or 80 °C.

Lipid-Induced Oxidative Modifications Decrease the Bioactivities of Collagen Hydrolysates from Fish Skin: The Underlying Mechanism Based on the Proteomic Strategy

Collagen peptides exhibit various bioactivities, including antioxidation and ACE inhibition. However, the bioactivities of collagen peptides decrease gradually due to oxidation deterioration during storage, and this degradation of bioactive peptides is rarely studied. In this study, the oxidative levels and the bioactivities of collagen peptides were investigated during an oxidative-induced storage accelerated by lipids. The results suggested that the oxidation of collagen peptides was divided into three stages. At the early stage, the carbonyl content of collagen peptides increased rapidly (from 2.32 to 3.72 μmol/g peptide), showing a close correlation with their bioactivities (for antioxidation, r = -0.947; for ACE inhibition, r = -0.911). The oxidation level in the middle stage continued but was stable, and the bioactivities decreased. At the later stage, the Schiff base and dityrosine content increased significantly and showed a strong correlation with the bioactivities (antioxidation, r = -0.820, -0.801; ACE inhibition, r = -0.779, -0.865). The amino acid and proteomic analyses showed that Met, Lys, and Arg were susceptible to oxidation and revealed their oxidative modification types. This study provided an insight into the dynamic oxidative modifications of collagen peptides, which were shown to correlate well with the change in bioactivities.

Lipid emulsion structure, digestion behavior, physiology, and health: a scoping review and future directions

Research investigating the effects of the food matrix on health is needed to untangle many unresolved questions in nutritional science. Emulsion structure plays a fundamental role in this inquiry; however, the effects of oil-in-water emulsion structure on broad metabolic, physiological, and health-related outcomes have not been comprehensively reviewed. This systematic scoping review targets this gap and examines methodological considerations for the field of relating food structure and health. MEDLINE, Web of Science, and CAB Direct were searched from inception to December 2022, returning 3106 articles, 52 of which were eligible for inclusion. Many investigated emulsion lipid droplet size and/or gastric colloidal stability and their relation to postprandial weight-loss-related outcomes. The present review also identifies numerous novel relationships between emulsion structures and health-related outcomes. "Omics" endpoints present an exciting avenue for more comprehensive analysis in this area, yet interpretation remains difficult. Identifying valid surrogate biomarkers for long-term outcomes and disease risk will be a turning point for food structure research, leading to breakthroughs in the pace and utility of research that generates advancements in health. The review's findings and recommendations aim to support new hypotheses, future trial design, and evidence-based emulsion design for improved health and well-being.

Protein carbonylation and structural changes in porcine myofibrillar protein exposed to metal ion-H2O2-ascorbate and linoleic acid-lipoxidase oxidizing systems

The present study aimed to compare two oxidizing systems commonly present in meat for their influence on protein oxidation patterns, with emphasis on the specific lysine-derived markers for protein carbonylation (α-aminoadipic semialdehyde, AAS; lysinonorlucine, LNL) and their relationships with the common markers for protein oxidation. For this purpose, pork myofibrillar proteins (MFP, 5 mg/mL) were suspended in 0.6 M NaCl (pH 7.5) and incubated at 4 ℃ for 24 h with two oxidizing systems: (1) a metal-catalyzed oxidizing system (MOS: 10 µM FeCl3, 100 µM ascorbic acid, and 0-10 mmol/L H2O2), (2) a linoleic acid - lipoxidase oxidizing system (LOS: 7500 units of lipoxidase/mL, and 0-10 mM linoleic acid). Results showed that the amounts of AAS and LNL in both MOS- and LOS-oxidized MFP was proportional to the oxidant concentrations (H2O2 or linoleic acid), while the formation of total carbonyl and total thiol also exhibited similar oxidant-dose-dependent patterns. Meanwhile, the α-helix contents of MFP declined with oxidant concentrations irrespective of the oxidizing systems. The reducing SDS-PAGE revealed that the myosin heavy chain band started to diminish at high H2O2 concentration (5 and 10 mM) in MOS whereas at low level of linoleic acid (0.5 mM) in LOS. Overall, these results demonstrated both oxidizing systems could be involved in the formation of AAS and LNL, and that the generation of AAS and LNL can be used as reliable markers for protein oxidation, but also might be directly involved in protein structural changes and then contribute to the alternations of protein functionality.

