Divergent teratogenicity of agonists of retinoid X receptors in embryos of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Teratogenicity and Fetal-Transfer Assessment of the Retinoid X Receptor Agonist Bexarotene

Bexarotene, a retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist, is used to treat cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, and drug repositioning research has also been reported, despite warnings of teratogenicity. However, fetal transfer of bexarotene and its effect on rat fetal bone formation have not been examined. In this study, we conducted a detailed teratogenicity and fetal transferability assessment of bexarotene in rats. Repeated administration of bexarotene during pregnancy caused marked fetal atrophy and bone dysplasia. Although fetal transfer was not detectable by dynamic imaging of [11C]bexarotene by means of positron emission tomography, transfer to the fetus was confirmed by using a gamma counter. Similar levels were found in mother and fetus. In addition, we found that bexarotene was accumulated in the placenta. These findings will be useful for the toxicity assessment of bexarotene as well as for drug discovery research targeting RXR agonists, which are expected to have therapeutic effects in various diseases.

Review on endocrine disrupting toxicity of triphenyltin from the perspective of species evolution: Aquatic, amphibious and mammalian

Triphenyltin (TPT) is widely used as a plastic stabilizer, insecticide and the most common fungicide in antifouling coatings. This paper reviewed the main literature evidences on the morphological and physiological changes of animal endocrine system induced by TPT, with emphasis on the research progress of TPT metabolism, neurological and reproductive regulation in animal endocrine system. Similar to tributyltin (TBT), the main effects of TPT on the potential health risks of 25 species of animals, from aquatic animals to mammals, are not only related to exposure dose and time, but also to age, sex and exposed tissue/cells. Moreover, current studies have shown that TPT can directly damage the endocrine glands, interfere with the regulation of neurohormones on endocrine function, and change hormone synthesis and/or the bioavailability (i.e., in the retinoid X receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma RXR-PPARγ) in target cells. Importantly, TPT can cause biochemical and morphological changes of gonads and abnormal production of steroids, both of which are related to reproductive dysfunction, for example, the imposex of aquatic animals and the irregular estrous cycle of female mammals or spermatogenic disorders of male animals. Therefore, TPT should indeed be regarded as a major endocrine disruptor, which is essential for understanding the main toxic effects on different tissues and their pathogenic effects on endocrine, metabolism, neurological and reproductive dysfunction.

The multi-faceted role of retinoid X receptor in cardiovascular diseases

Retinoid X receptors (RXRs) are members of ligand-dependent transcription factors whose effects on a diversity of cellular processes, including cellular proliferation, the immune response, and lipid and glucose metabolism. Knock out of RXRα causes a hypoplasia of the myocardium which is lethal during fetal life. In addition, the heart maintains a well-orchestrated balances in utilizing fatty acids (FAs) and other substrates to meet the high energy requirements. As the master transcriptional regulators of lipid metabolism, RXRs become particularly important for the energy needs of the heart. Accumulating evidence suggested that RXRs may exert direct beneficial effects in the heart both through heterodimerization with other nuclear receptors (NRs) and homodimerization, thus standing as suitable targets for treating in cardiovascular diseases. Although compounds that target RXRs are promising drugs, their use is limited by toxicity. A better understanding of the structural biology of RXRs in cardiovascular disease should enable the rational design of more selective nuclear receptor modulators to overcome these problems. Here, this review summarizes a brief overview of RXRs structure and versatility of RXR action in the control of cardiovascular diseases. And we also discussed the therapeutic potential of RXR ligand.

