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Gresko SA, Hink LK, Corley RP, Reynolds CA, Muñoz E, Rhee SH. An examination of early socioeconomic status and neighborhood disadvantage as independent predictors of antisocial behavior: A longitudinal adoption study. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301765. [PMID: 38683790 PMCID: PMC11057761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The present study examined early socioeconomic status (SES) and neighborhood disadvantage (ND) as independent predictors of antisocial behavior (ASB) and addressed the etiology of the associations (i.e., genes versus the environment) using a longitudinal adoption design. Prospective data from the Colorado Adoption Project (435 adoptees, 598 nonadopted children, 526 biological grandparents of adoptees, 481 adoptive parents, and 617 nonadoptive parents including biological parents of unrelated siblings of adoptees) were examined. SES and ND were assessed during infancy and ASB was evaluated from ages four through 16 using parent and teacher report. Associations between predictors and ASB were compared across adoptive and nonadoptive families and sex. Early SES was a nominally significant, independent predictor of antisocial ASB, such that lower SES predicted higher levels of ASB in nonadoptive families only. ND was not associated with ASB. Associations were consistent across aggression and delinquency, and neither SES nor ND was associated with change in ASB over time. Nominally significant associations did not remain significant after controlling for multiple testing. As such, despite nonsignificant differences in associations across sex or adoptive status, we were unable to make definitive conclusions regarding the genetic versus environmental etiology of or sex differences in the influence of SES and ND on ASB. Despite inconclusive findings, in nonadoptees, results were consistent-in effect size and direction-with previous studies in the literature indicating that lower SES is associated with increased risk for ASB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley A. Gresko
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Laura K. Hink
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Robin P. Corley
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Chandra A. Reynolds
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Muñoz
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Soo Hyun Rhee
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
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2
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Schiff SJ, Lee SS. Peer correlates of conduct problems in girls. Aggress Behav 2022; 49:209-221. [PMID: 36408958 DOI: 10.1002/ab.22063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Conduct problems are increasingly prevalent in girls and they uniquely predict negative outcomes. Yet, few reliable risk factors for aggression and violence in girls and women have been identified. Although preliminary evidence suggests peer relationships may be central to the development of youth conduct problems, especially in girls, rigorous interactive models of peer risk and protective factors for conduct problems are lacking. Based on 3104 10-13-year-old girls in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study, we tested the independent associations of separate peer risk factors (i.e., relational aggression victimization, physical aggression victimization, and deviant peer affiliation) with multidimensional conduct problems, including their moderation by peer support. Being the victim of relational aggression, being the victim of physical aggression, and deviant peer affiliation were each positively associated with conduct problems and perpetration of aggression whereas peer support was negatively associated with youth report conduct problems and perpetration of physical aggression. Further, elevated peer support significantly attenuated the association of being the victim of relational aggression with teacher-rated conduct problems. These results highlight the sensitivity of conduct problems to peer risk factors and suggest that peer support designates important configurations of risk that differentially relate to conduct problems in girls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J. Schiff
- Department of Psychology University of California Los Angeles USA
| | - Steve S. Lee
- Department of Psychology University of California Los Angeles USA
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3
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Barger B, Larson LR, Torquati J, Moody E, Ogletree S, Rosenberg S. The complex relationship between greenspace and well-being in children with and without autism. Appl Psychol Health Well Being 2022; 15:705-722. [PMID: 36196049 DOI: 10.1111/aphw.12406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Greenspace (defined here as canopy coverage) positively correlates with improved well-being in typically developing individuals, but this relationship has not been established in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To investigate this relationship, the current study merged data from the National Survey of Children's Health (2012) with the National Land Cover Database. Across typically developing children, children with ASD, and non-autistic children with special healthcare needs (CSHCN), greenspace unexpectedly negatively correlated with well-being. Further, compared with typically developing children, children with ASD or CSHCN status had lower well-being. Interestingly, typically developing children with conduct problems displayed an unexpected negative relationship (i.e. as greenspace increased whereas well-being decreased), though those without conduct problems showed no relationship. Children with ASD displayed no relationship between greenspace independent of conduct problems. CSHCN displayed non-significant trends suggesting mild positive relationships between greenspace and well-being. These data indicate the relationship between greenspace and well-being is more complex than expected and may depend on the diagnostic traits of the population studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Barger
