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Pasupuleti R, Riedl S, Saltor Núñez L, Karava M, Kumar V, Kourist R, Turnbull WB, Zweytick D, Wiltschi B. Lectin-anticancer peptide fusion demonstrates a significant cancer-cell-selective cytotoxic effect and inspires the production of "clickable" anticancer peptide in Escherichia coli. Protein Sci 2023; 32:e4830. [PMID: 37916438 PMCID: PMC10682692 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Targeted killing of tumor cells while protecting healthy cells is the pressing priority in cancer treatment. Lectins that target a specific glycan marker abundant in cancer cells can be valuable new tools for selective cancer cell killing. The lectin Shiga-like toxin 1 B subunit (Stx1B) is an example that specifically binds globotriaosylceramide (CD77 or Gb3), which is overexpressed in certain cancers. In this study, a human lactoferricin-derived synthetic retro di-peptide R-DIM-P-LF11-215 with antitumor efficacy was fused to the lectin Stx1B to selectively target and kill Gb3+ cancer cells. We produced lectin-peptide fusion proteins in Escherichia coli, isolated them by Gb3-affinity chromatography, and assessed their ability to selectively kill Gb3+ cancer cells in a Calcein AM assay. Furthermore, to expand the applications of R-DIM-P-LF11-215 in developing therapeutic bioconjugates, we labeled R-DIM-P-LF11-215 with the unique reactive non-canonical amino acid Nε -((2-azidoethoxy)carbonyl)-L-lysine (AzK) at a selected position by amber stop codon suppression. The R-DIM-P-LF11-215 20AzK and the unlabeled R-DIM-P-LF11-215 parent peptide were produced as GST-fusion proteins for soluble expression in E. coli for the first time. We purified both variants by size-exclusion chromatography and analyzed their peptide masses. Finally, a cyanin 3 fluorophore was covalently conjugated to R-DIM-P-LF11-215 20AzK by strain-promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition. Our results showed that the recombinant lectin-peptide fusion R-DIM-P-LF11-215-Stx1B killed >99% Gb3+ HeLa cells while Gb3-negative cells were unaffected. The peptides R-DIM-P-LF11-215 and R-DIM-P-LF11-215 20AzK were produced recombinantly in E. coli in satisfactory amounts and were tested functional by cytotoxicity and cell-binding assays, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Pasupuleti
- acib ‐ Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
| | - Sabrina Riedl
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Biophysics DivisionUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
- BioHealthUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
- BioTechMed‐GrazGrazAustria
| | - Laia Saltor Núñez
- School of Chemistry and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular BiologyUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Marianna Karava
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
| | - Vajinder Kumar
- School of Chemistry and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular BiologyUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Robert Kourist
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
| | - W. Bruce Turnbull
- School of Chemistry and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular BiologyUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Dagmar Zweytick
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Biophysics DivisionUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
- BioHealthUniversity of GrazGrazAustria
- BioTechMed‐GrazGrazAustria
| | - Birgit Wiltschi
- acib ‐ Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
- BioTechMed‐GrazGrazAustria
- Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
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In Model, In Vitro and In Vivo Killing Efficacy of Antitumor Peptide RDP22 on MUG-Mel2, a Patient Derived Cell Line of an Aggressive Melanoma Metastasis. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10112961. [PMID: 36428530 PMCID: PMC9687695 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10112961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The host defense derived peptide was assessed in different model systems with increasing complexity employing the highly aggressive NRAS mutated melanoma metastases cell line MUG-Mel2. Amongst others, fluorescence microscopy and spectroscopy, as well as cell death studies were applied for liposomal, 2D and 3D in vitro models including tumor spheroids without or within skin models and in vivo mouse xenografts. Summarized, MUG-Mel2 cells were shown to significantly expose the negatively charged lipid phosphatidylserine on their plasma membranes, showing they are successfully targeted by RDP22. The peptide was able to induce cell death in MUG-Mel2 2D and 3D cultures, where it was able to kill tumor cells even inside the core of tumor spheroids or inside a melanoma organotypic model. In vitro studies indicated cell death by apoptosis upon peptide treatment with an LC50 of 8.5 µM and seven-fold specificity for the melanoma cell line MUG-Mel2 over normal dermal fibroblasts. In vivo studies in mice xenografts revealed effective tumor regression upon intratumoral peptide injection, indicated by the strong clearance of pigmented tumor cells and tremendous reduction in tumor size and proliferation, which was determined histologically. The peptide RDP22 has clearly shown high potential against the melanoma cell line MUG-Mel2 in vitro and in vivo.
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Natural Peptides Inducing Cancer Cell Death: Mechanisms and Properties of Specific Candidates for Cancer Therapeutics. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26247453. [PMID: 34946535 PMCID: PMC8708364 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26247453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, cancer has become the second highest leading cause of death, and it is expected to continue to affect the population in forthcoming years. Additionally, treatment options will become less accessible to the public as cases continue to grow and disease mechanisms expand. Hence, specific candidates with confirmed anticancer effects are required to develop new drugs. Among the novel therapeutic options, proteins are considered a relevant source, given that they have bioactive peptides encrypted within their sequences. These bioactive peptides, which are molecules consisting of 2–50 amino acids, have specific activities when administered, producing anticancer effects. Current databases report the effects of peptides. However, uncertainty is found when their molecular mechanisms are investigated. Furthermore, analyses addressing their interaction networks or their directly implicated mechanisms are needed to elucidate their effects on cancer cells entirely. Therefore, relevant peptides considered as candidates for cancer therapeutics with specific sequences and known anticancer mechanisms were accurately reviewed. Likewise, those features which turn certain peptides into candidates and the mechanisms by which peptides mediate tumor cell death were highlighted. This information will make robust the knowledge of these candidate peptides with recognized mechanisms and enhance their non-toxic capacity in relation to healthy cells and further avoid cell resistance.
