Catecholase activity of a μ-hydroxodicopper(II) macrocyclic complex: structures, intermediates and reaction mechanism

A chromophore-supported structural and functional model of dinuclear copper enzymes, for facilitating mechanism of action studies

Type III dicopper centres are the heart of the reactive sites of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of catechols. Numerous synthetic model complexes have been prepared to uncover the fundamental chemistry involved in these processes, but progress is still lagging much behind that for heme enzymes. One reason is that the latter gain very much from the informative spectroscopic features of their porphyrin-based metal-chelating ligand. We now introduce sapphyrin-chelated dicopper complexes and show that they may be isolated in different oxidation states and coordination geometries, with distinctive colors and electronic spectra due to the heme-like ligands. The dicopper(i) complex 1-Cu2 was characterized by ¹H and ¹⁹F NMR spectroscopy of the metal-chelating sapphyrin, the oxygenated dicopper(ii) complex 1-Cu2O2 by EPR, and crystallographic data was obtained for the tetracopper(ii)-bis-sapphyrin complex [1-Cu2O2]2. This uncovered a non-heme [Cu₄(OH)₄]⁴⁻ cluster, held together with the aid of two sapphyrin ligands, with structural features reminiscent of those of catechol oxidase. Biomimetic activity was demonstrated by the 1-Cu2O2 catalyzed aerobic oxidation of catechol to quinone; the sapphyrin ligand aided very much in gaining information about reactive intermediates and the rate-limiting step of the reaction.

Di-copper chelation by sapphyrin facilitates reaction mechanism investigations and characterization of reactive intermediates regarding biomimetic catechol oxidation.

A simple Cu(II) complex of phenolic oxime: synthesis, crystal structure, supramolecular interactions, DFT calculation and catecholase activity study

A copper (II) complex [Cu(4-MeO-salox)₂](1) based on saloxime ligand was synthesized and characterized using single crystal X-ray diffraction studies. The geometry was further emphasized by DFT optimization. The complex was found to be pseudo-macrocyclic mononuclear having square planer geometry. The complex 1 shows two types of supramolecular hydrogen bonding interactions and forms the multi-dimensional framework with the help of CH∙∙∙O, OH∙∙∙O and π∙∙∙π(chelate) interactions. The complex 1 performs as efficient catalyst in catecholase activiy having good turnover number (TON), k_cat = 22.97 h⁻¹ where TON is the number of catechol molecules converted into quinone by catalyst molecule i.e 1 in a unit time.

Oxygen Delivery as a Limiting Factor in Modelling Dicopper(II) Oxidase Reactivity

Deprotonation of ligand-appended alkoxyl groups in mononuclear copper(II) complexes of N,O ligands L₁ and L₂ , gave dinuclear complexes sharing symmetrical Cu₂ O₂ cores. Molecular structures of these mono- and binuclear complexes have been characterized by XRD, and their electronic structures by UV/Vis, ¹ H NMR, EPR and DFT; moreover, catalytic performance as models of catechol oxidase was studied. The binuclear complexes with anti-ferromagnetically coupled copper(II) centers are moderately active in quinone formation from 3,5-di-tert-butyl-catechol under the established conditions of oxygen saturation, but are strongly activated when additional dioxygen is administered during catalytic turnover. This unforeseen and unprecedented effect is attributed to increased maximum reaction rates v_max , whereas the substrate affinity K_M remains unaffected. Oxygen administration is capable of (partially) removing limitations to turnover caused by product inhibition. Because product inhibition is generally accepted to be a major limitation of catechol oxidase models, we think that our observations will be applicable more widely.

Syntheses and characterization of monobasic tridentate Cu(ii) Schiff-base complexes for efficient oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol and oxidative bromination of organic substrates

Enhanced bifunctional catalytic activities are shown by monobasic tridentate Cu(ii) Schiff-base complexes.

C i -Symmetry, [2 × 2] grid, square copper complex with the N4,N5-bis(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-imidazole-4,5-dicarboxamide ligand: structure, catecholase activity, magnetic properties and DFT calculations

An antiferromagnetically coupled tetranuclear copper complex of a dinucleating bis amide ligand displays catecholase activity.

The synthesis, characterization and catecholase activity of dinuclear cobalt(ii/iii) complexes of an O-donor rich Schiff base ligand

A dinuclear Co^III complex oxidizes 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol by binding to two molecules of the substrate simultaneously during oxidation along with the formation of H₂O₂.