- School of Public Health, Center for Leadership in Disability, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lincoln R Larson
- Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Julia Torquati
- Department of Child, Youth and Family Studies, College of Education and Human Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Eric Moody
- Wyoming Institute for Disabilities (WIND), College of Health Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
| | - Scott Ogletree
- Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management, College of Behavioral, Social, and Health Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Steven Rosenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Henriksen M, Skrove M, Hoftun GB, Sund ER, Lydersen S, Kalvin CB, Sukhodolsky DG. Exposure to traumatic events poses greater risk for irritability in girls than in boys. JOURNAL OF AFFECTIVE DISORDERS REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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5
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Bertino MD, Connell G, Lewis AJ. The association between parental personality patterns and internalising and externalising behaviour problems in children and adolescents. CLIN PSYCHOL-UK 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-9552.2012.00042.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie D. Bertino
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine, Nursing and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gabrielle Connell
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine, Nursing and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew J. Lewis
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine, Nursing and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Hiemstra W, Verhulp EE, Thomaes S, Orobio de Castro B. Self-views and aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior problems: self-esteem, narcissism, and their interaction. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2020; 29:343-351. [PMID: 31152246 PMCID: PMC7056689 DOI: 10.1007/s00787-019-01347-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
How do children with aggressive behavior problems view themselves? The present research seeks to answer this question by examining the self-views (i.e., self-esteem and narcissism) of boys referred for disruptive behavior problems. In Study 1 (N = 85, Mage= 10.8 years), we examined relations between self-views and self-reported and parent-reported aggression; in Study 2 (N = 73, Mage= 11.8 years), we examined relations between self-views and teacher-reported aggression. We found narcissism to be related with self-reported aggression, but not with parent- and teacher-rated aggression. Children with narcissistic traits were more aggressive according to themselves, and these links were independent of children's level of self-esteem. Self-esteem was not significantly associated with aggression according to children themselves, their parents, nor their teachers. We encourage scholars to explore the possibility that interventions that target characteristics of narcissistic self-views (e.g., perceived superiority, sensitivity to negative feedback) can effectively reduce aggressive behavior in boys referred for behavior problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wieteke Hiemstra
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Esmée E Verhulp
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sander Thomaes
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bram Orobio de Castro
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Cho BY. Associations of Father's Lifetime Cannabis Use Disorder with Child's Initiation of Cannabis Use, Alcohol Use, and Sexual Intercourse by Child Gender. Subst Use Misuse 2018; 53:2330-2338. [PMID: 29847207 PMCID: PMC6264895 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2018.1473439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early initiation of alcohol use, cannabis use, and sexual intercourse among adolescents is an important public health concern in the United States. Parents' history of substance use disorder is an important contributing factor for children's problem behaviors. OBJECTIVES The associations of fathers' lifetime cannabis use disorder with children's initiation of cannabis use, alcohol use, and sexual intercourse were examined. In addition, child's gender was considered as a moderator of each association. METHODS Data from two companion longitudinal studies was utilized, the Rochester Youth Developmental Study and its intergenerational extension, the Rochester Intergenerational Study. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the associations of the father's lifetime cannabis use disorder with the child's initiation of cannabis use, alcohol use, and sexual intercourse. To test gender differences in the associations, the study sample was stratified by child's gender. RESULTS The average age of first cannabis use (b = -3.71, p < .05), alcohol use (b = -3.65, p < .05), and sexual intercourse (b = -2.94, p < .05) among daughters of fathers with a lifetime cannabis use disorder was lower than that of their counterparts after adjusting for all other control variables, whereas no significant differences were detected in a father-son relationship. CONCLUSIONS Homotypic continuity of cannabis use, as well as heterotypic continuity from the father's cannabis use to the child's alcohol use and sexual intercourse existed in a father-daughter relationship. These findings suggest that family-based interventions for female adolescents whose father has suffered from a cannabis use disorder be developed to prevent better adolescents' early substance use and sexual intercourse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beom-Young Cho
