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Zellers S, van Dongen J, Maes HHM, Ollikainen M, Fang F, Vrieze S, Kaprio J, Boomsma DI. A Bivariate Twin Study of Lifetime cannabis Initiation and Lifetime Regular Tobacco Smoking Across Three Different Countries. Behav Genet 2024:10.1007/s10519-024-10190-1. [PMID: 39078541 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-024-10190-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Regular cigarette smoking and cannabis consumption are strongly positively related to each other, yet few studies explore their underlying variation and covariation. We evaluated the genetic and environmental decomposition of variance and covariance of these two traits in twin data from three countries with different social norms and legislation. Data from the Netherlands Twin Register, FinnTwin12/16, and the Minnesota Center for Twin Family Research (total N = 21,617) were analyzed in bivariate threshold models of lifetime regular smoking initiation (RSI) and lifetime cannabis initiation (CI). We ran unstratified models and models stratified by sex and country. Prevalence of RSI was lowest in the Netherlands and prevalence of CI was highest in Minnesota. In the unstratified model, genetic (A) and common environmental factors (C) contributed substantially to the liabilities of RSI (A = 0.47, C = 0.34) and CI (A = 0.28, C = 0.51). The two liabilities were significantly phenotypically (rP = 0.56), genetically (rA = 0.74), and environmentally correlated in the unstratified model (rC = 0.47and rE = 0.48, representing correlations between common and unique environmental factors). The magnitude of phenotypic correlation between liabilities varied by country but not sex (Minnesota rP ~ 0.70, Netherlands rP ~ 0.59, Finland rP ~ 0.45). Comparisons of decomposed correlations could not be reliably tested in the stratified models. The prevalence and association of RSI and CI vary by sex and country. These two behaviors are correlated because there is genetic and environmental overlap between their underlying latent liabilities. There is heterogeneity in the genetic architecture of these traits across country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Zellers
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, Helsinki, 00014, Finland.
| | - Jenny van Dongen
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hermine H M Maes
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Psychiatry and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Miina Ollikainen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
- Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Fang Fang
- GenOmics and Translational Research Center, Research Triangle Institute International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Scott Vrieze
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 20, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
| | - Dorret I Boomsma
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Elam KK, Bountress KE, Ha T, Shaw DS, Wilson MN, Aliev F, Dick DM, Lemery-Chalfant K. Developmental genetic effects on externalizing behavior and alcohol use: Examination across two longitudinal samples. Dev Psychopathol 2024; 36:82-91. [PMID: 35983793 PMCID: PMC9938843 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579422000980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Externalizing behavior in early adolescence is associated with alcohol use in adolescence and early adulthood and these behaviors often emerge as part of a developmental sequence. This pattern can be the result of heterotypic continuity, in which different behaviors emerge over time based on an underlying shared etiology. In particular, there is largely a shared genetic etiology underlying externalizing and substance use behaviors. We examined whether polygenic risk for alcohol use disorder predicted (1) externalizing behavior in early adolescence and alcohol use in adolescence in the Early Steps Multisite sample and (2) externalizing behavior in adolescence and alcohol use in early adulthood in the Project Alliance 1 (PAL1) sample. We examined associations separately for African Americans and European Americans. When examining European Americans in the Early Steps sample, greater polygenic risk was associated with externalizing behavior in early adolescence. In European Americans in PAL1, we found greater polygenic risk was associated with alcohol use in early adulthood. Effects were largely absent in African Americans in both samples. Results imply that genetic predisposition for alcohol use disorder may increase risk for externalizing and alcohol use as these behaviors emerge developmentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit K. Elam
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University, 1025 E. 7 St., Suite 116, Bloomington, IN 47405
| | - Kaitlin E. Bountress
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University
| | - Thao Ha
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University
| | | | | | - Fazil Aliev
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
| | - Danielle M. Dick
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
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Zellers SM, Ross JM, Saunders GRB, Ellingson JM, Walvig T, Anderson JE, Corley RP, Iacono W, Hewitt JK, Hopfer CJ, McGue MK, Vrieze S. Recreational cannabis legalization has had limited effects on a wide range of adult psychiatric and psychosocial outcomes. Psychol Med 2023; 53:1-10. [PMID: 36601811 PMCID: PMC10319916 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291722003762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The causal impacts of recreational cannabis legalization are not well understood due to the number of potential confounds. We sought to quantify possible causal effects of recreational cannabis legalization on substance use, substance use disorder, and psychosocial functioning, and whether vulnerable individuals are more susceptible to the effects of cannabis legalization than others. METHODS We used a longitudinal, co-twin control design