Modeling tyrosinase and catecholase activity using new m-Xylyl-based ligands with bidentate alkylamine terminal coordination

Chemical model systems possessing the reactivity aspects of both tyrosinase and catechol oxidase are presented. Using two m-xylyl-based ligands providing bidentate alkylamine terminal coordination, 1,3-bis[(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl)aminomethyl]benzene (L(H,H)) and 1,3-bis[(N,N,N'-trimethylaminoethyl)aminomethyl]benzene (L(Me,Me)), four new dicopper(I) complexes, [Cu(I)(2)(L(H,H))(MeCN)(4)][ClO(4)](2) (1), [Cu(I)(2)(L(H,H))(PPh(3))(2)(MeCN)(2)][ClO(4)](2) (2), [Cu(I)(2)(L(Me,Me))(MeCN)(2)][ClO(4)](2) (3), and [Cu(I)(2)(L(Me,Me))(PPh(3))(2)][ClO(4)](2) (4), have been synthesized and characterized. Complex 2 has been structurally characterized. Reaction of the dicopper(I) complex 3(2+) with dioxygen at 183 K generates putative bis(μ-oxo)dicopper(III) intermediate (absorption spectroscopy). Oxygenation of 1 and 3 brings about m-xylyl-ring hydroxylation (monooxygenase-like activity), with a noticeable color change from pale-yellow to dark green. The presence of phenoxo- and hydroxo-bridges in the end products [Cu(II)(2)(L(H,H)-O)(OH)(MeCN)(2)][ClO(4)](2) (5) and [Cu(II)(2)(L(Me,Me)-O)(OH)(OClO(3))][ClO(4)]·MeCN(6) has been authenticated by structural characterization. Oxygenation of 3 afforded not only the green complex 6 isolation but also a blue complex [Cu(II)(2)(L(Me,Me))(OH)(2)][ClO(4)](2) (7). Variable temperature magnetic susceptibility measurements on 5 and 6 establish that the Cu(II) centers are strongly antiferromagnetically coupled [singlet-triplet energy gap (J) = -528 cm(-1) (5) and -505 cm(-1) (6)]. The abilities of phenoxo- and hydroxo-bridged dicopper(II) complexes 5 and 6, the previously reported complex [Cu(II)(2)(L(1)-O)(OH)(OClO(3))(2)]·1.5H(2)O (8) (L(1)-OH = 1,3-bis[(2-dimethylaminoethyl)iminomethyl]phenol), and [Cu(II)(2)(L(2)-O)(OH)(OClO(3))()][ClO(4)]() (9) (L(2)-OH = 1,3-[(2-dimethylaminoethyl)iminomethyl][(N,N,N'-trimethyl)aminoethyl]-4-methylphenol) have been examined to catalyze the oxidation of catechol to quinone (catecholase activity of tyrosinase and catechol oxidase-like activity) by employing the model substrate 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol. Saturation kinetic studies have been performed on these systems to arrive at the following reactivity order [k(cat)/K(M) (catalytic efficiency) × 10(-3) (M(-1) h(-1))]: 470 (6) > 367 (5) > 128 (9) > 90 (8).

A short review on the structure-function relationship of artificial catecholase/tyrosinase and nuclease activities of Cu-complexes

The synthesis of metal complexes has vastly increased the scope of research for many scientists during the two last decades. Among these compounds, artificial tyrosinases, catecholases, proteases, and nucleases are some of the most studied due to their importance as modern tools in the fields of medicine, scientific research, and industry. Transition metals such as Zn(2+), Cu(2+), Fe(3+), Co(3+), Ni(2+), and lanthanide ions are the most commonly used. Among these ions, copper complexes have been the focus of the majority of studies thanks to their significant activity in comparison with other ions. Studies of copper-based tyrosinases, catecholases, and nucleases have revealed some of the overarching factors affecting reactions of all three types, which has led to improved activity and efficiency for all. Key factors include proper core-core distance, (Cu⋯Cu distance 2.90-2.99 Å), suitable solvent, and ligands with proper hydrophobic structure and geometry. In the present investigation, we review and introduce the proposed mechanisms and the kinetically effective factors of natural catecholase, tyrosinase, and nuclease and their Cu-based synthetic mimics.

