Examining the quality of IEPs for young children with autism

Instructional Content and Self-Determination in Individualized Education Program Annual Goals for Students With Extensive Support Needs

Under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, individualized education program (IEP) annual goals are required to enable students with disabilities to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum and to address other educational needs. This study reports findings from a content analysis of the annual goals in 88 IEPs for K-12 students with extensive support needs. Results reflect a lack of comprehensive academic content goals to promote involvement and progress in the general education curriculum, and limited opportunities for students to develop skills associated with self-determination. Findings also show a focus within goals on student compliance rather than the development of meaningful skills and knowledge. Implications for research and practice are provided.

The Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Therapy Utilization Among Racially/Ethnically and Socio-Economically Diverse Autistic Children

PURPOSE

The purpose of current study was to evaluate change in hours of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) therapy utilization for autistic children during the year prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first three months of the pandemic (crisis phase), and the following 9 months of the pandemic (mitigation phase). Additionally, this study aimed to evaluate if change in therapy utilization differed based on child race, ethnicity, and primary payer of services. Finally, we aimed to identify potential mechanisms of ABA therapy disruption by interpreting findings using an extended version of Donabedian's structure-process-outcome model.

METHODS

Retrospective clinical data on client demographics and therapy utilization (n = 283) were collected from ABA clinics in California and analyzed with four piecewise growth multi-level models.

RESULTS

We found that therapy utilization dropped during the first three months of the pandemic (-10.65 h/month; p < .001) and increased during the following 9 months (2.39 h/month; p < .001). Moderator analyses revelated that Asian, Non-Latinx and school-district funded children had significantly different trajectories of change in therapy utilization compared to white, non-Latinx participants and private insurance funded participants, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that utilization of ABA therapy was disrupted for a full year following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and that child race/ethnicity and primary payer influenced the degree to which autistic children were impacted by service disruption. These findings have implications for autistic children who lost therapy access during key developmental periods and for the ABA care delivery system.

The education context for twice-exceptional students: An overview of issues in special and gifted education

Twice-exceptional children (2e) identified as having a disability and areas of high ability require a diverse range of support and enrichment services. However, services associated with special education and gifted programs present numerous barriers to the appropriate education of 2e students. In this manuscript, the author briefly recounts his experiences as a 2e child and shares experiences of 2e students and their families presented at the 2021 Summit on the Neuroscience of Twice Exceptionality. Challenges associated with the provision of special and gifted education to 2e students are also described. The role of neuroscience in education, as it relates to 2e students, is also discussed. Although many of the barriers to effective education for 2e children are systemic in nature, school-level reforms, as well as scientific advances, have the potential to improve services for this population.

Individualized Education Program Quality for Transition Age Students with Autism

BACKGROUND

Students with ASD have some of the worst postsecondary outcomes when compared to other students with disabilities indicating transition planning may not be working effectively. One source of support for postsecondary planning is development of the transition Individualized Education Program (IEP). However, little research is available to describe the current contents of transition IEPs for students with ASD. This study aimed to describe IEP and postsecondary planning quality for students with autism in their final year of high school.

METHOD

IEPs for 20 students with autism (Mage = 18.2 years; SD = 1.1) from two mid-southern states were analyzed. Descriptive analyses were used to identify strengths and weaknesses of IEPs and postsecondary goals based on federal law requirements and best practice recommendations.

RESULTS

IEPs contained an average of 3.1 IEP goals and 1.6 postsecondary goals. IEP goals were most frequently related to academic, learning/work, or communication skills. All IEPs contained an employment postsecondary goal while less than half of the IEPs included an independent living postsecondary goal. Key findings include lack of goals related to social skills and the lack of alignment between present levels of performance, IEP goals, and postsecondary goals.

CONCLUSIONS

IEPs for students with ASD in their final year of school do not consistently meet standards outlined by federal law or best practice recommendations necessary for successful transition from high school.

Goal Attainment Scaling: An Idiographic Measure Sensitive to Parent and Teacher Report of IEP Goal Outcome Assessment for Students with ASD

Young students with ASD have instructional needs in social, communication, and learning skills that should be reflected in their Individualized Education Program (IEP). Research suggests that many of these goal areas present a challenge for special educators because of problems with measurability. The current study utilized an idiographic approach called Goal attainment scaling (GAS) for measuring IEP progress of individualized skills. Cross-sectional analysis of the associations between GAS ratings from an independent observer were correlated against teacher and parent ratings of IEP progress at the end of the school year and with standardized measures of the Behavior Assessment System for Children and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS). GAS scores were associated with parent and teacher ratings, including the VABS.

