Effects of interventions with a physical activity component on bone health in obese children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Links among Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, and Osteoporosis: Bone as a Target

Obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and osteoporosis are serious diseases with an ever-increasing incidence that quite often coexist, especially in the elderly. Individuals with obesity and T2DM have impaired bone quality and an elevated risk of fragility fractures, despite higher and/or unchanged bone mineral density (BMD). The effect of obesity on fracture risk is site-specific, with reduced risk for several fractures (e.g., hip, pelvis, and wrist) and increased risk for others (e.g., humerus, ankle, upper leg, elbow, vertebrae, and rib). Patients with T2DM have a greater risk of hip, upper leg, foot, humerus, and total fractures. A chronic pro-inflammatory state, increased risk of falls, secondary complications, and pharmacotherapy can contribute to the pathophysiology of aforementioned fractures. Bisphosphonates and denosumab significantly reduced the risk of vertebral fractures in patients with both obesity and T2DM. Teriparatide significantly lowered non-vertebral fracture risk in T2DM subjects. It is important to recognize elevated fracture risk and osteoporosis in obese and T2DM patients, as they are currently considered low risk and tend to be underdiagnosed and undertreated. The implementation of better diagnostic tools, including trabecular bone score, lumbar spine BMD/body mass index (BMI) ratio, and microRNAs to predict bone fragility, could improve fracture prevention in this patient group.

Bone mass accrual in children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Bone accrual during childhood and adolescence is critical for the attainment of peak bone mass and is a major contributing factor towards osteoporosis in later life. Bone mass accrual is influenced by nonmodifiable factors, such as genetics, sex, race, ethnicity, and puberty, as well as modifiable factors, such as physical activity and diet. Recent progress in bone imaging has allowed clinicians and researchers to better measure the morphology, density, and strength of the growing skeleton, thereby encompassing key characteristics of peak bone strength. In this review, the patterning of bone accrual and contributors to these changes will be described, as well as new techniques assessing bone mass and strength in pediatric research and clinical settings.

RECENT FINDINGS

This review discusses factors influencing peak bone mass attainment and techniques used to assess the human skeleton.

SUMMARY

The rate of bone accrual and the magnitude of peak bone mass attainment occurs in specific patterns varying by sex, race, ethnicity, longitudinal growth, and body composition. Physical activity, diet, and nutritional status impact these processes. There is a need for longitudinal studies utilizing novel imaging modalities to unveil factors involved in the attainment and maintenance of peak bone strength.

Metabolic syndrome and pesticides: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The relation between pesticides exposure and metabolic syndrome (MetS) has not been clearly identified. Performing a systematic review and meta-analysis, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and ScienceDirect were searched for studies reporting the risk of MetS following pesticides exposure and their contaminants. We included 12 studies for a total of 6789 participants, in which 1981 (29.1%) had a MetS. Overall exposure to pesticides and their contaminants increased the risk of MetS by 30% (95CI 22%-37%). Overall organochlorine increased the risk of MetS by 23% (14-32%), as well as for most types of organochlorines: hexachlorocyclohexane increased the risk by 53% (28-78%), hexachlorobenzene by 40% (0.01-80%), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene by 22% (9-34%), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane by 28% (5-50%), oxychlordane by 24% (1-47%), and transnonchlor by 35% (19-52%). Sensitivity analyses confirmed that overall exposure to pesticides and their contaminants increased the risk by 46% (35-56%) using crude data or by 19% (10-29%) using fully-adjusted model. The risk for overall pesticides and types of pesticides was also significant with crude data but only for hexachlorocyclohexane (36% risk increase, 17-55%) and transnonchlor (25% risk increase, 3-48%) with fully-adjusted models. Metaregressions demonstrated that hexachlorocyclohexane increased the risk of MetS in comparison to most other pesticides. The risk increased for more recent periods (Coefficient = 0.28, 95CI 0.20 to 0.37, by year). We demonstrated an inverse relationship with body mass index and male gender. In conclusion, pesticides exposure is a major risk factor for MetS. Besides organochlorine exposure, data are lacking for other types of pesticides. The risk increased with time, reflecting a probable increase of the use of pesticides worldwide. The inverse relationship with body mass index may signify a stockage of pesticides and contaminants in fat tissue.