- a Department of Psychology , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , Colorado , USA
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Van Hulle CA, Waldman I, Lahey BB. Sex Differences in the Genetic and Environmental Influences on Self-Reported Non-aggressive and Aggressive Conduct Disorder Symptoms in Early and Middle Adolescence. Behav Genet 2018; 48:271-282. [PMID: 29948512 PMCID: PMC6051422 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-018-9907-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Decades of research into the etiology of conduct disorder (CD) has yet to yield a consensus on the existence of sex differences in underlying genetic and environmental influences. This may be partly due to the failure of many previous studies to make a distinction between non-aggressive and aggressive CD symptoms or test for potential developmental changes in sex differences in the etiology of conduct problems. To address these gaps, we fit a series of univariate and bivariate biometric sex-difference models to self-reported non-aggressive and aggressive CD symptoms in a community-based sample of twins (N = 1548, ages 9-17 year), grouped into ages 9-13 and 14-17 years. Relative model fit was evaluated using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), which favors parsimony, and by Chi square difference tests. The univariate sex-scalar model provided the best fit to the data for both non-aggressive and aggressive CD symptoms at ages 9-13 and 14-17 years. Thus, the same genetic and environmental factors influenced CD symptoms in both sexes, but the total variability was lower in females than males. At both ages, the heritability of non-aggressive CD symptoms was lower than heritability of aggressive CD symptoms, and shared environmental effects were only observed for non-aggressive CD symptoms. However, estimates for genetic and environmental factors could be not be constrained to be equal across age groups for either CD subtype, suggesting substantive developmental changes in the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on individual differences in CD symptoms. For both subtypes, the heritability was larger, and shared environmental effect smaller, in the older age group than the younger age group. A bivariate quantitative sex differences model provided the best fit to the data at ages 9-13 years. Covariation between non-aggressive and aggressive CD symptoms was due to overlapping shared and non-shared environmental factors in males and females but the overall covariation was greater in males than females. In contrast, at ages 14-17 years, the sex-scalar bivariate model provided the best fit to the data, and covariation between non-aggressive and aggressive CD symptoms was due to overlapping genetic and non-shared environmental factors. Thus, the etiology of self-reported conduct disorder varied substantially by symptom type and age. However, quantitative sex differences were only apparent when the covariation between the two subtypes was considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Van Hulle
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53705, USA.
| | - Irwin Waldman
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Benjamin B Lahey
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Gender Differences in the Influence of Parenting on Youth Antisocial Behavior through Deviant Peers. THE SPANISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 20:E58. [PMID: 29081330 DOI: 10.1017/sjp.2017.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess gender differences in direct and indirect effects of parental knowledge, family support, family conflict, and deviant peers on violent and nonviolent antisocial behavior among youngsters. The total sample was composed of 584 young people, 274 males and 310 females, aged 14 to 20 from High Schools of Galicia (NW Spain). The variables were assessed with different scales of the protocol Valoración del Riesgo en Adolescentes Infractores [Juvenile Offender's Risk Assessment]. Several structural equation models were conducted to clarify the relationships between these variables for males and females. The results showed a better fit for the mediated model. Significant direct effects were found for parental knowledge (β = -.35, p < .01, males; β = -.16, p < .05, females) and parental support (β = .26, p < .05, males) on nonviolent behavior. Significant direct effects were also found for parental knowledge (β = -.36, p < .05, males; β = -.42, p < .05, females) and parental support (β = .32, p < .05, males; β = .24, p < .05, females) on violent behavior. Not significant direct effects were found for family conflict. Moreover, significant indirect effects through deviant peers were found for knowledge (β = -.23, p < .01, males; β = -.21, p < .01, females), support (β = .20, p < .05, males; β = .21, p < .05, females), and conflict (β = .28, p < .01, males; β = .26, p < .05, females) on nonviolent behavior, as well as for knowledge (β = -.20, p < .01, males; β = -.10, p < .01, females), support (β = .18, p < .01, males; β = .10, p < .01, females), and conflict (β = .24, p < .05, males; β = .12, p < .01, females) on violent behavior. Thus, significant gender differences were found, specifically in the direct effects of family support on nonviolent antisocial behavior. The implications of these results for prevention of antisocial behaviors in youth based on gender differences are discussed.
