1
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Frach L, Barkhuizen W, Allegrini AG, Ask H, Hannigan LJ, Corfield EC, Andreassen OA, Dudbridge F, Ystrom E, Havdahl A, Pingault JB. Examining intergenerational risk factors for conduct problems using polygenic scores in the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Mol Psychiatry 2024; 29:951-961. [PMID: 38225381 PMCID: PMC11176059 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-023-02383-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
The aetiology of conduct problems involves a combination of genetic and environmental factors, many of which are inherently linked to parental characteristics given parents' central role in children's lives across development. It is important to disentangle to what extent links between parental heritable characteristics and children's behaviour are due to transmission of genetic risk or due to parental indirect genetic influences via the environment (i.e., genetic nurture). We used 31,290 genotyped mother-father-child trios from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), testing genetic transmission and genetic nurture effects on conduct problems using 13 polygenic scores (PGS) spanning psychiatric conditions, substance use, education-related factors, and other risk factors. Maternal or self-reports of conduct problems at ages 8 and 14 years were available for up to 15,477 children. We found significant genetic transmission effects on conduct problems for 12 out of 13 PGS at age 8 years (strongest association: PGS for smoking, β = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = [0.05, 0.08]) and for 4 out of 13 PGS at age 14 years (strongest association: PGS for externalising problems, β = 0.08, 95% confidence interval = [0.05, 0.11]). Conversely, we did not find genetic nurture effects for conduct problems using our selection of PGS. Our findings provide evidence for genetic transmission in the association between parental characteristics and child conduct problems. Our results may also indicate that genetic nurture via traits indexed by our polygenic scores is of limited aetiological importance for conduct problems-though effects of small magnitude or effects via parental traits not captured by the included PGS remain a possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Frach
- Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Wikus Barkhuizen
- Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Andrea G Allegrini
- Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, UK
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Helga Ask
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laurie J Hannigan
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Elizabeth C Corfield
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- NORMENT Centre, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital & Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental disorders, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Frank Dudbridge
- Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Eivind Ystrom
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Alexandra Havdahl
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
- PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Nic Waals Institute, Lovisenberg Diaconal Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jean-Baptiste Pingault
- Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, Division of Psychology & Language Sciences, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, UK
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
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2
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Nivard MG, Belsky DW, Harden KP, Baier T, Andreassen OA, Ystrøm E, van Bergen E, Lyngstad TH. More than nature and nurture, indirect genetic effects on children's academic achievement are consequences of dynastic social processes. Nat Hum Behav 2024:10.1038/s41562-023-01796-2. [PMID: 38225408 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-023-01796-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Families transmit genes and environments across generations. When parents' genetics affect their children's environments, these two modes of inheritance can produce an 'indirect genetic effect'. Such indirect genetic effects may account for up to half of the estimated genetic variance in educational attainment. Here we tested if indirect genetic effects reflect within-nuclear-family transmission ('genetic nurture') or instead a multi-generational process of social stratification ('dynastic effects'). We analysed indirect genetic effects on children's academic achievement in their fifth to ninth years of schooling in N = 37,117 parent-offspring trios in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). We used pairs of genetically related families (parents were siblings, children were cousins; N = 10,913) to distinguish within-nuclear-family genetic-nurture effects from dynastic effects shared by cousins in different nuclear families. We found that indirect genetic effects on children's academic achievement cannot be explained by processes that operate exclusively within the nuclear family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel G Nivard
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Daniel W Belsky
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
- Robert N. Butler Columbia Aging Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - K Paige Harden
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- Population Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Tina Baier
- Department of Sociology and Human Geography, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- NORMENT Centre, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eivind Ystrøm
- PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elsje van Bergen
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Research Institute LEARN!, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Torkild H Lyngstad
- Department of Sociology and Human Geography, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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3
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Burt CH. Polygenic scores for social science: Clarification, consensus, and controversy. Behav Brain Sci 2023; 46:e232. [PMID: 37694994 PMCID: PMC10723835 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x23000845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
In this response, I focus on clarifying my arguments, highlighting consensus, and addressing competing views about the utility of polygenic scores (PGSs) for social science. I also discuss an assortment of expansions to my arguments and suggest alternative approaches. I conclude by reiterating the need for caution and appropriate scientific skepticism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callie H Burt