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Trinidad-Calderón PA, Varela-Chinchilla CD, García-Lara S. Natural Peptides Inducing Cancer Cell Death: Mechanisms and Properties of Specific Candidates for Cancer Therapeutics. Molecules 2021. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, cancer has become the second highest leading cause of death, and it is expected to continue to affect the population in forthcoming years. Additionally, treatment options will become less accessible to the public as cases continue to grow and disease mechanisms expand. Hence, specific candidates with confirmed anticancer effects are required to develop new drugs. Among the novel therapeutic options, proteins are considered a relevant source, given that they have bioactive peptides encrypted within their sequences. These bioactive peptides, which are molecules consisting of 2–50 amino acids, have specific activities when administered, producing anticancer effects. Current databases report the effects of peptides. However, uncertainty is found when their molecular mechanisms are investigated. Furthermore, analyses addressing their interaction networks or their directly implicated mechanisms are needed to elucidate their effects on cancer cells entirely. Therefore, relevant peptides considered as candidates for cancer therapeutics with specific sequences and known anticancer mechanisms were accurately reviewed. Likewise, those features which turn certain peptides into candidates and the mechanisms by which peptides mediate tumor cell death were highlighted. This information will make robust the knowledge of these candidate peptides with recognized mechanisms and enhance their non-toxic capacity in relation to healthy cells and further avoid cell resistance.
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Effect of L- to D-Amino Acid Substitution on Stability and Activity of Antitumor Peptide RDP215 against Human Melanoma and Glioblastoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168469. [PMID: 34445175 PMCID: PMC8395111 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The study investigates the antitumor effect of two cationic peptides, R-DIM-P-LF11-215 (RDP215) and the D-amino acid variant 9D-R-DIM-P-LF11-215 (9D-RDP215), targeting the negatively charged lipid phosphatidylserine (PS) exposed by cancer cells, such as of melanoma and glioblastoma. Model studies mimicking cancer and non-cancer membranes revealed the specificity for the cancer-mimic PS by both peptides with a slightly stronger impact by the D-peptide. Accordingly, membrane effects studied by DSC, leakage and quenching experiments were solely induced by the peptides when the cancer mimic PS was present. Circular dichroism revealed a sole increase in β-sheet conformation in the presence of the cancer mimic for both peptides; only 9D-RDP215 showed increased structure already in the buffer. Ex vitro stability studies by SDS-PAGE as well as in vitro with melanoma A375 revealed a stabilizing effect of D-amino acids in the presence of serum, which was also confirmed in 2D and 3D in vitro experiments on glioblastoma LN-229. 9D-RDP215 was additionally able to pass a BBB model, whereupon it induced significant levels of cell death in LN-229 spheroids. Summarized, the study encourages the introduction of D-amino acids in the design of antitumor peptides for the improvement of their stable antitumor activity.
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Antimicrobial Peptide Brevinin-1RL1 from Frog Skin Secretion Induces Apoptosis and Necrosis of Tumor Cells. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26072059. [PMID: 33916789 PMCID: PMC8038347 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26072059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer has always been one of the most common malignant diseases in the world. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find potent agents with selective antitumor activity against cancer cells. It has been reported that antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) can selectively target tumor cells. In this study, we focused on the anti-tumor activity and mechanism of Brevivin-1RL1, a cationic α-helical AMP isolated from frog Rana limnocharis skin secretions. We found that Brevivin-1RL1 preferentially inhibits tumor cells rather than non-tumor cells with slight hemolytic activity. Cell viability assay demonstrated the intermolecular disulfide bridge contributes to the inhibitory activity of the peptide as the antitumor activity was abolished when the disulfide bridge reduced. Further mechanism studies revealed that both necrosis and apoptosis are involved in Brevivin-1RL1 mediated tumor cells death. Moreover, Brevivin-1RL1 induced extrinsic and mitochondria intrinsic apoptosis is caspases dependent, as the pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-FMK rescued Brevinin-1RL1 induced tumor cell proliferative inhibition. Immunohistology staining showed Brevivin-1RL1 mainly aggregated on the surface of the tumor cells. These results together suggested that Brevivin-1RL1 preferentially converges on the cancer cells to trigger necrosis and caspase-dependent apoptosis and Brevivin-1RL1 could be considered as a pharmacological candidate for further development as anti-cancer agent.
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Sowińska M, Szeliga M, Morawiak M, Ziemińska E, Zabłocka B, Urbańczyk-Lipkowska Z. Peptide Dendrimers with Non-Symmetric Bola Structure Exert Long Term Effect on Glioblastoma and Neuroblastoma Cell Lines. Biomolecules 2021; 11:435. [PMID: 33804286 PMCID: PMC8000084 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant tumor of the central nervous system (CNS). Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common cancers of childhood derived from the neural crest cells. The survival rate for patients with GBM and high-risk NB is poor; therefore, novel therapeutic approaches are needed. Increasing evidence suggests a dual role of redox-active compounds in both tumorigenesis and cancer treatment. Therefore, in this study, polyfunctional peptide-based dendrimeric molecules of the bola structure carrying residues with antiproliferative potential on one side and the antioxidant residues on the other side were designed. METHODS We synthesized non-symmetric bola dendrimers and assessed their radical scavenging potency as well as redox capability. The influence of dendrimers on viability of rat primary cerebellar neurons (CGC) and normal human astrocytes (NHA) was determined by propidium iodide staining and cell counting. Cytotoxicity against human GBM cell lines, T98G and LN229, and NB cell line SH-SY5Y was assessed by cell counting and colony forming assay. RESULTS Testing of CGC and NHA viability allowed to establish a range of optimal dendrimers structure and concentration for further evaluation of their impact on two human GBM and one human NB cell lines. According to ABTS, DPPH, FRAP, and CUPRAC antioxidant tests, the most toxic for normal cells were dendrimers with high charge and an excess of antioxidant residues (Trp and PABA) on both sides of the bola structure. At 5 μM concentration, most of the tested dendrimers neither reduced rat CGC viability below 50-40%, nor harmed human neurons (NHA). The same dose of compounds 16 or 22, after 30 min treatment decreased the number of SH-SY5Y and LN229 cells, but did not affect the number of T98G cells 48 h post treatment. However, either compound significantly reduced the number of colonies formed by SH-SY5Y, LN229, and T98G cells measured 14 days after treatment. CONCLUSIONS Peptide dendrimers with non-symmetric bola structure are excellent scaffolds for design of molecules with pro/antioxidant functionality. Design of molecules with an excess of positive charges and antioxidant residues rendered molecules with high neurotoxicity. Single, 30 min exposition of the GBM and NB cell lines to the selected bola dendrimers significantly suppressed their clonogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Sowińska
- Institute of Organic Chemistry PAS, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland; (M.S.); (M.M.)
| | - Monika Szeliga
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute PAS, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (E.Z.); (B.Z.)
| | - Maja Morawiak
- Institute of Organic Chemistry PAS, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland; (M.S.); (M.M.)
| | - Elżbieta Ziemińska
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute PAS, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (E.Z.); (B.Z.)
| | - Barbara Zabłocka
- Mossakowski Medical Research Institute PAS, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (E.Z.); (B.Z.)