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10
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Cutrín O, Gómez-Fraguela JA, Sobral J. Gender Differences in Youth Substance Use: The Effects of Parenting Through a Deviant Peer Group. JOURNAL OF CHILD & ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE ABUSE 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/1067828x.2017.1369203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Olalla Cutrín
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | - Jorge Sobral
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Ehrensaft MK, Westfall HK, Niolon PH, Lopez T, Kamboukos D, Huang KY, Brotman LM. Can a Parenting Intervention to Prevent Early Conduct Problems Interrupt Girls' Risk for Intimate Partner Violence 10 Years Later? PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2017; 19:449-458. [PMID: 28884268 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-017-0831-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This study tests whether a parenting intervention for families of preschoolers at risk for conduct problems can prevent later risk for intimate partner violence (IPV). Ninety-nine preschoolers at familial risk for conduct problems were randomly assigned to intervention or control conditions. Ten years later, 45 preschoolers and 43 of their siblings completed an assessment of their romantic relationships, including measures of physical and psychological IPV. The study focuses on the 54 females, including targets (n = 27) and siblings (n = 27) who participated in a 10-year follow-up (M age = 16.5, SD = 5.2, range = 10-28). Using an intent-to-treat (ITT) design, multivariate regressions suggest that females from families randomly assigned to intervention in early childhood scored lower than those in the control condition on perceptions of dating violence as normative, beliefs about IPV prevalence, exposure to IPV in their own peer group, and expected sanction behaviors for IPV perpetration and victimization. Findings suggest that early parenting intervention may reduce association of high-risk females with aggressive peers and partners in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam K Ehrensaft
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Box 3454, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.
| | - Heather Knous Westfall
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, NY, USA.,Institutional Research, Renton College, Renton, WA, USA
| | - Phyllis Holditch Niolon
- National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thailyn Lopez
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dimitra Kamboukos
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Keng-Yen Huang
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Laurie Miller Brotman
- Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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12
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Tian Y, Bian Y, Han P, Gao F, Wang P. Associations between psychosocial factors and generalized pathological internet use in Chinese university students: A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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13
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Danzo S, Connell AM, Stormshak EA. Associations between alcohol-use and depression symptoms in adolescence: Examining gender differences and pathways over time. J Adolesc 2017; 56:64-74. [PMID: 28167374 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several studies examining alcohol use and depression in youth have focused on documenting prevalence of overlap, or temporal ordering in longitudinal samples. Fewer studies have examined pathways connecting alcohol use and depression over time. This study examined gender differences between depression and alcohol use across adolescence while examining peer and family pathways as possible mediators of effects. Data was collected longitudinally from 593 families from three urban public middle schools in the United States. Participants were recruited in 6th grade and followed through 9th grade. We examined gender differences using a nested model comparison approach. Results indicated the association between depression and alcohol use differs by gender. For males, depression and alcohol use were independent across adolescence, and no significant indirect pathways were observed. For females, bidirectional effects were found between alcohol use and depression, as well as an indirect effect from depression to alcohol use via peer deviance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Danzo
- Case Western Reserve University, Department of Psychological Sciences, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Arin M Connell
- Case Western Reserve University, Department of Psychological Sciences, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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Klostermann S, Connell A, Stormshak B. Gender Differences in the Developmental Links Between Conduct Problems and Depression Across Early Adolescence. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2016; 26:76-89. [PMID: 27034608 PMCID: PMC4809431 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Various developmental models have attempted to explain the relationship between antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms in youth, often proposing intermediary processes such as social and academic functioning. However, few studies have tested these developmental models fully, particularly in mixed gender samples. The current study strives to fill this gap in the literature, examining these processes in an early adolescent sample. Results indicated both direct and indirect paths between antisocial behavior and depression. In addition, potentially important gender differences were found. These results underscore the importance of examining direct and indirect links between symptoms of depression and anti-social behavior, and suggest that there may be important developmental differences between girls and boys in the relationship between these symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Klostermann
- Case Western Reserve University, Department of Psychological Sciences, Psychology Program, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106
| | - Arin Connell
- Associate Professor, Case Western Reserve University, Department of Psychological Sciences, Psychology Program, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106
| | - Beth Stormshak
- Associate Vice President for Research, Professor, College of Education, Director, Child and Family Center/Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403
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15