in 4043 twins (N = 240 pairs discordant on residence), first assessed in adolescence and now age 24-49, currently residing in states with different cannabis policies (40% resided in a recreationally legal state). We tested the effect of legalization on outcomes of interest and whether legalization interacts with established vulnerability factors (age, sex, or externalizing psychopathology). RESULTS In the co-twin control design accounting for earlier cannabis frequency and alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms respectively, the twin living in a recreational state used cannabis on average more often (βw = 0.11, p = 1.3 × 10-3), and had fewer AUD symptoms (βw = -0.11, p = 6.7 × 10-3) than their co-twin living in an non-recreational state. Cannabis legalization was associated with no other adverse outcome in the co-twin design, including cannabis use disorder. No risk factor significantly interacted with legalization status to predict any outcome. CONCLUSIONS Recreational legalization was associated with increased cannabis use and decreased AUD symptoms but was not associated with other maladaptations. These effects were maintained within twin pairs discordant for residence. Moreover, vulnerabilities to cannabis use were not exacerbated by the legal cannabis environment. Future research may investigate causal links between cannabis consumption and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Zellers
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J. Megan Ross
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Jarrod M. Ellingson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Tasha Walvig
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jacob E. Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Robin P. Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - William Iacono
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - John K. Hewitt
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Christian J. Hopfer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Matt K. McGue
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Scott Vrieze
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Zellers SM, Ross JM, Saunders GRB, Ellingson JM, Anderson JE, Corley RP, Iacono W, Hewitt JK, Hopfer CJ, McGue MK, Vrieze S. Impacts of recreational cannabis legalization on cannabis use: a longitudinal discordant twin study. Addiction 2023; 118:110-118. [PMID: 36002928 PMCID: PMC10086942 DOI: 10.1111/add.16016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To estimate the effect of recreational legalization on cannabis use frequency and sources of variance across legal environments. DESIGN Longitudinal discordant twin and gene-environment interaction models in twins recruited from birth records and assessed prospectively. SETTING The United States, including states with different recreational cannabis policies before and after 2014, when recreational cannabis was first legalized. PARTICIPANTS Two longitudinal, prospectively assessed samples of American twins aged 24-47 (n = 1425 in legal states, n = 1996 in illegal states), including 111 monozygotic pairs discordant for residence. MEASUREMENTS Current cannabis use frequency (measured continuously and ordinally) was the primary outcome, and the predictor was recreational status of cannabis (legal/illegal) in the participant's state of residence at the time of assessment. Covariates include age, sex and cannabis use frequency prior to 2014. FINDINGS Accounting for pre-2014 use, residents of legal states used cannabis more frequently than residents of illegal states (b = 0.21, P = 8.08 × 10-5 ). Comparing 111 pairs of monozygotic twins discordant for residence confirmed the effect (b = 0.18, P = 0.014). There was inconclusive evidence for genetic influences on cannabis use frequency that were specific to the legal environment [χ2 = 2.9 × 10-9 , degrees of freedom (d.f.) = 1, P > 0.999]. Existing genetic influences were moderated by the legal environment, as the genetic correlation between marijuana use before and after legalization was lower in states that legalized (rgenetic = 0.24) compared with states that did not (rgenetic = 0.78, Pdifference = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS In the United States, there appears to be a ~ 20% average increase in cannabis use frequency attributable to recreational legalization, consistent across increasingly rigorous designs. In addition, the heritability of cannabis use frequency appears to be moderated by legalization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - J. Megan Ross
- Department of PsychiatryUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusAuroraCOUSA
| | | | - Jarrod M. Ellingson
- Department of PsychiatryUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusAuroraCOUSA
- Institute for Behavioral GeneticsUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | | | - Robin P. Corley
- Institute for Behavioral GeneticsUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | - William Iacono
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - John K. Hewitt
- Institute for Behavioral GeneticsUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
- Department of Psychology and NeuroscienceUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | - Christian J. Hopfer
- Department of PsychiatryUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusAuroraCOUSA
- Institute for Behavioral GeneticsUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | - Matt K. McGue
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - Scott Vrieze
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