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Vitale I, Yamazaki T, Wennerberg E, Sveinbjørnsson B, Rekdal Ø, Demaria S, Galluzzi L. Targeting Cancer Heterogeneity with Immune Responses Driven by Oncolytic Peptides. Trends Cancer 2021; 7:557-572. [PMID: 33446447 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that high degrees of heterogeneity among malignant cells constitute a considerable obstacle to the success of cancer therapy. This calls for the development of approaches that operate - or enable established treatments to operate - despite such intratumoral heterogeneity (ITH). In this context, oncolytic peptides stand out as promising therapeutic tools based on their ability to drive immunogenic cell death associated with robust anticancer immune responses independently of ITH. We review the main molecular and immunological pathways engaged by oncolytic peptides, and discuss potential approaches to combine these agents with modern immunotherapeutics in support of superior tumor-targeting immunity and efficacy in patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilio Vitale
- Italian Institute for Genomic Medicine (IIGM), Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCSS) Candiolo, Torino, Italy; Candiolo Cancer Institute, Fondazione del Piemonte per l'Oncologia (FPO)-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Takahiro Yamazaki
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Erik Wennerberg
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Lytix Biopharma, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway; Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Øystein Rekdal
- Lytix Biopharma, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sandra Demaria
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Université de Paris, Paris, France.
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Bioinspired Bola-Type Peptide Dendrimers Inhibit Proliferation and Invasiveness of Glioblastoma Cells in a Manner Dependent on Their Structure and Amphipathic Properties. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12111106. [PMID: 33217976 PMCID: PMC7698760 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12111106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Natural peptides supporting the innate immune system studied at the functional and mechanistic level are a rich source of innovative compounds for application in human therapy. Increasing evidence indicates that apart from antimicrobial activity, some of them exhibit selective cytotoxicity towards tumor cells. Their cationic, amphipathic structure enables interactions with the negatively-charged membranes of microbial or malignant cells. It can be modeled in 3D by application of dendrimer chemistry. (2) Methods: Here we presented design principles, synthesis and bioactivity of branched peptides constructed from ornithine (Orn) assembled as proline (Pro)- or histidine (His)-rich dendrons and dendrimers of the bola structure. The impact of the structure and amphipathic properties of dendrons/dendrimers on two glioblastoma cell lines U87 and T98G was studied with the application of proliferation, apoptosis and cell migration assays. Cell morphology/cytoskeleton architecture was visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy. (3) Results: Dimerization of dendrons into bola dendrimers enhanced their bioactivity. Pro- and His-functionalized bola dendrimers displayed cytostatic activity, even though differences in the responsiveness of U87 and T98G cells to these compounds indicate that their bioactivity depends not only on multiple positive charge and amphipathic structure but also on cellular phenotype. (4) Conclusion: Ornithine dendrons/dendrimers represent a group of promising anti-tumor agents and the potential tools to study interrelations between drug bioactivity, its chemical properties and tumor cells' phenotype.
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Malanovic N, Ön A, Pabst G, Zellner A, Lohner K. Octenidine: Novel insights into the detailed killing mechanism of Gram-negative bacteria at a cellular and molecular level. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 56:106146. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Swithenbank L, Cox P, Harris LG, Dudley E, Sinclair K, Lewis P, Cappiello F, Morgan C. Temporin A and Bombinin H2 Antimicrobial Peptides Exhibit Selective Cytotoxicity to Lung Cancer Cells. SCIENTIFICA 2020; 2020:3526286. [PMID: 32676212 PMCID: PMC7341413 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3526286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been investigated for their use in cancer therapy. They have been reported to selectively target and kill cancer cells whilst leaving normal healthy cells unaffected. Certain Anura AMPs have expressed selective cytotoxicity against tumour cells. AIM To test the potential of Anura AMPs bombinin H2, bombinin H4, temporin A, and temporin L for use as therapeutic agents for non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). METHODS Cytotoxic effects on NSCLC cell lines A549 and Calu-3 and normal epithelial cell line Beas-2B were tested using the CellTox Green Cytotoxicity Assay. Their haemolytic effects on human erythrocytes were also tested for their clinical relevance. Cell membrane profiling, using MALDI-TOF, was performed to ascertain if membrane characteristics of the NSCLC and Beas-2B cell lines may contribute to the AMPs mode of action. RESULTS Bombinin H4 (100-1.5 μM, p < 0.05) and temporin A (100-50 μM, p < 0.05) showed selective cytotoxicity towards the NSCLC cell lines. Furthermore, they exhibited low levels of haemolytic activity (bombinin H4, 0.061%; temporin A, 0.874%) comparable to untreated cells. Cell membrane profiling showed the phospholipid composition of normal epithelial cell line Beas-2B to be divergent from the cancerous cell lines. However, there was an overlap in the phospholipid profiles of the NSCLC cell lines supporting the hypothesis that the AMPs may have a selective affinity via the membrane composition of cancerous cell lines. CONCLUSION These results suggest that bombinin H4 and temporin A show potential for application in lung cancer therapies. Further in vitro and in vivo studies are required to develop a greater understanding of their use as anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Swithenbank
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Phillipa Cox
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Llinos G. Harris
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Edward Dudley
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Kathryn Sinclair
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Paul Lewis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Floriana Cappiello
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi Fanelli”, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Claire Morgan
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