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Quinn CR. General considerations for research with vulnerable populations: ten lessons for success. HEALTH & JUSTICE 2015; 3:1. [PMCID: PMC5151796 DOI: 10.1186/s40352-014-0013-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Background This paper offers practical insights for researchers who conduct studies with vulnerable populations, including those using secondary data sources from government entities. Methods/Design The paper is based on the approval process to secure secondary government data from a Midwestern county juvenile probation department and the state courts for the author’s dissertation study. Discussion This paper proposes general considerations and ten lessons learned to successfully conduct research with vulnerable populations and/or their information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille R Quinn
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine & Dentistry, 300 Crittenden Boulevard Box PSYCH, Rochester, NY 14642 USA
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16
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Ehrensaft MK, Cohen P. Contribution of family violence to the intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2012; 13:370-83. [PMID: 21720783 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-011-0223-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Research finds that early antisocial behavior is a risk for later intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and victimization, and that children's exposure to their parents' IPV is a risk for subsequent behavior problems. This study tests whether intimate violence (IPV) between partners contributes independently to the intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior, using the Children in the Community Study, a representative sample (N = 821) followed for over 25 years in 6 assessments. The present study includes a subsample of parents (N = 678) and their offspring (N = 396). We test the role of three mechanisms by which IPV may influence child antisocial behavior-parental psychopathology, parenting practices, and child self-regulation. Results suggest that IPV independently increased the risk for offspring externalizing problems, net of the effects of parental history of antisocial behavior and family violence. IPV also increased the risk for parental post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder 2 years later, but not for major depressive disorder. Alcohol use disorder independently increased the risk for offspring externalizing behavior, but IPV continued to predict offspring externalizing net of parental alcohol use. Parenting, particularly low satisfaction with the child, was significantly associated with both IPV and externalizing behavior, but did not mediate the effects of IPV on externalizing. IPV predicted higher levels of emotional expressivity, aggression and hostile reactivity, and depressive mood in offspring. Implications for future research and prevention are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam K Ehrensaft
- Dept of Psychology, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, 445 West 59th Street, New York, NY 10019, USA.
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Badura Brack A, Huefner JC, Handwerk ML. The impact of abuse and gender on psychopathology, behavioral disturbance, and psychotropic medication count for youth in residential treatment. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ORTHOPSYCHIATRY 2012; 82:562-572. [PMID: 23039354 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01177.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between gender, abuse history, and clinical change in a residential treatment program for youth with emotional and behavioral disturbance. Admission data and data collected after 1 year of treatment or at discharge were examined for 1,303 youth. Measures included the Suicide Probability Scale, Child Behavior Checklist, and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Data also included medication count, demographic data, and history of sexual or physical abuse or both. At intake, girls scored significantly more pathologically than boys on 9 out of 12 measures. At intake, abused youth indicated more hostility, anxiety, and mood disorder symptoms as well as psychotropic medication usage than nonabused youth. Youth improved significantly on all outcome measures with treatment, although interaction effects indicate some differing treatment responses by abuse history or gender. After treatment, girls still scored significantly higher than boys on 6 of 8 outcome measures, and abused youth, especially youth experiencing both sexual and physical abuse, had significantly higher anxiety, affective, behavior, and eating disorder symptom counts and were on more psychotropic medications than nonabused youth. Although behaviorally focused treatment was associated with improvement on every measure, the most important implication of our study is that a singular treatment approach does not fit all youth completely as reflected by continuing treatment needs in our most troubled youth. Additional symptom-focused treatment and research attention must be given to girls and abused youth in residential care to maximize their therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Badura Brack
- Department of Psychology, Creighton University, 2500 California Plaza, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.
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Javdani S, Sadeh N, Verona E. Expanding our lens: female pathways to antisocial behavior in adolescence and adulthood. Clin Psychol Rev 2011; 31:1324-48. [PMID: 22001339 PMCID: PMC3376007 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Women and girls' engagement in antisocial behavior represents a psychological issue of great concern given the radiating impact that women's antisociality can have on individuals, families, and communities. Despite its importance and relevance for psychological science, this topic has received limited attention to date and no systematic review of risk factors exists. The present paper aims to systematically review the empirical literature informing risk factors relevant to women's antisocial behavior, with a focus on adolescence and adulthood. Primary aims are to 1) review empirical literatures on risk factors for female antisocial behavior across multiple levels of influence (e.g., person-level characteristics, risky family factors, and gender-salient contexts) and fields of study (e.g., psychology, sociology); 2) evaluate the relevance of each factor for female antisocial behavior; and 3) incorporate an analysis of how gender at both the individual and ecological levels shapes pathways to antisocial behavior in women and girls. We conclude that women's antisocial behavior is best-understood as being influenced by person-level or individual vulnerabilities, risky family factors, and exposure to gender-salient interpersonal contexts, and underscore the importance of examining women's antisocial behavior through an expanded lens that views gender as an individual level attribute as well as a social category that organizes the social context in ways that may promote engagement in antisocial behavior. Based on the present systematic review, an integrative pathway model is proposed toward the goal of synthesizing current knowledge and generating testable hypotheses for future research.