- Department of Criminal Justice & Criminology, Center for Research on Interpersonal Violence (CRIV), Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA ; www.callieburt.org
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4
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Dong L, Giangrande EJ, Womack SR, Yoo K, Beam CR, Jacobson KC, Turkheimer E. A Longitudinal Analysis of Gene x Environment Interaction on Verbal Intelligence Across Adolescence and Early Adulthood. Behav Genet 2023; 53:311-330. [PMID: 37171531 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-023-10145-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The Scarr-Rowe hypothesis proposes that the heritability of intelligence is higher in more advantaged socioeconomic contexts. An early demonstration of this hypothesis was Rowe and colleagues (Rowe et al., Child Dev 70:1151-1162, 1999), where an interaction between the heritability of verbal intelligence and parental education was identified in adolescent siblings in Wave I of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. The present study repeated their original analysis at Wave I using contemporary methods, replicated the finding during young adulthood at Wave III, and analyzed the interaction longitudinally utilizing multiple measurements. We examined parental education, family income, and peer academic environment as potential moderators. Results indicated increased heritability and decreased shared environmental variance of verbal intelligence at higher levels of parental education and peer academic environment in adolescence. Moreover, moderation by peer academic environment persisted into adulthood with its effect partially attributable to novel gene-environment interactions that arose in the process of cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- LiChen Dong
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Evan J Giangrande
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Sean R Womack
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Kristy Yoo
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christopher R Beam
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kristen C Jacobson
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Eric Turkheimer
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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5
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Fletcher JM, Wu Y, Zhao Z, Lu Q. The production of within-family inequality: Insights and implications of integrating genetic data. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad121. [PMID: 37124401 PMCID: PMC10139699 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The integration of genetic data within large-scale social and health surveys provides new opportunities to test long-standing theories of parental investments in children and within-family inequality. Genetic predictors, called polygenic scores, allow novel assessments of young children's abilities that are uncontaminated by parental investments, and family-based samples allow indirect tests of whether children's abilities are reinforced or compensated. We use over 16,000 sibling pairs from the UK Biobank to test whether the relative ranking of siblings' polygenic scores for educational attainment is consequential for actual attainments. We find evidence consistent with compensatory processes, on average, where the association between genotype and phenotype of educational attainment is reduced by over 20% for the higher-ranked sibling compared to the lower-ranked sibling. These effects are most pronounced in high socioeconomic status areas. We find no evidence that similar processes hold in the case of height or for relatives who are not full biological siblings (e.g. cousins). Our results provide a new use of polygenic scores to understand processes that generate within-family inequalities and also suggest important caveats to causal interpretations the effects of polygenic scores using sibling difference designs. Future work should seek to replicate these findings in other data and contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuchang Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Genetics-Biotech Center, 425 Henry Mall, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Zijie Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Genetics-Biotech Center, 425 Henry Mall, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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6
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McAdams TA, Cheesman R, Ahmadzadeh YI. Annual Research Review: Towards a deeper understanding of nature and nurture: combining family-based quasi-experimental methods with genomic data. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2023; 64:693-707. [PMID: 36379220 PMCID: PMC10952916 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Distinguishing between the effects of nature and nurture constitutes a major research goal for those interested in understanding human development. It is known, for example, that many parent traits predict mental health outcomes in children, but the causal processes underlying such associations are often unclear. Family-based quasi-experimental designs such as sibling comparison, adoption and extended family studies have been used for decades to distinguish the genetic transmission of risk from the environmental effects family members potentially have on one another. Recently, these designs have been combined with genomic data, and this combination is fuelling a range of exciting methodological advances. In this review we explore these advances - highlighting the ways in which they have been applied to date and considering what they are likely to teach us in the coming years about the aetiology and intergenerational transmission of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom A. McAdams
- Social Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
- PROMENTA Research Centre, Department of PsychologyUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
| | - Rosa Cheesman
- Social Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
- PROMENTA Research Centre, Department of PsychologyUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
| | - Yasmin I. Ahmadzadeh
- Social Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and NeuroscienceKing's College LondonLondonUK
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7