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Riool M, de Breij A, Kwakman PHS, Schonkeren-Ravensbergen E, de Boer L, Cordfunke RA, Malanovic N, Drijfhout JW, Nibbering PH, Zaat SAJ. Thrombocidin-1-derived antimicrobial peptide TC19 combats superficial multi-drug resistant bacterial wound infections. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183282. [PMID: 32376222 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides are considered promising candidates for the development of novel antimicrobial agents to combat infections by multi-drug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of the synthetic peptide TC19, derived from the human thrombocidin-1-derived peptide L3. Biophysical experiments into the interaction between TC19 and mimics of human and bacterial plasma membranes demonstrated that the peptide is highly selective for bacterial membranes. In agreement, TC19 combined low cytotoxicity towards human fibroblasts with efficient and rapid killing in human plasma of MDR strains of several bacterial species of the ESKAPE panel. In addition, TC19 induced minor resistance in vitro, neutralized pro-inflammatory activity of bacterial cell envelope components while displaying slight chemotactic activity for human neutrophils. Importantly, topical application of TC19-containing hypromellose gel significantly reduced numbers of viable methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and MDR Acinetobacter baumannii in a superficial wound infection in mice. Together, TC19 is an attractive candidate for further development as a novel agent against (MDR) bacterial skin wound infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn Riool
- Dept. of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anna de Breij
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Paulus H S Kwakman
- Dept. of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Leonie de Boer
- Dept. of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Robert A Cordfunke
- Dept. of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nermina Malanovic
- Biophysics Division, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50/III, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Jan W Drijfhout
- Dept. of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Peter H Nibbering
- Dept. of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Sebastian A J Zaat
- Dept. of Medical Microbiology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Ibrahim HM, Mohamed AH, Salem ML, Osman GY, Morsi DS. Anti-neoplastic and immunomodulatory potency of co-treatment based on bovine lactoferrin and/or muramyl dipeptide in tumor-bearing mice. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2020; 9:137-147. [PMID: 32440345 PMCID: PMC7233322 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The current study investigates anti-neoplastic and immunomodulatory activities of co-treatment based on bovine lactoferrin (bLF) and/or muramyl dipeptide (MDP) with or without cisplatin (Cis) in tumor-bearing mice. In the present study, bLF (100 mg/kg; orally) and MDP (0.5 mg/kg; subcutaneously) was administered alone or together. MDP or bLF was co-treated with Cis (1 mg/kg; intraperitoneally) in mice-bearing Ehrlich solid carcinoma. Tumor size, tumor mass proliferation, apoptosis using immunohistochemistry, the alteration in spleen cell proliferation, phenotype using flow cytometry and white blood cells total and differential counts were detected. Treatment with Cis or (bLF and MDP) significantly reduced tumor size, upregulated the pro-apoptotic p53 expression and downregulated the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and proliferative marker PCNA expression compared to non-treated tumor-bearing animals. Moreover, co-treatment of MDP and Cis significantly potentiated the reduction of the tumor size, downregulated the Bcl-2 and PCNA expression and upregulated the p53 expression compared to Cis-treated animals. While bLF and Cis co-treatment positively controlled PCNA and p53 expression compared to tumor-bearing animals, it significantly potentiated the reduction of the tumor size and downregulated the Bcl-2 expression compared to Cis-treated animals. Co-treatment of (bLF and MDP), (bLF and Cis) or (MDP and Cis) increased the spleen cell proliferation and altered the immunological profile of the CD3+CD4+, CD3+CD8+, CD3+CD4+CD69+, CD3+CD8+CD69+ and CD11b+Ly6G+ cells to achieve better immune response against tumor. In conclusion, co-treatments based on bLF and/or MDP are promising therapies against cancer, through their potency to control proliferation, enhance apoptosis and improve the immune status against tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany M Ibrahim
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shibin El Kom 32511, Egypt
| | - Azza H Mohamed
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shibin El Kom 32511, Egypt
| | - Mohamed L Salem
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt
- Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt
| | - Gamalat Y Osman
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shibin El Kom 32511, Egypt
| | - Dalia S Morsi
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shibin El Kom 32511, Egypt
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14
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Grissenberger S, Riedl S, Rinner B, Leber R, Zweytick D. Design of human lactoferricin derived antitumor peptides-activity and specificity against malignant melanoma in 2D and 3D model studies. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183264. [PMID: 32151609 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop effective and specific anti-cancer drugs based on membrane active peptides. In previous studies we showed that human lactoferricin (hLFcin) derived peptides facilitate specific killing of cancer cells. These antitumor peptides were found by conventional melanoma two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures to induce apoptosis of cancer cells and to specifically target lipid phosphatidylserine located on the outside of cancer cell membranes. In order to have a more relevant in vitro model able to mimic the natural microenvironments of tumor tissues we established three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). We used a set of (retro) di-peptides derived from LF11, an 11 amino acid long fragment of hLFcin, which differed in peptide length, positive net charge and hydrophobicity and determined antitumor activity and non-specific toxicity on non-neoplastic cells using 2D and 3D model systems. 2D studies unveiled a correlation between length, positive net charge and hydrophobicity of peptides and their specific antitumor activity. (Retro) di-peptides as R-DIM-P-LF11-215 and DIM-LF11-322 with a net charge of +9 and moderate hydrophobicity exhibited the highest specific antitumor activity. Further evaluation of the peptides anticancer activity by 3D in vitro studies confirmed their higher activity and cancer specificity compared to their parent R-DIM-P-LF11, with the exception of DIM-LF11-339. This highly hydrophobic peptide caused cell death mainly at the border of tumor spheroids indicating that too high hydrophobicity may prevent peptides from reaching the center of the spheroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Grissenberger
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstraße 50/III, A-8010 Graz, Austria; Innovative Cancer Models, St. Anna Children's Cancer Research Institute, Zimmermannplatz 10, A-1090 Wien, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Austria
| | - Sabrina Riedl
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstraße 50/III, A-8010 Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Austria; Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Stiftingtalstraße 24, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Beate Rinner
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Stiftingtalstraße 24, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Regina Leber
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstraße 50/III, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Dagmar Zweytick
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstraße 50/III, A-8010 Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Austria.