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Developmental trajectories of girls' and boys' delinquency and associated problems. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2011; 38:1033-44. [PMID: 20127508 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-010-9389-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Developmental trajectories in delinquency through adolescence were studied along with family and peer relationship problems. Drawing from eight waves of data over seven years, we conducted trajectory analyses with a sample of 746 students (402 girls; 344 boys). Analyzing girls and boys together, a five-class model emerged: 60% of the adolescents rarely reported delinquency; 27.7% reported low initial levels with moderate levels of delinquency over time; 6% in the late onset group reported initially low and rising levels of delinquency; 5% in the early onset group reported moderate initial levels which increased and then decreased in later adolescence. A small group of only boys (1.3%) labeled chronic reported high initial levels of delinquency that increased over time. Group comparisons revealed problems in internalizing, parent and peer relationship problems. The findings provide direction for early identification and interventions to curtail the development of delinquency.
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Conduct disorder symptoms and subsequent pregnancy, child-birth and abortion: a population-based longitudinal study of adolescents. J Adolesc 2010; 34:1025-33. [PMID: 21146202 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2008] [Revised: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Research on teenage pregnancy and abortion has primarily focused on socio-economic disadvantage. However, a few studies suggest that risk of unwanted pregnancy is related to conduct disorder symptoms. We examined the relationship between level of conduct disorder symptoms at age 15 and subsequent pregnancy, child-birth and abortion. A population-based, representative sample of Norwegian adolescent girls (N = 769) was followed from early adolescence until their mid-20s. Even with control for socio-demographic and family variables, conduct disorder symptoms at age 15 were strongly associated with pregnancy in the 15-19 age group, and a weaker association persisted in the 20-28 age group. Similar results were obtained for abortions, but here a strong relationship with conduct disorder symptoms was found even after age 20. After adjustment, no significant association between conduct disorder symptoms and subsequent child-birth was observed. More targeted preventive programmes aimed at girls with conduct disorder symptoms may be warranted.
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Pepler D, Walsh M, Yuile A, Levene K, Jiang D, Vaughan A, Webber J. Bridging the gender gap: interventions with aggressive girls and their parents. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2010; 11:229-38. [PMID: 20107897 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-009-0167-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In response to a gap in gender-sensitive programming for young aggressive girls (5-11) and their families, the SNAP Girls Connection (GC) was developed in 1996. This multi-systemic intervention is built on a developmental model of risk and protective factors within the girl and her relationships. We evaluated the SNAP(R) GC using a prospective quasi-experimental design, randomly assigning 80 girls to treatment (N = 45) and waiting-list groups (N = 35) over 2 years. Fifty-five parents completed measures at assessment periods 1, 2 and 3. Results showed significant positive changes on girls' problem behavior and parenting skills for the treatment versus the waiting-list groups, as well as maintenance of treatment gains. Implications of the findings on treatment effectiveness of this gender-sensitive intervention are discussed.
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Verweij KJH, Zietsch BP, Bailey JM, Martin NG. Shared aetiology of risky sexual behaviour and adolescent misconduct: genetic and environmental influences. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2009; 8:107-13. [PMID: 19016887 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2008.00456.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Risky sexual behaviour (RSB) is a major risk factor for serious diseases as well as unplanned pregnancy. It is not known if RSB has a genetic basis or if it is only influenced by social and cultural conditions. Adolescent conduct disorder has previously been linked to RSB and has been found to be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. In this study, we look at normal variation in a broad measure of RSB and in retrospectively reported adolescent misconduct in a large community sample of twins (n = 4904) to partition the variance and covariance between the traits into genetic and environmental components. We found that RSB is influenced to the same extent by genes, shared environment and unshared environment. Adolescent misconduct is moderately influenced by genetic factors and only modestly by shared environmental factors. Moreover, RSB is associated with adolescent misconduct (r = 0.5), primarily because of genetic correlation between the variables. The implications of our findings as well as possible sex differences are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J H Verweij
- Genetic Epidemiology, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, 300 Herston Road, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia.