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Song J, Zou Y, Wu Y, Miao J, Yu Z, Fletcher JM, Lu Q. Decomposing heritability and genetic covariance by direct and indirect effect paths. PLoS Genet 2023; 19:e1010620. [PMID: 36689559 PMCID: PMC9894552 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Estimation of heritability and genetic covariance is crucial for quantifying and understanding complex trait genetic architecture and is employed in almost all recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS). However, many existing approaches for heritability estimation and almost all methods for estimating genetic correlation ignore the presence of indirect genetic effects, i.e., genotype-phenotype associations confounded by the parental genome and family environment, and may thus lead to incorrect interpretation especially for human sociobehavioral phenotypes. In this work, we introduce a statistical framework to decompose heritability and genetic covariance into multiple components representing direct and indirect effect paths. Applied to five traits in UK Biobank, we found substantial involvement of indirect genetic components in shared genetic architecture across traits. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach and highlight the importance of accounting for indirect effects in variance component analysis of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Song
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Yiqing Zou
- Department of Statistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
| | - Yuchang Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jiacheng Miao
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Ze Yu
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jason M. Fletcher
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- La Follette School of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Qiongshi Lu
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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8
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Hwang LD, Moen GH, Evans DM. Using adopted individuals to partition indirect maternal genetic effects into prenatal and postnatal effects on offspring phenotypes. eLife 2022; 11:e73671. [PMID: 35822614 PMCID: PMC9323003 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal genetic effects can be defined as the effect of a mother's genotype on the phenotype of her offspring, independent of the offspring's genotype. Maternal genetic effects can act via the intrauterine environment during pregnancy and/or via the postnatal environment. In this manuscript, we present a simple extension to the basic adoption design that uses structural equation modelling (SEM) to partition maternal genetic effects into prenatal and postnatal effects. We examine the power, utility and type I error rate of our model using simulations and asymptotic power calculations. We apply our model to polygenic scores of educational attainment and birth weight associated variants, in up to 5,178 adopted singletons, 943 trios, 2687 mother-offspring pairs, 712 father-offspring pairs and 347,980 singletons from the UK Biobank. Our results show the expected pattern of maternal genetic effects on offspring birth weight, but unexpectedly large prenatal maternal genetic effects on offspring educational attainment. Sensitivity and simulation analyses suggest this result may be at least partially due to adopted individuals in the UK Biobank being raised by their biological relatives. We show that accurate modelling of these sorts of cryptic relationships is sufficient to bring type I error rate under control and produce asymptotically unbiased estimates of prenatal and postnatal maternal genetic effects. We conclude that there would be considerable value in following up adopted individuals in the UK Biobank to determine whether they were raised by their biological relatives, and if so, to precisely ascertain the nature of these relationships. These adopted individuals could then be incorporated into informative statistical genetics models like the one described in our manuscript to further elucidate the genetic architecture of complex traits and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Dar Hwang
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Gunn-Helen Moen
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- Institute for Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of OsloOsloNorway
- K.G. Jebsen Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, Norwegian University of Science and TechnologyTrondheimNorway
- Population Health Science, Bristol Medical School, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
| | - David M Evans
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of QueenslandBrisbaneAustralia
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of BristolBristolUnited Kingdom
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9
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Austerberry C, Fearon P, Ronald A, Leve LD, Ganiban JM, Natsuaki MN, Shaw DS, Neiderhiser JM, Reiss D. Early manifestations of intellectual performance: Evidence that genetic effects on later academic test performance are mediated through verbal performance in early childhood. Child Dev 2022; 93:e188-e206. [PMID: 34783370 PMCID: PMC10861934 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Intellectual performance is highly heritable and robustly predicts lifelong health and success but the earliest manifestations of genetic effects on this asset are not well understood. This study examined whether early executive function (EF) or verbal performance mediate genetic influences on subsequent intellectual performance, in 561 U.S.-based adoptees (57% male) and their birth and adoptive parents (70% and 92% White, 13% and 4% African American, 7% and 2% Latinx, respectively), administered measures in 2003-2017. Genetic influences on children's academic performance at 7 years were mediated by verbal performance at 4.5 years (β = .22, 95% CI [0.08, 0.35], p = .002) and not via EF, indicating that verbal performance is an early manifestation of genetic propensity for intellectual performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Austerberry
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Pasco Fearon
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Angelica Ronald
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Leslie D. Leve
- Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - Jody M. Ganiban
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Misaki N. Natsuaki
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Daniel S. Shaw
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jenae M. Neiderhiser
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David Reiss
- Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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10