Impact of Sustained Fructose Consumption on Gastrointestinal Function and Health in Wistar Rats: Glycoxidative Stress, Impaired Protein Digestion, and Shifted Fecal Microbiota

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is the target of assorted pathological conditions, and dietary components are known to affect its functionality and health. In previous in vitro studies, we observed that reducing sugars induced protein glycoxidation and impaired protein digestibility. To gain further insights into the pathophysiological effects of dietary sugars, Wistar rats were provided with a 30% (w/v) fructose water solution for 10 weeks. Upon slaughter, in vivo protein digestibility was assessed, and the entire GIT (digests and tissues) was analyzed for markers of oxidative stress and untargeted metabolomics. Additionally, the impact of sustained fructose intake on colonic microbiota was also evaluated. High fructose intake for 10 weeks decreased protein digestibility and promoted changes in the physiological digestion of proteins, enhancing intestinal digestion rather than stomach digestion. Moreover, at colonic stages, the oxidative stress was harmfully increased, and both the microbiota and the intraluminal colonic metabolome were modified.

G. Ranea J, Queipo-Ortuño MI, Plaza-Andrades I, Rodríguez-Capitán J, Pavón-Morón FJ, Jiménez-Navarro MF. Multi-Omics Approach Reveals Prebiotic and Potential Antioxidant Effects of Essential Oils from the Mediterranean Diet on Cardiometabolic Disorder Using Humanized Gnotobiotic Mice

Essential oils sourced from herbs commonly used in the Mediterranean diet have demonstrated advantageous attributes as nutraceuticals and prebiotics within a model of severe cardiometabolic disorder. The primary objective of this study was to assess the influences exerted by essential oils derived from thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and oregano (Origanum vulgare) via a comprehensive multi-omics approach within a gnotobiotic murine model featuring colonic microbiota acquired from patients diagnosed with coronary artery disease (CAD) and type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Our findings demonstrated prebiotic and potential antioxidant effects elicited by these essential oils. We observed a substantial increase in the relative abundance of the Lactobacillus genus in the gut microbiota, accompanied by higher levels of short-chain fatty acids and a reduction in trimethylamine N-oxide levels and protein oxidation in the plasma. Moreover, functional enrichment analysis of the cardiac tissue proteome unveiled an over-representation of pathways related to mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and cardiac contraction. These findings provide compelling evidence of the prebiotic and antioxidant actions of thyme- and oregano-derived essential oils, which extend to cardiac function. These results encourage further investigation into the promising utility of essential oils derived from herbs commonly used in the Mediterranean diet as potential nutraceutical interventions for mitigating chronic diseases linked to CAD and T2DM.

Counteracting Roles of Lipidic Aldehydes and Phenolic Antioxidants on Soy Protein Oxidation Defined by a Chemometric Survey of Solvent and Mechanically Extracted Soybean Meals

Soybean meal (SBM) is a premier source of protein for feeding food-producing animals. However, its nutritional value can be compromised by protein oxidation. In this study, a total of 54 sources of solvent extracted SBM (SSBM) and eight sources of mechanically extracted SBM (MSBM), collected from different commercial producers and geographic locations in the United States during the years 2020 and 2021, were examined by chemometric analysis to determine the extent of protein oxidation and its correlation with soybean oil extraction methods and non-protein components. The results showed substantial differences between SSBM and MSBM in the proximate analysis composition, protein carbonyl content, lipidic aldehydes, and antioxidants, as well as subtle differences between 2020 SSBM and 2021 SSBM samples in protein oxidation and moisture content. Correlation analysis further showed positive correlations between protein carbonyl content and multiple lipid parameters, including the ether extract, p-anisidine value, individual aldehydes, and total aldehydes. Among the antioxidants in SBM, negative correlations with protein carbonyl content were observed for total phenolic content and isoflavone glycoside concentrations, but not for Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), α-tocopherol, and γ-tocopherol. Overall, soybean oil extraction methods, together with other factors such as enzyme treatment and environmental conditions, can significantly affect the proximate analysis composition, the protein and lipid oxidation status, and the antioxidant profile of SBM. Lipidic aldehydes and phenolic antioxidants play counteracting roles in the oxidation of soy protein. The range of protein carbonyl content measured in this study could serve as a reference to evaluate the protein quality of SBM from various sources used in animal feed.