Board certified behavior analysts and school fidelity of Applied Behavior Analysis services: qualitative findings

The Federal government mandates the use of evidence-based practice for interventions with students. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is one of these evidence-based practices, but despite this, many school systems do not implement ABA as described in the literature, which leads to loss of fidelity and integrity with implementation, and often results in ineffective interventions in the classroom. The research question "What are the experiences of Board Certified Behavior Analysis (BCBAs) who use evidence-based practices in conjunction with staff in schools for interventions with American K-12 students using ABA?" was developed to ascertain, from a BCBA's perspective, why ABA interventions are not implemented with fidelity in classroom settings. Participants were BCBAs in the United States who consult and collaborate with school staff to implement ABA services for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Findings indicate that BCBAs are not given adequate time or resources to provide sufficient training in ABA, that principles of ABA are sometimes misused in training in such a manner that exacerbates myths of ABA, and that a general lack of support from school administrators exists, all of which lead to a loss of implementation fidelity. This lack of implementation fidelity in turn leads to decreased outcomes for students with ASD in schools when ABA is not implemented with fidelity.

Parent Education in Studies With Nonverbal and Minimally Verbal Participants With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review

Purpose The purpose of this systematic review was to identify parent education procedures implemented in intervention studies focused on expressive verbal communication for nonverbal (NV) or minimally verbal (MV) children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Parent education has been shown to be an essential component in the habilitation of individuals with ASD. Parents of individuals with ASD who are NV or MV may particularly benefit from parent education in order to provide opportunities for communication and to support their children across the life span. Method ProQuest databases were searched between the years of 1960 and 2018 to identify articles that targeted verbal communication in MV and NV individuals with ASD. A total of 1,231 were evaluated to assess whether parent education was implemented. We found 36 studies that included a parent education component. These were reviewed with regard to (a) the number of participants and participants' ages, (b) the parent education program provided, (c) the format of the parent education, (d) the duration of the parent education, (e) the measurement of parent education, and (f) the parent fidelity of implementation scores. Results The results of this analysis showed that very few studies have included a parent education component, descriptions of the parent education programs are unclear in most studies, and few studies have scored the parents' implementation of the intervention. Conclusions Currently, there is great variability in parent education programs in regard to participant age, hours provided, fidelity of implementation, format of parent education, and type of treatment used. Suggestions are made to provide both a more comprehensive description and consistent measurement of parent education programs.

Implementation Fidelity and Common Elements of High Quality Teaching Sequences for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder in COMPASS

BACKGROUND

Evidence-based educational instruction includes teaching elements common across different approaches as well as specific elements of the chosen evidence-based practice. We were interested in evaluating the use and impact of common elements of teaching. Specifically, we adopted a model of elements of high quality teaching sequences and developed and tested an instructional quality index to capture evidence-based features within teaching sequences (Grisham-Brown & Ruble, 2014).

METHOD

The current investigation examined 29 special education teachers who received a consultation intervention called the Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success (COMPASS; Ruble, Dalrymple & McGrew, 2012) that results in personalized teaching plans for young students with ASD and embeds elements of evidence-based teacher coaching of self-reflection and performance-based feedback. We analyzed the teaching plans to understand which of the common elements were present, and if teachers demonstrated improved performance after coaching.

RESULTS

Analysis of the use of common elements during the first and fourth coaching session demonstrated that all teachers showed improvement. Most importantly, the use of common elements correlated with student goal attainment outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that common elements of teaching sequences which we view as core features of teaching quality, can be improved as a result of coaching, and most importantly, are associated with students' educational outcomes.

Targeting IEP Social Goals for Children with Autism in an Inclusive Summer Camp

Children with autism spectrum disorder demonstrate challenges in socialization that can interfere with their participation in common childhood activities and can persist or worsen if not addressed. The purpose of this study was to assess whether individualized education program (IEP) social goals could be targeted by a supervised paraprofessional during a short-term inclusive summer camp program. Data were collected using a concurrent multiple baseline design across four children. Results showed that following a 2-week summer camp program all participants made social improvements, reaching their year-long IEP goals, that maintained at follow-up in natural environments. Further, the paraprofessionals reached fidelity of implementation. Findings are discussed in terms of the value and feasibility of providing social interventions in inclusive summer camps.