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Prom-Wormley EC, Eaves LJ, Foley DL, Gardner CO, Archer KJ, Wormley BK, Maes HH, Riley BP, Silberg JL. Monoamine oxidase A and childhood adversity as risk factors for conduct disorder in females. Psychol Med 2009; 39:579-590. [PMID: 18752729 PMCID: PMC4028603 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291708004170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies among males have reported a genotype-environment interaction (GxE) in which low-activity alleles at the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) locus conferred greater sensitivity to the effects of childhood adversity on risk for conduct disorder (CD). So far, few studies of females have controlled for gene-environment correlation or used females heterozygous for this X-linked gene. METHOD Logistic regression analysis of a sample of 721 females ages 8-17 years from the longitudinal Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development (VTSABD) assessed the additive effects of MAOA genotypes on risk for CD, together with the main effect of childhood adversity and parental antisocial personality disorder (ASP), as well as the interaction of MAOA with childhood adversity on risk for CD. RESULTS A significant main effect of genotype on risk for CD was detected, where low-activity MAOA imparted the greatest risk to CD in girls while controlling for the significant effects of maternal ASP and childhood adversity. Significant GxE with weak effect was detected when environmental exposure was untransformed, indicating a higher sensitivity to childhood adversity in the presence of the high-activity MAOA allele. The interaction was no longer statistically significant after applying a ridit transformation to reflect the sample sizes exposed at each level of childhood adversity. CONCLUSIONS The main effect of MAOA on risk for CD in females, its absence in males and directional difference of interaction is suggestive of genotype-sex interaction. As the effect of GxE on risk for CD was weak, its inclusion is not justified.
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Affiliation(s)
- E C Prom-Wormley
- Department of Integrative Life Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University 23298-0126, USA.
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Eiden RD, Colder C, Edwards EP, Leonard KE. A longitudinal study of social competence among children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents: role of parental psychopathology, parental warmth, and self-regulation. PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS 2009; 23:36-46. [PMID: 19290688 PMCID: PMC2801410 DOI: 10.1037/a0014839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study tested a conceptual model predicting children's social competence in a sample of children with alcoholic and non-alcoholic parents. The model examined the role of parents' alcohol diagnoses, depression, and antisocial behavior at 12-18 months of child age in predicting parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years of child age. Parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was hypothesized to predict children's self-regulation and externalizing behavior problems at 3 years. Parenting, self-regulation, and behavior problems were expected to predict social competence in kindergarten. Structural equations modeling was supportive of this model. Fathers' alcohol diagnosis was associated with lower warmth/sensitivity. Lower maternal warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was predictive of lower child self-regulation at 3 years. Parenting, self-regulation, and externalizing behavior problems were predictive of social competence in kindergarten, although associations varied by reporter (parents or teacher). There was a direct association between fathers' alcohol diagnosis and father reports of social competence, and between fathers' depression and teacher reports of social competence. The study elucidates developmental processes in predicting social competence and the role of fathers' alcoholism and associated risk factors in this process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rina D Eiden
- Research Institute on Addictions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, USA
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Lehto-Salo P, Närhi V, Ahonen T, Marttunen M. Psychiatric comorbidity more common among adolescent females with CD/ODD than among males. Nord J Psychiatry 2009; 63:308-15. [PMID: 19199161 DOI: 10.1080/08039480902730615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Clinicians and researchers have been increasingly concerned on conduct problems among adolescent females. Yet, most research on the issue has been conducted among males. The aim of this study was to characterize conduct disorder (CD) among adolescent females in comparison with males. Family background, symptoms and severity of CD, and psychiatric comorbidity were assessed among Finnish 12-18-year-old females (n=40) with conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder (CD/ODD) compared with males (n=37). Data were collected via structured interviews with the subjects and interviews with parents. Lifetime and current Axis I diagnoses (DSM-IV) were assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview (SCID-I) interview. No gender differences were found in the number of CD symptoms or aggressive symptoms. Family adversities, comorbid major depression, anxiety disorders and substance use disorders as well as suicidality were more common, while reading disorder was less common among girls compared with boys. The varied problems and comorbid disorders among females with CD/ODD are important to recognize.