A comparison of the associations between bone health and three different intensities of accelerometer-derived habitual physical activity in children and adolescents: a systematic review

Positive associations have been identified between bone outcomes and accelerometer-derived moderate (MPA) and vigorous (VPA) physical activity (PA) in youth; however, it remains unclear which intensity is most beneficial. This systematic review aimed to summarise accelerometer-derived methods used to estimate habitual PA in children and adolescents and determine whether the magnitude of association was consistently stronger for a particular intensity (MPA/MVPA/VPA). Observational studies assessing associations between accelerometer-derived MPA and/or MVPA and VPA with bone outcomes in children and adolescents (≤ 18 years) were identified in MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Thirty articles were included (total n = 20,613 (10,077 males), 4-18 years). Chi-square tests determined whether the proportion of significant associations and strongest within-study associations differed significantly between intensities. Results demonstrated that accelerometer methods were highly variable between studies. Of the 570 associations analysed, 186 were significant (p < 0.05). The proportion of within-study strongest associations differed by PA intensity (3 × 2 χ2 = 86.6, p < 0.001) and was significantly higher for VPA (39%) compared to MVPA (5%; 2 × 2 χ2 = 55.3, p < 0.001) and MPA (9%, 2 × 2 χ2 = 49.1, p < 0.001). Results indicated a greater benefit of VPA over MPA/MVPA; however, variability in accelerometer-derived methods used prevents the precise bone-benefitting amount of VPA from being identified. Long epochs and numerous intensity cut-point definitions mean that bone-relevant PA has likely been missed or misclassified in this population. Future research should explore the use of shorter epochs (1 s) and identify bone-specific activity intensities, rather than using pre-defined activity classifications more relevant to cardiovascular health.

Bone Response to High-Intensity Interval Training versus Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training in Adolescents with Obesity

INTRODUCTION

Since adolescents with obesity are prone to bone fragility during weight loss, the aim was to compare the impact of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) versus moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on bone density, geometry, and strength.

METHODS

Sixty-one adolescents were randomly assigned to 2 cycling trainings (HIIT and MICT) and a control (CTR, without training) group. Anthropometry, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry with hip structural analysis and the trabecular bone score (TBS) were assessed before and after the 16-week intervention.

RESULTS

Body mass index (BMI) and fat mass (FM) percentage decreased at T1 versus T0 in both training groups (p < 0.001 for HIIT, p = 0.01 for MICT), though to a larger extent in HIIT (p < 0.05). Total body bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) increased in both training groups (p < 0.001), but to a greater extent in HIIT for BMC (p < 0.05). Lumbar spine BMD and BMC increased in both training groups (p < 0.001 for HIIT, p < 0.01 for MICT), with a time × group interaction between HIIT and CTR (p < 0.05) only. TBS increased in both training groups (p < 0.01 for HIIT, p < 0.05 for MICT). Hip BMD and BMC increased in both HIIT (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01) and MICT (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05). At the narrow neck (NN), endocortical diameter, width (p < 0.01), cross-sectional moment of inertia, and section modulus (Z) (p < 0.05) increased only in the HIIT group, such as BMD and Z (p < 0.05) at the intertrochanteric region (IT) and average cortical thickness (p < 0.001) and width (p < 0.05) at the femoral shaft. At the NN and IT, the buckling ratio decreased only in the HIIT group (p < 0.05), predicting higher resistance to fracture.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to inducing greater BMI and FM percentage decreases in comparison to MICT, HIIT improves multisite bone density, geometry, and strength, which heighten the justification for HIIT as part of weight loss interventions in adolescents with obesity.

Effectiveness of lifestyle interventions in preventing harmful weight gain among adolescents: A systematic review of systematic reviews

Obesity in adolescence is associated with stigma during school years, early emergence of co-morbidities in adulthood and premature mortality. Adolescence presents a key window of opportunity to intervene for building healthy eating and physical activity routines and prevent weight gain. This review of reviews assesses the evidence on the effectiveness of prevention interventions conducted with adolescents. Nine reviews assessing the effects of lifestyle interventions in adolescents (defined as age 10 to 19 years old) on weight gain were identified from the 10 health databases searched. Only four reviews conducted meta-analyses, of which, three (two exercise-focused) demonstrated positive changes in primary outcomes of body mass index (BMI) and/or BMI z-score (range of decrease in BMI from 0.06 to 0.47 kg/m²⁾ ). Most were conducted in school settings, and all but two reviews were of low quality. Few reviews reported external validity components that would enable clearer directions for policy makers to implement in real-world settings. More than 140 distinct interventions were included in the reviews, but there remains a serious gap in evidence for effective interventions in adolescents.