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Ho TC, King LS. Mechanisms of neuroplasticity linking early adversity to depression: developmental considerations. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:517. [PMID: 34628465 PMCID: PMC8501358 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01639-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Early exposure to psychosocial adversity is among the most potent predictors of depression. Because depression commonly emerges prior to adulthood, we must consider the fundamental principles of developmental neuroscience when examining how experiences of childhood adversity, including abuse and neglect, can lead to depression. Considering that both the environment and the brain are highly dynamic across the period spanning gestation through adolescence, the purpose of this review is to discuss and integrate stress-based models of depression that center developmental processes. We offer a general framework for understanding how psychosocial adversity in early life disrupts or calibrates the biobehavioral systems implicated in depression. Specifically, we propose that the sources and nature of the environmental input shaping the brain, and the mechanisms of neuroplasticity involved, change across development. We contend that the effects of adversity largely depend on the developmental stage of the organism. First, we summarize leading neurobiological models that focus on the effects of adversity on risk for mental disorders, including depression. In particular, we highlight models of allostatic load, acceleration maturation, dimensions of adversity, and sensitive or critical periods. Second, we expound on and review evidence for the formulation that distinct mechanisms of neuroplasticity are implicated depending on the timing of adverse experiences, and that inherent within certain windows of development are constraints on the sources and nature of these experiences. Finally, we consider other important facets of adverse experiences (e.g., environmental unpredictability, perceptions of one's experiences) before discussing promising research directions for the future of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany C Ho
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Lucy S King
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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11
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Announcement of the Fulker Award for a Paper Published in Behavior Genetics, Volume 50, 2020. Behav Genet 2021; 51:767-768. [PMID: 34564788 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-021-10083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Wang B, Baldwin JR, Schoeler T, Cheesman R, Barkhuizen W, Dudbridge F, Bann D, Morris TT, Pingault JB. Robust genetic nurture effects on education: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on 38,654 families across 8 cohorts. Am J Hum Genet 2021; 108:1780-1791. [PMID: 34416156 PMCID: PMC8456157 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Similarities between parents and offspring arise from nature and nurture. Beyond this simple dichotomy, recent genomic studies have uncovered "genetic nurture" effects, whereby parental genotypes influence offspring outcomes via environmental pathways rather than genetic transmission. Such genetic nurture effects also need to be accounted for to accurately estimate "direct" genetic effects (i.e., genetic effects on a trait originating in the offspring). Empirical studies have indicated that genetic nurture effects are particularly relevant to the intergenerational transmission of risk for child educational outcomes, which are, in turn, associated with major psychological and health milestones throughout the life course. These findings have yet to be systematically appraised across contexts. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify genetic nurture effects on educational outcomes. A total of 12 studies comprising 38,654 distinct parent(s)-offspring pairs or trios from 8 cohorts reported 22 estimates of genetic nurture effects. Genetic nurture effects on offspring's educational outcomes (βgenetic nurture = 0.08, 95% CI [0.07, 0.09]) were smaller than direct genetic effects (βdirect genetic = 0.17, 95% CI [0.13, 0.20]). Findings were largely consistent across studies. Genetic nurture effects originating from mothers and fathers were of similar magnitude, highlighting the need for a greater inclusion of fathers in educational research. Genetic nurture effects were largely explained by observed parental education and socioeconomic status, pointing to their role in environmental pathways shaping child educational outcomes. Findings provide consistent evidence that environmentally mediated parental genetic influences contribute to the intergenerational transmission of educational outcomes, in addition to effects due to genetic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biyao Wang
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Jessie R Baldwin
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK; Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Tabea Schoeler
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Rosa Cheesman
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London SE5 8AF, UK; PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway
| | - Wikus Barkhuizen
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Frank Dudbridge
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - David Bann
- Centre for Longitudinal Studies, Social Research Institute, University College London, London WC1H 0AL, UK
| | - Tim T Morris
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK; Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, UK
| | - Jean-Baptiste Pingault
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP, UK; Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London SE5 8AF, UK.
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13
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Boardman JD, Fletcher JM. Evaluating the Continued Integration of Genetics into Medical Sociology. JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 62:404-418. [PMID: 34355610 PMCID: PMC8771926 DOI: 10.1177/00221465211032581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The 2010 special issue of Journal of Health and Social Behavior, titled "Fifty Years of Medical Sociology," defined the contours of the medical sociological perspective. We use this as a backdrop to outline and assess the continued integration of genetics into medical sociology research. We contend that the explosion of genetic and epigenetic data in population health data sources has made the medical sociological perspective increasingly relevant to researchers outside of sociology, including public health, epidemiology, and quantitative genetics. We describe vast, underappreciated, and mostly unsolved challenges that limit the scientifically appropriate interest in incorporating genetics into existing paradigms. It is our hope that medical sociologists continue this integration but redouble efforts to maintain the core insights in social science research, such as the importance of environmental and structural (i.e., nonbiological) factors in determining health processes and outcomes and the use of rich, integrated, and rigorous empirical analyses.