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Elam KK, Mun CJ, Kutzner J, Ha T. Polygenic Risk for Aggression Predicts Adult Substance Use Disorder Diagnoses via Substance Use Offending in Emerging Adulthood and is Moderated by a Family-Centered Intervention. Behav Genet 2021; 51:607-618. [PMID: 34117582 PMCID: PMC8404142 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-021-10070-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A substance use offense reflects an encounter with law enforcement and the court system in response to breaking the law which may increase risk for substance use problems later in life. Individuals may also be at risk for substance use offending and substance use problems based on genetic predisposition. We examined a mediation model in which polygenic risk for aggression predicted adult substance use disorder diagnoses (SUD) via substance use offending in emerging adulthood. In addition, we explored for potential attenuation of genetic influences on these outcomes by a family-based intervention, the Family Check-Up (FCU). Secondary data analyses based upon the Project Alliance 1 sample was conducted among those with genetic data (n = 631; 322 from control and 309 from FCU intervention). The sample was ethnically diverse (30% African American, 44% European American, 6% Latinx, 4% Asian American, 3% Native American, and 13% Other). Greater polygenic risk for aggression was found to increase risk for substance use violations (age 19-23), which in turn was associated with greater likelihood of being diagnosed with SUD at age 27. A gene-by-intervention effect was found in which individuals in the control group had greater risk for SUD with increasing polygenic risk for aggression. Some convergence in results was found when replicating analyses in African American and European American subgroups. Results imply that genetic predisposition may increase risk for problematic substance use later in life via antisocial behavior, such as substance use offending, and that this can be attenuated by a family-centered intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kit K Elam
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University, 1025 E. 7th St., Suite 116, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
| | - Chung Jung Mun
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
- Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA
| | - Jodi Kutzner
- Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University, 1025 E. 7th St., Suite 116, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA
| | - Thao Ha
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA
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Interplay between personality and antisocial peer affiliation as prospective predictors of marijuana use and academic achievement in the transition into and out of college. Addict Behav 2021; 114:106736. [PMID: 33279342 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana use has increased in recent cohorts and is associated with several negative outcomes, including poorer academic achievement. Less is known about how personality and peer factors in the first two years of college work together to predict problematic marijuana use and potentially co-occurring academic problems three years later. The longitudinal College Experiences Study (N = 209) was used to address this (N = 209, ~90% white, ~40% male); this study collected data from students in their first year of college, as well as ~1 year later (retention = 85%), and again ~4 years after the initial data collection (retention = 80%). Longitudinal data were analyzed via the traditional cross-lagged panel (CLPM) and the random-intercept CLPM approach. Results were consistent in that there was strong stability in problematic marijuana use, constraint, and antisocial peer affiliation across time, which were predominately influenced by stable, trait-like influences. These factors were also highly correlated but there was less evidence that one predicted the other over time. Nonetheless, greater constraint at Wave 1 was associated with significantly greater cumulative GPA in the transition out of college (βs = 0.43-0.44). Results support the importance of early prevention and intervention of problematic marijuana use, as well as the possibility of using personality-targeted approaches in the first year of college to promote growth in behaviors related to constraint (e.g., staying organized, risk avoidant) in an effort to improve academic success and correlated substance use outcomes by the transition out of college.
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Luciana M. Risks versus consequences of adolescent and young adult substance use: A focus on executive control. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2020; 7:453-463. [PMID: 33816055 PMCID: PMC8014909 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-020-00341-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review examines the role of executive control processes in the liability for substance misuse and whether substance use, once initiated, leads to subsequent decrements as proposed by neurotoxicity models of substance use disorder (SUD). RECENT FINDINGS As indicated by a number of recent meta-analyses, executive control processes, which include working memory, cognitive flexibility and numerous aspects of attentional, behavioral and emotional control, are impaired in the context of active SUD. Longitudinal studies of behaviorally disinhibited children, individuals with familial risks for SUD, and twins within whom genetic versus environmental influences on behavior can be modeled robustly indicate that relatively poor control is a vulnerability factor for early substance use initiation, binge patterns of use, and subsequent SUD. Evidence of further declines in executive control, once substance use is initiated, is mixed, although a growing number of neuroimaging studies indicate that frontostriatal, frontolimbic, and frontocerebellar systems are altered as a consequence of use. SUMMARY Together these patterns suggest strategies for identifying children and adolescents at high risk for SUD, avenues through which substance-related neurotoxicities can be more reliably detected, and the need to structure prevention efforts in a manner that is developmentally appropriate and perhaps personalized to individual vulnerabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Luciana
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN, 55455 USA
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