Obesity and Bone Health: A Complex Link

So far, the connections between obesity and skeleton have been extensively explored, but the results are inconsistent. Obesity is thought to affect bone health through a variety of mechanisms, including body weight, fat volume, bone formation/resorption, proinflammatory cytokines together with bone marrow microenvironment. In this review, we will mainly describe the effects of adipokines secreted by white adipose tissue on bone cells, as well as the interaction between brown adipose tissue, bone marrow adipose tissue, and bone metabolism. Meanwhile, this review also reviews the evidence for the effects of adipose tissue and its distribution on bone mass and bone-related diseases, along with the correlation between different populations with obesity and bone health. And we describe changes in bone metabolism in patients with anorexia nervosa or type 2 diabetes. In summary, all of these findings show that the response of skeleton to obesity is complex and depends on diversified factors, such as mechanical loading, obesity type, the location of adipose tissue, gender, age, bone sites, and secreted cytokines, and that these factors may exert a primary function in bone health.

Bone response to eccentric versus concentric cycling in adolescents with obesity

OBJECTIVES

Because adolescents with obesity are susceptible to bone fragility during weight loss (WL), we evaluated the impact of eccentric (ECC) versus classical concentric (CON) training at the same oxygen consumption (V˙O₂) on bone density, geometry and strength.

METHODS

Thirty five adolescents were included into 2 training (CON and ECC cycling) and a control (CTR, without training) groups. Anthropometry, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, hip structural analysis and quantitative bone ultrasound were assessed before and after the 12-week intervention.

RESULTS

The trainings promoted significant improvements in body mass index, total fat (FM) and lean mass (LM), with better improvements for FM and LM in the ECC group (p < 0.05). Leg LM percentage increased only in the ECC group (p < 0.05). Total body bone mineral content and density increased in both training groups (p < 0.001) with significant time x group interactions only between ECC and CTR (p < 0.05). Buckling ratio at the intertrochanteric region and femoral shaft increased only in CTR and CON groups (p < 0.05). Speeds of sounds at the calcaneum increased only in ECC group (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Bone fragility, from a compromised relationship between density, geometry and strength, might be prevented with the ECC modality.

A 24-Week Physical Activity Intervention Increases Bone Mineral Content without Changes in Bone Markers in Youth with PWS

Bone mineral density (BMD) is of concern in Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS). This study compared responses to a physical activity intervention in bone parameters and remodeling markers in youth with PWS (n = 45) and youth with non-syndromic obesity (NSO; n = 66). Measurements occurred at baseline (PRE) and after 24 weeks (POST) of a home-based active games intervention with strengthening and jumping exercises (intervention group = I) or after a no-intervention period (control group = C). Dual x-ray absorptiometry scans of the hip and lumbar spine (L1-L4) determined BMD and bone mineral content (BMC). Bone markers included fasting bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP) and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTx). Both I and C groups increased their hip BMD and BMC (p < 0.001). Youth with PWS-I increased their spine BMC from PRE to POST (p < 0.001) but not youth with PWS-C (p = 1.000). Youth with NSO (I and C) increased their spine BMC between PRE and POST (all p < 0.001). Youth with PWS showed lower BAP (108.28 ± 9.19 vs. 139.07 ± 6.41 U/L; p = 0.006) and similar CTx (2.07 ± 0.11 vs.1.84 ± 0.14 ng/dL; p = 0.193) than those with NSO regardless of time. Likely, the novelty of the intervention exercises for those with PWS contributed to gains in spine BMC beyond growth. Bone remodeling markers were unaltered by the intervention.

The Bones of Children With Obesity

Excess adiposity in childhood may affect bone development, ultimately leading to bone frailty. Previous reports showing an increased rate of extremity fractures in children with obesity support this fear. On the other hand, there is also evidence suggesting that bone mineral content is higher in obese children than in normal weight peers. Both adipocytes and osteoblasts derive from multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and obesity drives the differentiation of MSCs toward adipocytes at the expense of osteoblast differentiation. Furthermore, adipocytes in bone marrow microenvironment release a number of pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory molecules that up-regulate formation and activation of osteoclasts, thus favoring bone frailty. On the other hand, body adiposity represents a mechanical load, which is beneficial for bone accrual. In this frame, bone quality, and structure result from the balance of inflammatory and mechanical stimuli. Diet, physical activity and the hormonal milieu at puberty play a pivotal role on this balance. In this review, we will address the question whether the bone of obese children and adolescents is unhealthy in comparison with normal-weight peers and discuss mechanisms underlying the differences in bone quality and structure. We anticipate that many biases and confounders affect the clinical studies conducted so far and preclude us from achieving robust conclusions. Sample-size, lack of adequate controls, heterogeneity of study designs are the major drawbacks of the existing reports. Due to the increased body size of children with obesity, dual energy absorptiometry might overestimate bone mineral density in these individuals. Magnetic resonance imaging, peripheral quantitative CT (pQCT) scanning and high-resolution pQCT are promising techniques for the accurate estimate of bone mineral content in obese children. Moreover, no longitudinal study on the risk of incident osteoporosis in early adulthood of children and adolescents with obesity is available. Finally, we will address emerging dietary issues (i.e., the likely benefits for the bone health of polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols) since an healthy diet (i.e., the Mediterranean diet) with balanced intake of certain nutrients associated with physical activity remain the cornerstones for achieving an adequate bone accrual in young individuals regardless of their adiposity degree.