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15
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Cytotoxic Effects of Smp24 and Smp43 Scorpion Venom Antimicrobial Peptides on Tumour and Non-tumour Cell Lines. Int J Pept Res Ther 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-019-09932-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Smp24 and Smp43 are novel cationic AMPs identified from the venom of the Egyptian scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus, having potent activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi. Here we describe cytotoxicity of these peptides towards three non-tumour cell lines (CD34+ (hematopoietic stem progenitor from cord blood), HRECs (human renal epithelial cells) and HACAT (human skin keratinocytes) and two acute leukaemia cell lines (myeloid (KG1a) and lymphoid (CCRF-CEM) leukaemia cell lines) using a combination of biochemical and imaging techniques. Smp24 and Smp43 (4–256 µg/mL) decreased the cell viability (as measured by intracellular ATP) of all cells tested, although keratinocytes were markedly less sensitive. Cell membrane leakage as evidenced by the release of lactate dehydrogenase was evident throughout and was confirmed by scanning electron microscope studies.
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16
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Pepsin-catalyzed plastein reaction with tryptophan increases the in vitro activity of lactoferrin hydrolysates with BGC-823 cells. FOOD BIOSCI 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2019.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
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17
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Wodlej C, Riedl S, Rinner B, Leber R, Drechsler C, Voelker DR, Choi JY, Lohner K, Zweytick D. Interaction of two antitumor peptides with membrane lipids - Influence of phosphatidylserine and cholesterol on specificity for melanoma cells. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211187. [PMID: 30682171 PMCID: PMC6347193 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
R-DIM-P-LF11-322 and DIM-LF11-318, derived from the cationic human host defense peptide lactoferricin show antitumor activity against human melanoma. While R-DIM-P-LF11-322 interacts specifically with cancer cells, the non-specific DIM-LF11-318 exhibits as well activity against non-neoplastic cells. Recently we have shown that cancer cells expose the negatively charged lipid phosphatidylserine (PS) in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, while non-cancer cells just expose zwitterionic or neutral lipids, such as phosphatidylcholine (PC) or cholesterol. Calorimetric and zeta potential studies with R-DIM-P-LF11-322 and cancer-mimetic liposomes composed of PS, PC and cholesterol indicate that the cancer-specific peptide interacts specifically with PS. Cholesterol, however, reduces the effectiveness of the peptide. The non-specific DIM-LF11-318 interacts with PC and PS. Cholesterol does not affect its interaction. The dependence of activity of R-DIM-P-LF11-322 on the presence of exposed PS was also confirmed in vitro upon PS depletion of the outer leaflet of cancer cells by the enzyme PS-decarboxylase. Further corresponding to model studies, cholesterol depleted melanoma plasma membranes showed increased sensitivity to R-DIM-P-LF11-322, whereas activity of DIM-LF11-318 was unaffected. Microscopic studies using giant unilamellar vesicles and melanoma cells revealed strong changes in lateral distribution and domain formation of lipids upon addition of both peptides. Whereas R-DIM-P-LF11-322 enters the cancer cell specifically via PS and reaches an intracellular organelle, the Golgi, inducing mitochondrial swelling and apoptosis, DIM-LF11-318 kills rapidly and non-specifically by lysis of the plasma membrane. In conclusion, the specific interaction of R-DIM-P-LF11-322 with PS and sensitivity to cholesterol seem to modulate its specificity for cancer membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wodlej
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sabrina Riedl
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Beate Rinner
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Regina Leber
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Carina Drechsler
- BIOSS and Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg i. Br., Germany
| | - Dennis R Voelker
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver CO, United States of America
| | - Jae-Yeon Choi
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver CO, United States of America
| | - Karl Lohner
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Dagmar Zweytick
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
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18
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Nyström L, Malmsten M. Membrane interactions and cell selectivity of amphiphilic anticancer peptides. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2018.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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19
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Drechsler C, Markones M, Choi JY, Frieling N, Fiedler S, Voelker DR, Schubert R, Heerklotz H. Preparation of Asymmetric Liposomes Using a Phosphatidylserine Decarboxylase. Biophys J 2018; 115:1509-1517. [PMID: 30266319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid asymmetries between the outer and inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer exist in nearly all biological membranes. Although living cells spend great effort to adjust and maintain these asymmetries, little is known about the biophysical phenomena within asymmetric membranes and their role in cellular function. One reason for this lack of insight into such a fundamental membrane property is the fact that the majority of model-membrane studies have been performed on symmetric membranes. Our aim is to overcome this problem by employing a targeted, enzymatic reaction to prepare asymmetric liposomes with phosphatidylserine (PS) primarily in the inner leaflet. To achieve this goal, we use a recombinant version of a water soluble PS decarboxylase from Plasmodium knowlesi, which selectively decarboxylates PS in the outer leaflet, converting it to phosphatidylethanolamine. The extent of decarboxylation is quantified using high-performance thin-layer chromatography, and the local concentration of anionic PS in the outer leaflet is monitored in terms of the ζ potential. Starting, for example, with 21 mol % 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine sodium salt, the assay leads to liposomes with 21 mol % in the inner and 6 mol % PS in the outer leaflet. This asymmetry persists virtually unchanged for at least 4 days at 20°C and at least 2 days at 40°C. The use of a highly specific enzyme carries the advantage that a minor component such as PS can be adjusted without affecting or being affected by the other lipid species present in the model membrane. The phenomena governing the residual outside PS content are addressed but warrant further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Drechsler
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marie Markones
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jae-Yeon Choi
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado
| | - Niklas Frieling
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Fiedler
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Dennis R Voelker
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado
| | - Rolf Schubert
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Heiko Heerklotz
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, Freiburg, Germany; Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
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20
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The Biological and Biophysical Properties of the Spider Peptide Gomesin. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23071733. [PMID: 30012962 PMCID: PMC6099743 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23071733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarises the current knowledge of Gomesin (Gm), an 18-residue long, cationic anti-microbial peptide originally isolated from the haemocytes of the Brazilian tarantula Acanthoscurria gomesiana. The peptide shows potent cytotoxic activity against clinically relevant microbes including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In addition, Gm shows in-vitro and in-vivo anti-cancer activities against several human and murine cancers. The peptide exerts its cytotoxic activity by permeabilising cell membranes, but the underlying molecular mechanism of action is still unclear. Due to its potential as a therapeutic agent, the structure and membrane-binding properties, as well as the leakage and cytotoxic activities of Gm have been studied using a range of techniques. This review provides a summary of these studies, with a particular focus on biophysical characterisation studies of peptide variants that have attempted to establish a structure-activity relationship. Future studies are still needed to rationalise the binding affinity and cell-type-specific selectivity of Gm and its variants, while more pre-clinical studies are required to develop Gm into a therapeutically useful peptide.