3H-Imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine-6-carboxylic acid derivatives as rexinoids with reduced teratogenicity

Several retinoid X receptor (RXR) ligands (rexinoids), such as bexarotene (1), exhibit teratogenicity, which is a serious impediment to their clinical application. We considered that rexinoids with a lower level of maximal RXR transcription activation (i.e., partial agonists) and lower lipid solubility might show weaker adverse side effects. Based on this idea, we modified our previously reported pentamethyltetralin-type RXR partial agonists 5 and 6 to reduce their lipophilicity. Here, we report a new RXR partial agonist, 3-(3,5,5,8,8-pentamethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)-3H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine-6-carboxylic acid (8, CATF-PMN), which showed greatly reduced teratogenicity in zebrafish embryos.

Molecular cloning and expression analysis of the retinoid X receptor (RXR) gene in golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus fed Artemia nauplii with different enrichments

The retinoid X receptors (RXRs) are involved in the skeletal development and other biological process such as blood vessel formation and metabolism. Partial sequences of RXRα and β genes were obtained, and their expressions were quantified on golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus at 28 days post hatching (DPH) to explore the molecular response to nutritional manipulation in fish larvae. As live food, Artemia nauplii were separately enriched with Nannochloropsis and Algamac 3080 and non-enriched Artemia nauplii (control) for fish feeding. The expressions of RXRs were detected in the embryos and fish larvae at early stages, suggesting that the skeletal development in golden pompano initiated before yolk re-sorption completion. Fish fed non-enriched Artemia nauplii ended up with higher jaw malformation. The highest specific growth rate was obtained when fish were fed with the Artemia nauplii enriched with Algamac 3080, and the lowest growth rate was observed when fish were fed with unenriched Artemia nauplii. The highest survival was obtained when fish were fed with non-enriched or Nannochloropsis-enriched Artemia nauplii. This study indicates that the use of enriched formula for Artemia nauplii can significantly affect the expression levels of RXRs and jaw malformation of golden pompano larvae, but there is no clear correlation between RXRs expressions and malformation rates when fish are subjected to nutrient challenge.

Occurrence of xenobiotic ligands for retinoid X receptors and thyroid hormone receptors in the aquatic environment of Taiwan

Various synthetic compounds are frequently discharged into the environment via human activities. Among them, certain contaminants may disrupt normal physiological functions of wildlife and humans via interactions with nuclear receptors. To protect human health and the environment, it is important to detect environmental ligands for human nuclear receptors. In this study, yeast-based reporter gene assays were used to investigate the occurrence of xenobiotic ligands for retinoid X receptors (RXR) and thyroid hormone receptors (TR) in the aquatic environment of Taiwan. Experimental results revealed that RXR agonist/antagonist activity was detected in river water and sediment samples. In particular, high RXR agonist/antagonist activity was found in the samples collected near river mouths. Additionally, few samples also elicited significant TR antagonist activity. Our findings show that the aquatic environment of Taiwan was contaminated with RXR and TR ligands. Further study is necessary to identify these xenobiotic RXR and TR agonists and antagonists.

Characterization of retinoic acid-induced neurobehavioral effects in developing zebrafish

Retinoic signaling plays an important role in cell proliferation and differentiation. Disruption of retinoic signaling via excessive or deficient retinoic acid can cause teratogenic effects on developing embryos. Similar to retinoic acid, many xenobiotic environmental pollutants have been found to disrupt retinoic signaling through binding and eliciting agonistic activity on retinoic acid receptors. Currently, studies of retinoic acid or retinoic acid-like compounds in aquatic organisms have mainly focused on teratogenicity and few studies have explored their neurobehavioral toxicity. In the present study, the authors used retinoic acid as an example to explore the neurobehavioral toxicity associated with developmental exposure of retinoic acid-like compounds in zebrafish. The findings confirmed retinoic acid's teratogenic effects such as bent spine, malformed tail, and pericardial edema in developing zebrafish with a median effective concentration of 2.47 nM. Retinoic acid-induced cell apoptosis at 24 h postfertilization was consistently found in the eye and tail regions of embryos. Spontaneous movement as characterized by tail bend frequency was significantly increased in zebrafish embryos following exposure to 2 nM and 8 nM retinoic acid. Relatively low-dose retinoic acid exposure of 2 nM led to fast locomotion behavior in the dark period and hyperactivity during light-dark photoperiod stimulation. The 2-nM retinoic acid exposure also led to alterations of neurobehavior- and optic nerve-related genes, with the transforming growth factor-β signal transduction inhibitor noggin (nog) and the spinal cord marker homeobox c3a (hox) being underexpressed and the retinal G protein-coupled receptor a (rgr), the photoreceptor cell marker rhodopsin (rho), and the short wave-sensitive cone pigment opsin 1 (opn1sw1) being overexpressed. Increased expression of opn1sw1 and rho was confirmed by whole-mount in situ hybridization. Whether the misexpression of these genes leads to the neurobehavioral changes merits further study. The findings demonstrated that low-dose retinoic acid exposure perturbed the visual system and optic nerve development and caused hyperactivity in developing zebrafish.