Physical activity levels are associated with regional bone mineral density in boys

Background: Youth is a crucial period for bone gain, and physical activity (PA) has shown to increase bone mineral density (BMD) in this period. However, whether PA affects regional BMD is unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between PA levels and regional BMD in youths. Methods: The sample included 110 children and adolescents aged 6-14 years. Body mass, height, sitting trunk length, and leg length were obtained for body mass index and maturity offset calculation. The arms, pelvis, spine, trunk, and legs BMD were measured by double energy X-ray absorptiometry. The PA was evaluated by questionnaire, and youths were classified as low, moderately, or highly physically active. Results: The sample included 63.7% boys and 36.3% girls with mean age of sample 9.5 (±1.6) yrs. Age, body mass index, and maturity offset were similar between sexes (p > 0.05). Boys with low PA levels had lower BMD Z-score for arms (-0.20 ± 0.71 vs. 0.30 ± 1.19, p = 0.006) and legs (-0.14 ± 1.00 vs. 0.35 ± 1.06, p = 0.026) compared to highly physically active youths. Multiple linear regression showed a positive linear relationship between legs BMD and PA in boys (β = 0.72 [95% CI = 0.09; 1.36]). Conclusion: In boys, low PA levels are associated with lower BMD in arms and legs.

Influence of Physical Activity on Bone Mineral Content and Density in Overweight and Obese Children with Low Adherence to the Mediterranean Dietary Pattern

The objective of the present cross-sectional study was to examine the associations of physical activity and the adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern (MDP) with bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD) in children with overweight and obesity. A total of 177 (n = 80 girls) children with overweight and obesity aged 8 to 12 years old participated in the study. Both BMC and BMD were assessed by Dual-Energy X-ray absorptiometry. Dietary patterns were assessed by the KIDMED questionnaire and two 24-hour recalls. Physical activity was assessed by accelerometers for 7 consecutive days (24 hours/day). Low adherence to the MDP was observed in 82.4% of participants. Higher physical activity levels (of at least moderate intensity) and lower sedentary time were significantly associated with BMC and BMD in children with low adherence to the MDP (all p < 0.05). No associations were observed between physical activity and BMC and BMD in children with high adherence to the MDP. In conclusion, engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity and reducing the time spent in sedentary behavior might be particularly beneficial for improving bone health in overweight or obese children with poor adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern.

A Cross-Sectional Study Assessing the Contributions of Body Fat Mass and Fat-Free Mass to Body Mass Index Scores in Male Youth Rugby Players

Background

In some sports such as rugby, a large body size is an advantage, and the desire to gain weight can bring young players to become overweight or obese. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of overweight and obesity and the contribution of body fat mass index (BFMI) and fat-free mass index (FFMI) to body mass index (BMI) changes among young male rugby players (15-a-side rugby).

Methods

The criteria of the International Obesity Task Force were used to define overweight and obesity from BMI. The method of skinfold thickness was used to assess percentage of body fat (%BF), BFMI, and FFMI. Excess body fat was defined by using BFMI and %BF above the 75th percentile. Data were grouped according to the age categories of the French Rugby Federation (U11, under 11 years; U13, under 13 years; U15, under 15 years) and to BMI status (NW normal-weight versus OW/OB overweight/obese).

Results

Overall, 32.8% of the young players were overweight, and 13.8% were obese. However, 53% of young players classified as obese and overweight by BMI had an excess body fat by using BFMI above the 75th percentile. FFMI increased significantly between U11 and U13 in both groups, without significant change in BMI and BFMI. Both groups had similar significant gains in BMI and FFMI between U13 and U15, while BFMI only increased significantly in OW/OB (+ 18.5%). The strong correlations between BMI and %BF were systematically lower than those between BMI and BFMI. FFMI was strongly or moderately associated with BFMI.

Conclusions

Chart analysis of BFMI and FFMI could be used to distinguish changes in body composition across age categories in young male rugby players classified as normal-weight, overweight, and obese by BMI.