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21
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Łoboda D, Kozłowski H, Rowińska-Żyrek M. Antimicrobial peptide–metal ion interactions – a potential way of activity enhancement. NEW J CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c7nj04709f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
We discuss the potential correlation between the antimicrobial peptide–metal binding mode, structure, thermodynamics and mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Łoboda
- Faculty of Chemistry
- University of Wroclaw
- 50-383 Wroclaw
- Poland
| | - H. Kozłowski
- Public Higher Medical Professional School in Opole
- 45-060 Opole
- Poland
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22
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de la Fuente-Núñez C, Silva ON, Lu TK, Franco OL. Antimicrobial peptides: Role in human disease and potential as immunotherapies. Pharmacol Ther 2017; 178:132-140. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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23
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Baxter AA, Lay FT, Poon IKH, Kvansakul M, Hulett MD. Tumor cell membrane-targeting cationic antimicrobial peptides: novel insights into mechanisms of action and therapeutic prospects. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:3809-3825. [PMID: 28770291 PMCID: PMC11107634 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2604-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
There is an ongoing need for effective and targeted cancer treatments that can overcome the detrimental side effects presented by current treatment options. One class of novel anticancer molecules with therapeutic potential currently under investigation are cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs). CAPs are small innate immunity peptides found ubiquitously throughout nature that are typically membrane-active against a wide range of pathogenic microbes. A number of CAPs can also target mammalian cells and often display selective activity towards tumor cells, making them attractive candidates as novel anticancer agents warranting further investigation. This current and comprehensive review describes key examples of naturally occurring membrane-targeting CAPs and their modified derivatives that have demonstrated anticancer activity, across multiple species of origin and structural subfamilies. In addition, we address recent advances made in the field and the ongoing challenges faced in translating experimental findings into clinically relevant treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Baxter
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia.
| | - Fung T Lay
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Ivan K H Poon
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Marc Kvansakul
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Mark D Hulett
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
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24
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Jiang H, Ji C, Sui J, Sa R, Wang X, Liu X, Guo TL. Antibacterial and antitumor activity of Bogorol B-JX isolated from Brevibacillus laterosporus JX-5. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 33:177. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-017-2337-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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25
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Riedl S, Rinner B, Schaider H, Liegl-Atzwanger B, Meditz K, Preishuber-Pflügl J, Grissenberger S, Lohner K, Zweytick D. In vitro and in vivo cytotoxic activity of human lactoferricin derived antitumor peptide R-DIM-P-LF11-334 on human malignant melanoma. Oncotarget 2017; 8:71817-71832. [PMID: 29069749 PMCID: PMC5641092 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Di-peptides derived from the human host defense peptide lactoferricin were previously described to specifically interact with the negatively charged lipid phosphatidylserine exposed by cancer cells. In this study one further derivative, namely R-DIM-P-LF11-334 is shown to exhibit even increased cancer toxicity in vitro and in vivo while non-neoplastic cells are not harmed. In liposomal model systems composed of phosphatidylserine mimicking cancerous and phosphatidylcholine mimicking non-cancerous membranes the specific interaction with the cancer marker PS was confirmed by specific induction of membrane perturbation and permeabilization in presence of the peptide. In vitro studies with cell lines of human malignant melanoma, such as A375, or primary cells of human melanoma metastases to the brain, as MUG Mel1, and non-neoplastic human dermal fibroblasts NHDF revealed high cytotoxic effect of R-DIM-P-LF11-334 on melanoma cells of A375 and MUG Mel1, whereas only minor effect on the dermal fibroblasts NHDF was observed, yielding an about 20-fold killing-specificity for A375 and MUG-Mel1. The LC50 values for melanoma A375 and MUG Mel1 were about 10 μM. Analysis of secondary structure of the peptide revealed an increase in the proportion of β-sheets exclusively in presence of the cancer mimic. Stability studies further indicated a potential adequate stability in blood or under stringent conditions. Importantly the cytotoxic effect on cancer cells was also proven in vivo in mouse xenografts of human melanoma, where peptide treatment induced strong tumor regression and in average a tumor area reduction of 85% compared to tumors of control mice without peptide treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Riedl
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Helmut Schaider
- Biomedical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Cancer Biology Unit, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Bernadette Liegl-Atzwanger
- Dermatology Research Centre, The University of Queensland, School of Medicine, Southern Clinical Division, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Julia Preishuber-Pflügl
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sarah Grissenberger
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Karl Lohner
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Dagmar Zweytick
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.,Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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26
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Jiang R, Lönnerdal B. Bovine lactoferrin and lactoferricin exert antitumor activities on human colorectal cancer cells (HT-29) by activating various signaling pathways. Biochem Cell Biol 2016; 95:99-109. [PMID: 28169560 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2016-0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrin (Lf) is an iron-binding glycoprotein that is present at high concentrations in milk. Bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB) is a peptide fragment generated by pepsin proteolysis of bovine lactoferrin (bLf). LfcinB consists of amino acid residues 17-41 proximal to the N-terminus of bLf and a disulfide bond between residues 19 and 36, forming a loop. Both bLf and LfcinB have been demonstrated to have antitumor activities. Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death in developed countries. We hypothesized that bLf and LfcinB exert antitumor activities on colon cancer cells (HT-29) by triggering various signaling pathways. bLf and LfcinB significantly induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells but not in normal human intestinal epithelial cells, as revealed by the ApoTox-Glo Triplex Assay. The LIVE/DEAD cell viability assay showed that both bLf and LfcinB reduced the viability of HT-29 cells. Transcriptome analysis indicated that bLf, cyclic LfcinB, and linear LfcinB exerted antitumor activities by differentially activating diverse signaling pathways, including p53, apoptosis, and angiopoietin signaling. Immunoblotting results confirmed that both bLf and LfcinBs increased expression of caspase-8, p53, and p21, critical proteins in tumor suppression. These results provide valuable information regarding bLf and LfcinB for potential clinical applications in colon cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rulan Jiang
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.,Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Bo Lönnerdal
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.,Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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27
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Bruni N, Capucchio MT, Biasibetti E, Pessione E, Cirrincione S, Giraudo L, Corona A, Dosio F. Antimicrobial Activity of Lactoferrin-Related Peptides and Applications in Human and Veterinary Medicine. Molecules 2016; 21:E752. [PMID: 27294909 PMCID: PMC6273662 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21060752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a vast array of molecules produced by virtually all living organisms as natural barriers against infection. Among AMP sources, an interesting class regards the food-derived bioactive agents. The whey protein lactoferrin (Lf) is an iron-binding glycoprotein that plays a significant role in the innate immune system, and is considered as an important host defense molecule. In search for novel antimicrobial agents, Lf offers a new source with potential pharmaceutical applications. The Lf-derived peptides Lf(1-11), lactoferricin (Lfcin) and lactoferrampin exhibit interesting and more potent antimicrobial actions than intact protein. Particularly, Lfcin has demonstrated strong antibacterial, anti-fungal and antiparasitic activity with promising applications both in human and veterinary diseases (from ocular infections to osteo-articular, gastrointestinal and dermatological diseases).