Retinoid X receptor ligands: a patent review (2007 - 2013)

INTRODUCTION

Retinoid X receptors (RXRs) are nuclear receptors that act as ligand-dependent transcription factors. RXRs function as homodimers or as heterodimers with other nuclear receptors, such as retinoic acid receptors, PPARs, liver X receptors, farnesoid X receptor, vitamin D receptor or thyroid hormone receptors. RXR ligands (agonists or antagonists) show various physiological effects, depending on their partner receptors. RXR agonist bexarotene (Targretin®) is used for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in clinical practice. RXR agonists were also reported to be useful for treatment of type 2 diabetes, autoimmune disease and Alzheimer's disease. RXR antagonists were also reported to be effective in type 2 diabetes treatment.

AREAS COVERED

Here patent applications (2007 - 2013) concerning RXR ligands are summarized, and the usefulness of RXR ligands as pharmaceutical agents is discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

RXR agonists show a wide variety of biological effects. However, they cause serious side effects, such as blood triglyceride elevation, hypothyroidism and others. Thus, for clinical application of RXR agonists, abrogation of these side effects is required. RXR heterodimer-selective agonists and RXR partial agonists exhibiting desired effects without side effects are expected to find clinical application.

Recessive and dominant mutations in retinoic acid receptor beta in cases with microphthalmia and diaphragmatic hernia

Anophthalmia and/or microphthalmia, pulmonary hypoplasia, diaphragmatic hernia, and cardiac defects are the main features of PDAC syndrome. Recessive mutations in STRA6, encoding a membrane receptor for the retinol-binding protein, have been identified in some cases with PDAC syndrome, although many cases have remained unexplained. Using whole-exome sequencing, we found that two PDAC-syndrome-affected siblings, but not their unaffected sibling, were compound heterozygous for nonsense (c.355C>T [p.Arg119(∗)]) and frameshift (c.1201_1202insCT [p.Ile403Serfs(∗)15]) mutations in retinoic acid receptor beta (RARB). Transfection studies showed that p.Arg119(∗) and p.Ile403Serfs(∗)15 altered RARB had no transcriptional activity in response to ligands, confirming that the mutations induced a loss of function. We then sequenced RARB in 15 subjects with anophthalmia and/or microphthalmia and at least one other feature of PDAC syndrome. Surprisingly, three unrelated subjects with microphthalmia and diaphragmatic hernia showed de novo missense mutations affecting the same codon; two of the subjects had the c.1159C>T (Arg387Cys) mutation, whereas the other one carried the c.1159C>A (p.Arg387Ser) mutation. We found that compared to the wild-type receptor, p.Arg387Ser and p.Arg387Cys altered RARB induced a 2- to 3-fold increase in transcriptional activity in response to retinoic acid ligands, suggesting a gain-of-function mechanism. Our study thus suggests that both recessive and dominant mutations in RARB cause anophthalmia and/or microphthalmia and diaphragmatic hernia, providing further evidence of the crucial role of the retinoic acid pathway during eye development and organogenesis.