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Pajer K, Stein S, Tritt K, Chang CN, Wang W, Gardner W. Conduct disorder in girls: neighborhoods, family characteristics, and parenting behaviors. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2008; 2:28. [PMID: 18837974 PMCID: PMC2572160 DOI: 10.1186/1753-2000-2-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is known about the social context of girls with conduct disorder (CD), a question of increasing importance to clinicians and researchers. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between three social context domains (neighborhood, family characteristics, and parenting behaviors) and CD in adolescent girls, additionally testing for race moderation effects. We predicted that disadvantaged neighborhoods, family characteristics such as parental marital status, and parenting behaviors such as negative discipline would characterize girls with CD. We also hypothesized that parenting behaviors would mediate the associations between neighborhood and family characteristics and CD. METHODS We recruited 93 15-17 year-old girls from the community and used a structured psychiatric interview to assign participants to a CD group (n = 52) or a demographically matched group with no psychiatric disorder (n = 41). Each girl and parent also filled out questionnaires about neighborhood, family characteristics, and parenting behaviors. RESULTS Neighborhood quality was not associated with CD in girls. Some family characteristics (parental antisociality) and parenting behaviors (levels of family activities and negative discipline) were characteristic of girls with CD, but notll. There was no moderation by race. Our hypothesis that the association between family characteristics and CD would be mediated by parenting behaviors was not supported. CONCLUSION This study expanded upon previous research by investigating multiple social context domains in girls with CD and by selecting a comparison group who were not different in age, social class, or race. When these factors are thus controlled, CD in adolescent girls is not significantly associated with neighborhood, but is associated with some family characteristics and some types of parental behaviors. However, the mechanisms underlying these relationships need to be further investigated. We discuss possible explanations for our findings and suggest directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Pajer
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Columbus, OH, USA.
| | - Stefanie Stein
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Clinic, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Karin Tritt
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Clinic, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Chien-Ni Chang
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Clinic, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Wei Wang
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Clinic, Regensburg, Germany
| | - William Gardner
- The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA,Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University Clinic, Regensburg, Germany
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Eiden RD, Edwards EP, Leonard KE. A conceptual model for the development of externalizing behavior problems among kindergarten children of alcoholic families: role of parenting and children's self-regulation. Dev Psychol 2007; 43:1187-201. [PMID: 17723044 PMCID: PMC2720575 DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to test a conceptual model predicting children's externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten in a sample of children with alcoholic (n = 130) and nonalcoholic (n = 97) parents. The model examined the role of parents' alcohol diagnoses, depression, and antisocial behavior at 12-18 months of child age in predicting parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years of child age. Parental warmth/sensitivity at 2 years was hypothesized to predict children's self-regulation at 3 years (effortful control and internalization of rules), which in turn was expected to predict externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten. Structural equation modeling was largely supportive of this conceptual model. Fathers' alcohol diagnosis at 12-18 months was associated with lower maternal and paternal warmth/sensitivity at 2 years. Lower maternal warmth/sensitivity was longitudinally predictive of lower child self-regulation at 3 years, which in turn was longitudinally predictive of higher externalizing behavior problems in kindergarten, after controlling for prior behavior problems. There was a direct association between parents' depression and children's externalizing behavior problems. Results indicate that one pathway to higher externalizing behavior problems among children of alcoholics may be via parenting and self-regulation in the toddler to preschool years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rina D Eiden
- Research Institute on Addictions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
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Chamberlain P, Leve LD, Degarmo DS. Multidimensional treatment foster care for girls in the juvenile justice system: 2-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2007; 75:187-93. [PMID: 17295579 PMCID: PMC1995088 DOI: 10.1037/0022-006x.75.1.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study is a 2-year follow-up of girls with serious and chronic delinquency who were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial conducted from 1997 to 2002 comparing multidimensional treatment foster care (MTFC) and group care (N = 81). Girls were referred by juvenile court judges and had an average of over 11 criminal referrals when they entered the study. A latent variable analysis of covariance model controlling for initial status demonstrated maintenance of effects for MTFC in preventing delinquency at the 2-year assessment, as measured by days in locked settings, number of criminal referrals, and self-reported delinquency. A latent variable growth model focusing on variance in individual trajectories across the course of the study also demonstrated the efficacy of MTFC. Older girls exhibited less delinquency over time relative to younger girls in both conditions. Implications for gender-sensitive programming for youths referred from juvenile justice are discussed.
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