Cu(I) complexes bearing the new sterically demanding and coordination flexible tris(3-phenyl-1-pyrazolyl)methanesulfonate ligand and the water-soluble phosphine 1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane or related ligands

The new sterically hindered scorpionate tris(3-phenylpyrazolyl)methanesulfonate (Tpms(Ph))(-) has been synthesized and its coordination behavior toward a Cu(I) center, in the presence of 1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane (PTA), N-methyl-1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane tetraphenylborate ((mPTA)[BPh4]) or hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) has been studied. The reaction between Li(Tpms(Ph)) (1) and [Cu(MeCN)4][PF6] yields [Cu(Tpms(Ph))(MeCN)] (2) which, upon further acetonitrile displacement on reaction with PTA, HMT, or (mPTA)[BPh4], gives the corresponding complexes [Cu(Tpms(Ph))(PTA)] (3), [Cu(Tpms(Ph))(HMT)] (4), and [Cu(Tpms(Ph))(mPTA)][PF6] (5). All the compounds have been characterized by (1)H, (31)P, (13)C, COSY or HMQC-NMR, IR, elemental analysis, and single crystal X-ray diffraction. In the complexes (3) and (5), which bear a phosphine ligand (i.e., PTA and mPTA, respectively), the new scorpionate ligand shows the typical N, N, N-coordination mode, whereas in (2) and (4), bearing a N-donor ligand (i.e., MeCN and HMT, respectively), it binds the metal via the N,N,O chelating mode, involving the sulfonate moiety.

Copper(ii) complexes of a polydentate imidazole-based ligand. pH effect on magnetic coupling and catecholase activity

A potentially dodecadentate N8O4-donor ligand obtained from 2,2'-biimidazole and l-valine and its tetranuclear Cu(ii) complexes in different degrees of protonation were characterized by chemical and spectroscopic methods. The extensive solution studies performed reveal that the rise in pH media leads successively to the formation of imidazolato (pKa(1) and pKa(2) and hydroxido (pKa(3) and pKa(4)) bridges. A frozen solution EPR study shows a decrease in the signal intensity until an EPR silent spectrum is observed, upon increasing the basicity of the solution. The catalytic performance of the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol to its corresponding quinone was studied using UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopic methods in CH3CN-H2O and in CH3OH-H2O at pH = 7.5, 8.0 and 8.5. A marked increase in activity, consistent with the formation of the hydroxide bridged species, is observed at pH = 8.5 in both solvent mixtures, but the activity is significantly higher in CH3OH-H2O.

Structure-catalytic function relationship of SiO2-immobilized mononuclear Cu complexes: an EPR study

Mononuclear CuL and Cu(2L) complexes, where L is propyl-thiazol-2-ylmethylene-amine, covalently immobilized onto SiO2, can catalyze efficiently the oxidation of 3,5-di-t-butylcatechol (DTBC) to 3,5-di-t-butylquinone (DTBQ) by utilizing ambient O2 as oxidant. By increasing the loading of L on SiO2, the DTBQ formation can be improved up to 400% vs the homogeneous catalyst. Equally important is however that grafting per se at low loading is not adequate for an improved catalytic activity. Appropriate loadings have to be achieved, which then may result in significant catalytic performance. Based on EPR spectroscopy a theoretical method is developed, eq A12, for spin-spin distance estimation in heterogeneously dispersed surface complexes. Practical rules including error estimates are provided. By applying this method to the [SiO2-CuL] catalysts it is shown that mononuclear copper complexes fixed on SiO2 with Cu...Cu distances as short as 4.9 +/- 0.3 A are responsible for the improved catalytic activity. The present results demonstrate that mononuclear Cu complexes can have considerable catecholase activity, if the proper geometrical proximity can be fixed. Grafting on SiO2 may be an efficient method for engineering catalysts with improved performance.

Theoretical study of the catalytic mechanism of catechol oxidase

The mechanism for the oxidation of catechol by catechol oxidase has been studied using B3LYP hybrid density functional theory. On the basis of the X-ray structure of the enzyme, the molecular system investigated includes the first-shell protein ligands of the two metal centers as well as the second-shell ligand Cys92. The cycle starts out with the oxidized, open-shell singlet complex with oxidation states Cu(2)(II,II) with a mu-eta(2):eta(2) bridging peroxide, as suggested experimentally, which is obtained from the oxidation of Cu(2)(I,I) by dioxygen. The substrate of each half-reaction is a catechol molecule approaching the dicopper complex: the first half-reaction involves Cu(I) oxidation by peroxide and the second one Cu(II) reduction. The quantitative potential energy profile of the reaction is discussed in connection with experimental data. Since no protons leave or enter the active site during the catalytic cycle, no external base is required. Unlike the previous density functional theory study, the dicopper complex has a charge of +2.