Protein oxidation affected the digestibility and modification sites of myofibrillar proteins from bighead carp fillets treated with hydroxyl radicals and endogenous oxidizing system

This study aimed to investigate the effect of hydroxyl radical oxidizing system (HROS) and endogenous oxidizing system (EOS, i.e., frozen storage at -20 °C) on protein oxidation, digestive properties, and peptide modification of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) in bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) fillets. The oxidation degree increased with the frozen time and H₂O₂ concentration as evidenced by carbonyl group generation and sulfhydryl group loss in MPs. The digestibility of protein declined gradually during frozen storage, while it increased after treatment with 5 mM H₂O₂ compared with no H₂O₂ intervention. More modification numbers and types were observed in the EOS group than HROS in digested MPs peptides, which might be due to the complexity of the frozen fillet system such as the presence of lipid. The potential conversion of α-aminoadipic semialdehyde (AAS) to α-aminoadipic acids (AAA) was observed in HROS. Additionally, the myosin heavy chain was more susceptible to oxidation among all MPs by EOS oxidation.

Effect of atmospheric pin-to-plate cold plasma on oat protein: Structural, chemical, and foaming characteristics

The impact of novel pin-to-plate atmospheric cold plasma was investigated with input voltage (170 V, 230 V) and exposure time (15 & 30 min) on oat protein by studying structural (FTIR, circular dichroism (CD), UV-vis, Fluorescence), morphological (particle size analysis, SEM, turbidity), chemical (pH, redox potential (ORP), ζ potential, carbonyl, sulfhydryl, surface hydrophobicity), and foaming characteristics. The plasma treatment reduced the pH while increasing the ORP of the dispersions. These ionic environment changes affected the ζ potential and particle size leading to the formation of larger aggregates (170-15; 230-15) and distorted smaller ones (170-30; 230-30) as confirmed by SEM. The FTIR spectra showed reduced intensity at specific amide bands (1600-1700 cm^-1) and also an increase in carbonyl stretching (1743 cm^-1) representing oxidative carbonylation (increase in carbonyl content). Thus, the partial exposure of hydrophobic amino acids increases surface hydrophobicity. The altered secondary structure (rise in α-helix, decrement in β-sheets and turns), and tertiary structures were observed in circular dichroism (CD) and UV absorbance and fluorescence characteristics of proteins respectively. Furthermore, the increase in free sulfhydryl content and disulfide content was highly affected by the plasma treatments due to observed protein unfolding and aggregations. Besides, the increased solubility and reduced surface tension contributed to the improved foaming characteristics. Thus, plasma processing influences protein structure affecting their characteristics and other functionalities.

Deciphering the underlying mechanisms of the oxidative perturbations and impaired meat quality in Wooden breast myopathy by label-free quantitative MS-based proteomics

The study aimed to investigate biochemical mechanisms occurred in Wooden breast (WB) chicken meat, with attention to the impact on meat quality. Commercial chicken breasts were classified as Normal (N, n = 12), WB-M (moderate degree; focal hardness on cranial region, n = 12) and WB-S (severe degree; extreme and diffused hardness over the entire surface, n = 12). Samples were analyzed for physico-chemical properties, oxidative damage to lipids and proteins, and discriminating sarcoplasmic proteins by using a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer. WB meat presented impaired composition and functionality and higher levels of lipid and protein oxidation markers than N meat. The proteomic profile of WB-S presents a dynamic regulation of the relevant proteins involved in redox homeostasis, carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolisms. Proteomics results demonstrate that the physiological and metabolic processes of muscles affected by WB myopathy are involved in combating the inflammatory process and in repairing the damaged tissue by oxidative stress.