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Wu Y, Zhong X, Lin Y, Zhao Z, Chen J, Zheng B, Li JJ, Fletcher JM, Lu Q. Estimating genetic nurture with summary statistics of multigenerational genome-wide association studies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2023184118. [PMID: 34131076 PMCID: PMC8237646 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2023184118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Marginal effect estimates in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are mixtures of direct and indirect genetic effects. Existing methods to dissect these effects require family-based, individual-level genetic, and phenotypic data with large samples, which is difficult to obtain in practice. Here, we propose a statistical framework to estimate direct and indirect genetic effects using summary statistics from GWAS conducted on own and offspring phenotypes. Applied to birth weight, our method showed nearly identical results with those obtained using individual-level data. We also decomposed direct and indirect genetic effects of educational attainment (EA), which showed distinct patterns of genetic correlations with 45 complex traits. The known genetic correlations between EA and higher height, lower body mass index, less-active smoking behavior, and better health outcomes were mostly explained by the indirect genetic component of EA. In contrast, the consistently identified genetic correlation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with higher EA resides in the direct genetic component. A polygenic transmission disequilibrium test showed a significant overtransmission of the direct component of EA from healthy parents to ASD probands. Taken together, we demonstrate that traditional GWAS approaches, in conjunction with offspring phenotypic data collection in existing cohorts, could greatly benefit studies on genetic nurture and shed important light on the interpretation of genetic associations for human complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchang Wu
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Xiaoyuan Zhong
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Yunong Lin
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Zijie Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jiawen Chen
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27514
| | - Boyan Zheng
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - James J Li
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jason M Fletcher
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- La Follette School of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Qiongshi Lu
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706;
- Center for Demography of Health and Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
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Jami ES, Hammerschlag AR, Bartels M, Middeldorp CM. Parental characteristics and offspring mental health and related outcomes: a systematic review of genetically informative literature. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:197. [PMID: 33795643 PMCID: PMC8016911 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01300-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Various parental characteristics, including psychiatric disorders and parenting behaviours, are associated with offspring mental health and related outcomes in observational studies. The application of genetically informative designs is crucial to disentangle the role of genetic and environmental factors (as well as gene-environment correlation) underlying these observations, as parents provide not only the rearing environment but also transmit 50% of their genes to their offspring. This article first provides an overview of behavioural genetics, matched-pair, and molecular genetics designs that can be applied to investigate parent-offspring associations, whilst modelling or accounting for genetic effects. We then present a systematic literature review of genetically informative studies investigating associations between parental characteristics and offspring mental health and related outcomes, published since 2014. The reviewed studies provide reliable evidence of genetic transmission of depression, criminal behaviour, educational attainment, and substance use. These results highlight that studies that do not use genetically informative designs are likely to misinterpret the mechanisms underlying these parent-offspring associations. After accounting for genetic effects, several parental characteristics, including parental psychiatric traits and parenting behaviours, were associated with offspring internalising problems, externalising problems, educational attainment, substance use, and personality through environmental pathways. Overall, genetically informative designs to study intergenerational transmission prove valuable for the understanding of individual differences in offspring mental health and related outcomes, and mechanisms of transmission within families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eshim S Jami
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
- Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Anke R Hammerschlag
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Child Health Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Meike Bartels
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam University Medical Centres, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Christel M Middeldorp
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Child Health Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Child and Youth Mental Health Service, Children's Health Queensland Hospital and Health Service, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Cheesman R, Hunjan A, Coleman JRI, Ahmadzadeh Y, Plomin R, McAdams TA, Eley TC, Breen G. Comparison of Adopted and Nonadopted Individuals Reveals Gene-Environment Interplay for Education in the UK Biobank. Psychol Sci 2020; 31:582-591. [PMID: 32302253 PMCID: PMC7238511 DOI: 10.1177/0956797620904450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Polygenic scores now explain approximately 10% of the variation in educational
attainment. However, they capture not only genetic propensity but also
information about the family environment. This is because of passive
gene–environment correlation, whereby the correlation between offspring and
parent genotypes results in an association between offspring genotypes and the
rearing environment. We measured passive gene–environment correlation using
information on 6,311 adoptees in the UK Biobank. Adoptees’ genotypes were less
correlated with their rearing environments because they did not share genes with
their adoptive parents. We found that polygenic scores were twice as predictive
of years of education in nonadopted individuals compared with adoptees
(R2s = .074 vs. .037, p = 8.23
× 10−24). Individuals in the lowest decile of polygenic scores for
education attained significantly more education if they were adopted, possibly
because of educationally supportive adoptive environments. Overall, these
results suggest that genetic influences on education are mediated via the home
environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Cheesman
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London
| | - Avina Hunjan
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London.,National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan R I Coleman
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London.,National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yasmin Ahmadzadeh
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London
| | - Robert Plomin
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London
| | - Tom A McAdams
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London
| | - Thalia C Eley
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London.,National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gerome Breen
- Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London.,National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Trust, London, United Kingdom
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