Catecholase activity of dicopper(II)-bispidine complexes: stabilities and structures of intermediates, kinetics and reaction mechanism

A mechanism for the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (dtbc) with dioxygen to the corresponding quinone (dtbq), catalyzed by bispidine-dicopper complexes (bispidines are various mono- and dinucleating derivatives of 3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane with bis-tertiary-amine-bispyridyl or bis-tertiary-amine-trispyridyl donor sets), is proposed on the basis of (1) the stoichiometry of the reaction as well as the stabilities and structures [X-ray, density functional theory (B3LYP, TZV)] of the bispidine-dicopper(II)-3,4,5,6-tetrachlorcatechol intermediates, (2) formation kinetics and structures (molecular mechanics, MOMEC) of the end-on peroxo-dicopper(II) complexes and (3) kinetics of the stoichiometric (anaerobic) and catalytic (aerobic) copper-complex-assisted oxidation of dtbc. This involves (1) the oxidation of the dicopper(I) complexes with dioxygen to the corresponding end-on peroxo-dicopper(II) complexes, (2) coordination of dtbc as a bridging ligand upon liberation of H(2)O(2) and (3) intramolecular electron transfer to produce dtbq, which is liberated, and the dicopper(I) catalyst. Although the bispidine complexes have reactivities comparable to those of recently published catalysts with macrocyclic ligands, which seem to reproduce the enzyme-catalyzed process in various reaction sequences, a strikingly different oxidation mechanism is derived from the bispidine-dicopper-catalyzed reaction.

Catecholase Activity of a Copper(II) Complex with a Macrocyclic Ligand: Unraveling Catalytic Mechanisms

We report the structure, properties and a mechanism for the catecholase activity of a tetranuclear carbonato-bridged copper(II) cluster with the macrocyclic ligand [22]pr4pz (9,22-dipropyl-1,4,9,14,17,22,27,28,29, 30-decaazapentacyclo[22.2.1.1(4,7).1(11,14). 1(17,20)]triacontane-5,7(28),11(29),12,18, 20(30),24(27),25-octaene). In this complex, two copper ions within a macrocyclic unit are bridged by a carbonate anion, which further connects two macrocyclic units together. Magnetic susceptibility studies have shown the existence of a ferromagnetic interaction between the two copper ions within one macrocyclic ring, and a weak antiferromagnetic interaction between the two neighboring copper ions of two different macrocyclic units. The tetranuclear complex was found to be the major compound present in solution at high concentration levels, but its dissociation into two dinuclear units occurs upon dilution. The dinuclear complex catalyzes the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol to the respective quinone in methanol by two different pathways, one proceeding via the formation of semiquinone species with the subsequent production of dihydrogen peroxide as a byproduct, and another proceeding via the two-electron reduction of the dicopper(II) center by the substrate, with two molecules of quinone and one molecule of water generated per one catalytic cycle. The occurrence of the first pathway was, however, found to cease shortly after the beginning of the catalytic reaction. The influence of hydrogen peroxide and di-tert-butyl-o-benzoquinone on the catalytic mechanism has been investigated. The crystal structures of the free ligand and the reduced dicopper(I) complex, as well as the electrochemical properties of both the Cu(II) and the Cu(I) complexes are also reported.

Synthetic models of the active site of catechol oxidase: mechanistic studies

The ability of copper proteins to process dioxygen at ambient conditions has inspired numerous research groups to study their structural, spectroscopic and catalytic properties. Catechol oxidase is a type-3 copper enzyme usually encountered in plant tissues and in some insects and crustaceans. It catalyzes the conversion of a large number of catechols into the respective o-benzoquinones, which subsequently auto-polymerize, resulting in the formation of melanin, a dark pigment thought to protect a damaged tissue from pathogens. After the report of the X-ray crystal structure of catechol oxidase a few years earlier, a large number of publications devoted to the biomimetic modeling of its active site appeared in the literature. This critical review (citing 114 references) extensively discusses the synthetic models of this enzyme, with a particular emphasis on the different approaches used in the literature to study the mechanism of the catalytic oxidation of the substrate (catechol) by these compounds. These are the studies on the substrate binding to the model complexes, the structure-activity relationship, the kinetic studies of the catalytic oxidation of the substrate and finally the substrate interaction with (per)oxo-dicopper adducts. The general overview of the recognized types of copper proteins and the detailed description of the crystal structure of catechol oxidase, as well as the proposed mechanisms of the enzymatic cycle are also presented.