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascia Bruni
- Istituto Farmaceutico Candioli, Beinasco (To) 10092, Italy.
| | | | - Elena Biasibetti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino 10095, Italy.
| | - Enrica Pessione
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino 10123, Italy.
| | - Simona Cirrincione
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino 10123, Italy.
| | | | | | - Franco Dosio
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Torino, Torino 10125, Italy.
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28
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Duong DT, Singh S, Bagheri M, Verma NK, Schmidtchen A, Malmsten M. Pronounced peptide selectivity for melanoma through tryptophan end-tagging. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24952. [PMID: 27117225 PMCID: PMC4847013 DOI: 10.1038/srep24952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Effects of oligotryptophan end-tagging on the uptake of arginine-rich peptides into melanoma cells was investigated under various conditions and compared to that into non-malignant keratinocytes, fibroblasts, and erythrocytes, also monitoring resulting cell toxicity. In parallel, biophysical studies on peptide binding to, and destabilization of, model lipid membranes provided mechanistic insight into the origin of the selectivity between melanoma and non-malignant cells. Collectively, the results demonstrate that W-tagging represents a powerful way to increase selective peptide internalization in melanoma cells, resulting in toxicity against these, but not against the non-malignant cells. These effects were shown to be due to increased peptide adsorption to the outer membrane in melanoma cells, caused by the presence of anionic lipids such as phosphatidylserine and ganglioside GM1, and to peptide effects on mitochondria membranes and resulting apoptosis. In addition, the possibility of using W-tagged peptides for targeted uptake of nanoparticles/drug carriers in melanoma was demonstrated, as was the possibility to open up the outer membrane of melanoma cells in order to facilitate uptake of low Mw anticancer drugs, here demonstrated for doxorubicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinh Thuy Duong
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232
| | - Shalini Singh
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, SE-75123, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mojtaba Bagheri
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, SE-75123, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Navin Kumar Verma
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232
| | - Artur Schmidtchen
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232
- Division of Dermatology and Venereology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, SE-221 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Martin Malmsten
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, SE-75123, Uppsala, Sweden
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Haug BE, Camilio KA, Eliassen LT, Stensen W, Svendsen JS, Berg K, Mortensen B, Serin G, Mirjolet JF, Bichat F, Rekdal Ø. Discovery of a 9-mer Cationic Peptide (LTX-315) as a Potential First in Class Oncolytic Peptide. J Med Chem 2016; 59:2918-27. [PMID: 26982623 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b02025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic immunotherapies represent a new promising strategy in the treatment of cancer. In our efforts to develop oncolytic peptides, we identified a series of chemically modified 9-mer cationic peptides that were highly effective against both drug-resistant and drug-sensitive cancer cells and with lower toxicity toward normal cells. Among these peptides, LTX-315 displayed superior anticancer activity and was selected as a lead candidate. This peptide showed relative high plasma protein binding abilities and a human plasma half-life of 160 min, resulting in formation of nontoxic metabolites. In addition, the lead candidate demonstrated relatively low ability to inhibit CYP450 enzymes. Collectively these data indicated that this peptide has potential to be developed as a new anticancer agent for intratumoral administration and is currently being evaluated in a phase I/IIa study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Erik Haug
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Chemistry and Centre for Pharmacy, University of Bergen , Allégaten 41, NO-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Ketil André Camilio
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway , NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Wenche Stensen
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Chemistry, UiT The Arctic University of Norway , NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - John Sigurd Svendsen
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Chemistry, UiT The Arctic University of Norway , NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kristel Berg
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway
| | | | | | | | | | - Øystein Rekdal
- Lytix Biopharma AS , Sykehusveien 21, NO-9294 Tromsø, Norway.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway , NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
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Ionic strength dependent vesicle adsorption and phase behavior of anionic phospholipids on a gold substrate. Biointerphases 2016; 11:019006. [PMID: 26746165 DOI: 10.1116/1.4939596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The authors report on the effect of ionic strength on the formation of supported vesicle layers of anionic phospholipids 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-rac-glycerol (DMPG) and dimyristoylphosphatidylserine (DMPS) onto gold. Using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring the authors show that vesicle adsorption is mainly governed by NaCl concentration, reflecting the importance of electrostatic interactions in anionic lipids, as compared to zwitterionic 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. At low ionic strength, low or no adsorption is observed as a result of vesicle-vesicle electrostatic repulsion. At medium ionic strength, the negative charges of DMPG and DMPS are screened resulting in larger adsorption and a highly dissipative intact vesicle layer. In addition, DMPS exhibits a peculiar behavior at high ionic strength that depends on the temperature of the process.