Ammonium sulfate-based prefractionation improved proteome coverage and detection of carbonylated proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana leaf extract

Ammonium sulfate is well known to salt out proteins at high concentrations. The study revealed that it can serve to increase by 60% the total number of identified carbonylated proteins by LC-MS/MS. Protein carbonylation is a significant post-translational modification associated with reactive oxygen species signaling in animal and plant cells. However, the detection of carbonylated proteins involved in signaling is still challenging, as they only represent a small subset of the proteome in the absence of stress. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that a prefractionation step with ammonium sulphate will improve the detection of the carbonylated proteins in a plant extract. For this, we extracted total protein from the Arabidopsis thaliana leaves and subjected the extract to stepwise precipitation with ammonium sulfate to 40%, 60%, and 80% saturation. The protein fractions were then analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for protein identification. We found that all the proteins identified in the non-fractionated samples were also found in the prefractionated samples, indicating no loss was incurred during the prefractionation. About 45% more proteins were identified in the fractionated samples compared to the non-fractionated total crude extract. When the prefractionation steps were combined with the enrichment of carbonylated proteins labeled with a fluorescent hydrazide probe, several carbonylated proteins, which were unseen in the non-fractionated samples, became visible in the prefractionated samples. Consistently, the prefractionation method allowed to identify 63% more carbonylated proteins by mass spectrometry compared to the number of carbonylated proteins identified from the total crude extract without prefractionation. These results indicated that the ammonium sulfate-based proteome prefractionation can be used to improve proteome coverage and identification of carbonylated proteins from a complex proteome sample.

Effect of Nitric Oxide and Its Induced Protein S-Nitrosylation on the Structures and In Vitro Digestion Properties of Beef Myofibrillar Protein

This study aimed to investigate the effects of nitric oxide (NO) and its induced protein S-nitrosylation on the structures and digestion properties of beef myofibrillar protein (MP). The MP was treated with 0, 50, 250, 500, and 1000 μM concentrations of NO-donor S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) for 30 min at 37 °C. The results indicated that GSNO treatment significantly decreased the sulfhydryl contents whereas the carbonyl contents increased. Meanwhile, compared with the control group, the surface hydrophobicity, the intrinsic fluorescence intensity, and the α-helix content of proteins were decreased significantly with the enhancement of GSNO concentrations. In addition, 250 μM GSNO treatment increased the gastric digestibility of MP, while the gastrointestinal digestibility and the release of peptides were both inhibited by 500 and 1000 μM GSNO treatments. These data demonstrate that protein S-nitrosylation can affect the in vitro digestion properties of proteins by altering the physicochemical properties and structure of MP.

Kilning invokes oxidative changes in malt proteins

Beneath glycation, oxidation reactions may take place at cereal proteins during production of malt. The extent of oxidative chemical changes at malt proteins has not yet been studied. In the present short communication, malt protein was characterized by the determination of free thiol groups and degree of methionine oxidation as well as the sites that are reactive to covalent modification by 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH, “protein carbonylation”). Protein carbonylation in pale malts was around 1.5 nmol/mg protein and increased with increasing malt colour. Investigations on the protein pellet isolated for determination of carbonylation revealed that solubility and colour may disturb the quantification of carbonyl sites in roasted malts. Free thiols decreased with increasing malt colour already in pale malts (EBC < 10). The formation of methionine sulfoxide (MetSO) was intensified with increasing malt colour. An amount of 7–20% of methionine was converted to MetSO in pale and dark malt, whereas nearly 60% of methionine was oxidized to MetSO in roasted malts. The formation of methionine sulfone was negligible. This study shows that malt proteins suffer from oxidation during kilning, and future studies will have to show whether this supports the pro- or antioxidant activity of malt.

Effects of oxygen concentrations in modified atmosphere packaging on pork quality and protein oxidation

This study aimed to investigate the effects of oxygen concentrations in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on pork color and protein oxidation under refrigerated storage. Pork steaks were vacuum packaged or MAP packed with different levels of oxygen (40%, 60% and 80%), and stored for 14 days at 4 °C. After storage, the instrumental color, purge loss, cooking loss and shear fore were measured, and levels of protein oxidation in both the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins were quantified separately by the determination of carbonyl contents, thiol contents, loss of specific amino acid residues, and formation of α-aminoadipic semialdehyde. Results suggested that 40% of oxygen in MAP was sufficient to obtain highest redness, and higher oxygen levels showed little improvement but led to further protein carbonylation and meat toughening. Meanwhile, the sarcoplasmic proteins seemed to be more vulnerable to protein oxidation than the myofibrillar proteins. In particular, the formation of α-aminoadipic semialdehyde might contribute little to the carbonylation of both protein fractions, and possible reasons were discussed.