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31
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PFR peptide, one of the antimicrobial peptides identified from the derivatives of lactoferrin, induces necrosis in leukemia cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20823. [PMID: 26860588 PMCID: PMC4748414 DOI: 10.1038/srep20823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
LF11-322 (PFWRIRIRR-NH2) (PFR peptide), a nine amino acid-residue peptide fragment derived from human lactoferricin, possesses potent cytotoxicity against bacteria. We report here the discovery and characterization of its antitumor activity in leukemia cells. PFR peptide inhibited the proliferation of MEL and HL-60 leukemia cells by inducing cell death in the absence of the classical features of apoptosis, including chromatin condensation, Annexin V staining, Caspase activation and increase of abundance of pro-apoptotic proteins. Instead, necrotic cell death as evidenced by increasing intracellular PI staining and LDH release, inducing membrane disruption and up-regulating intracellular calcium level, was observed following PFR peptide treatment. In addition to necrotic cell death, PFR peptide also induced G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. Moreover, PFR peptide exhibited favorable antitumor activity and tolerability in vivo. These findings thus provide a new clue of antimicrobial peptides as a potential novel therapy for leukemia.
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32
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Gabernet G, Müller AT, Hiss JA, Schneider G. Membranolytic anticancer peptides. MEDCHEMCOMM 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6md00376a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the structure–activity relationships and mechanisms of action of membranolytic anticancer peptides could help them advance to therapeutic success.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Gabernet
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
- CH-8093 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - A. T. Müller
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
- CH-8093 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - J. A. Hiss
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
- CH-8093 Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - G. Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
- CH-8093 Zurich
- Switzerland
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Wang C, Chen YW, Zhang L, Gong XG, Zhou Y, Shang DJ. Melanoma cell surface-expressed phosphatidylserine as a therapeutic target for cationic anticancer peptide, temporin-1CEa. J Drug Target 2015; 24:548-56. [PMID: 26596643 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1113539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We have previously reported that temporin-1CEa, a cationic antimicrobial peptide, exerts preferential cytotoxicity toward cancer cells. However, the exact molecular mechanism for this cancer-selectivity is still largely unknown. Here, we found that the negatively charged phosphatidylserine (PS) expressed on cancer cell surface serves as a target for temporin-1CEa. Our results indicate that human A375 melanoma cells express 50-fold more PS than non-cancerous HaCaT cells. The expression of cell surface PS in various cancer cell lines closely correlated with their ability to be recognized, bound and killed by temporin-1CEa. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of temporin-1CEa against A375 cells can be ameliorated by annexin V, which binds to cell surface PS with high affinity. Moreover, the data of isothermal titration calorimetry assay further confirmed a direct binding of temporin-1CEa to PS, at a ratio of 1:5 (temporin-1CEa:PS). Interestingly, the circular dichroism spectra analysis using artificial biomembrane revealed that PS not only provides electrostatic attractive sites for temporin-1CEa but also confers the membrane-bound temporin-1CEa to form α-helical structure, therefore, enhances the affinity and membrane disrupting ability of temporin-1CEa. In summary, these findings suggested that the melanoma cells expressed PS may serve as a promising target for temporin-1CEa or other cationic anticancer peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che Wang
- a Department of Pharmacy , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China and.,b Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Discovery , School of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China
| | - Yin-Wang Chen
- a Department of Pharmacy , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China and
| | - Liang Zhang
- a Department of Pharmacy , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China and
| | - Xian-Ge Gong
- b Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Discovery , School of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China
| | - Yang Zhou
- a Department of Pharmacy , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China and
| | - De-Jing Shang
- b Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Discovery , School of Life Science, Liaoning Normal University , Dalian , China
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Pseudorabies Virus US3 Protein Kinase Protects Infected Cells from NK Cell-Mediated Lysis via Increased Binding of the Inhibitory NK Cell Receptor CD300a. J Virol 2015; 90:1522-33. [PMID: 26581992 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02902-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Several reports have indicated that natural killer (NK) cells are of particular importance in the innate response against herpesvirus infections. As a consequence, herpesviruses have developed diverse mechanisms for evading NK cells, although few such mechanisms have been identified for the largest herpesvirus subfamily, the alphaherpesviruses. The antiviral activity of NK cells is regulated by a complex array of interactions between activating/inhibitory receptors on the NK cell surface and the corresponding ligands on the surfaces of virus-infected cells. Here we report that the US3 protein kinase of the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus (PRV) displays previously uncharacterized immune evasion properties: it triggers the binding of the inhibitory NK cell receptor CD300a to the surface of the infected cell, thereby providing increased CD300a-mediated protection of infected cells against NK cell-mediated lysis. US3-mediated CD300a binding was found to depend on aminophospholipid ligands of CD300a and on group I p21-activated kinases. These data identify a novel alphaherpesvirus strategy for evading NK cells and demonstrate, for the first time, a role for CD300a in regulating NK cell activity upon contact with virus-infected target cells. IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses have developed fascinating mechanisms to evade elimination by key elements of the host immune system, contributing to their ability to cause lifelong infections with recurrent reactivation events. Natural killer (NK) cells are central in the innate antiviral response. Here we report that the US3 protein kinase of the alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus displays a previously uncharacterized capacity for evasion of NK cells. Expression of US3 protects infected cells from NK cell-mediated lysis via increased binding of the inhibitory NK cell receptor CD300a. We show that this US3-mediated increase in CD300a binding depends on aminophospholipids and on cellular p21-activated kinases (PAKs). The identification of this novel NK cell evasion strategy may contribute to the design of improved herpesvirus vaccines and may also have significance for other PAK- and CD300a-modulating viruses and cancer cells.
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Riedl S, Leber R, Rinner B, Schaider H, Lohner K, Zweytick D. Human lactoferricin derived di-peptides deploying loop structures induce apoptosis specifically in cancer cells through targeting membranous phosphatidylserine. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:2918-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Piera Valenti
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy,
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