Are Rural Students Receiving FAPE? A Descriptive Review of IEPs for Students With Social, Emotional, or Behavioral Needs

Students who are eligible to receive special education and related services are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) including the necessary emotional, behavioral, and social supports to access the general curriculum. This study explores Individualized Education Program (IEP) plans of students with disabilities who have social, emotional, or behavioral needs served in five rural independent school districts. Specifically, the study sought to investigate (a) whether the present level of academic and functional performance (PLAAFP) and annual goals demonstrated congruence and (b) whether the degree to which the IEP documents conform to both procedural and substantive requirements for development. A review of 126 IEPs suggests that although IEPs are somewhat compliant, they fail to comprehensively address student needs or align across areas, violating the spirit of Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. Recommendations and future areas of inquiry are provided.

In-service training for special education teachers working with students having developmental disabilities to develop effective transition goals

Objectives: The purpose was to investigate effects of an in-service training for secondary special education teachers in Turkey. The study was to serve as an initial analysis of the basic knowledge of educators about transition mandates, transition planning and components of quality goals. Methods: Twenty-two teachers of students with DD completed the in-service training. TSTA model was used to structure the training. To assess differences between teachers' knowledge from pre-test to the post-test, paired sample t-tests were employed. Results: A significant increase in knowledge of general transition and goal functionality was observed from pre-test to post-test. Results indicated that the training was effective in both increasing teachers' knowledge and generalization of functional goal writing across content areas. Conclusions: The study revealed the dearth of research related to transition knowledge and generation of high quality transition goals for students with DD.

A Retrospective Chart Review of Children with ASD's Individual Education Plans Compared to Subsequent Independent Psychological Evaluations

The heterogeneity of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) makes it difficult for school-based professionals to develop effective Individual Education Plans (IEP) for this group. Limited research exists on the quality of IEP programs for individuals with ASD. This article summarizes the results of a retrospective chart review from an outpatient diagnostic center. Researchers collected data from IEPs and subsequent psychological evaluations of 75 individuals diagnosed with ASD. The implications of these results for future research and practice are discussed.

The Relationship between Anxiety, External Structure, Behavioral History and Becoming Locked into Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are central to the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet there remains a paucity of research in this domain. What is clear is that people with ASD are vulnerable to getting locked into rigid patterns of thought and behavior that contribute to a lack of adaptation. This study utilized an online survey to explore the relationship between anxiety, external structure, the measurement of RRBs and behavioral history of being locked into RRBs. A significant relationship was identified between level of anxiety and a history of becoming locked into RRBs. The likelihood of becoming locked into RRBs increased at times of decreased external structure in the routine of people with ASD.

Preliminary efficacy of a daily living skills intervention for adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder

Daily living skills deficits are strongly associated with poor adult outcomes for individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder, and yet, there are no group interventions targeting daily living skills. Seven adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and their parents participated in a feasibility pilot of a 12-week manualized group treatment targeting specific daily living skills (i.e. morning routine, cooking, laundry, and money management). Outcomes included the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II) age equivalence scores and four goal attainment scaling scores. Adolescents demonstrated significant improvement on two Vineland-II subdomains and on all goal attainment scaling scores at post-treatment and 6-month follow-up. The intervention has promise for improving critical daily living skills' deficits that affect independent living and employment. Limitations and implications for future studies are discussed.

Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes

Teacher stress and burnout have a detrimental effect on the stability of the teaching workforce. However, the possible consequences of teacher burnout on teaching quality and on student learning outcomes are less clear, especially in special education settings. We applied Maslach and Leiter's model (1999) to understand the direct effects of burnout on teaching in general and stress arising from interaction with a specific student on the IEP outcomes of young children with autism spectrum disorder. We also examined indirect effects through teaching quality and student engagement. The results indicated that one of the three components of burnout-teacher personal accomplishment-was directly related to IEP outcomes, a distal effect, whereas stress was directly related to teaching quality and student engagement, which were more proximal effects. Additionally, teacher stress, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization had indirect effects on IEP outcomes through teaching quality and student engagement.

Writing Measurable and Academically Relevant IEP Goals With 80% Accuracy Over Three Consecutive Trials

Although one would hope that the magic of goal writing is somehow bestowed upon each speech-language pathologist during their graduate training, or at a minimum upon graduation, pre-service speech-language pathologists, as well as practicing speech-language pathologists, report that goal writing is challenging. This difficulty experienced while writing goals may result in SLPs and other special education providers searching the internet or IEPs of other students with similar needs to find a pre-written goal to use. Unfortunately, an over-reliance on web-based or software-based goal banks is problematic, as these resources still contain poorly written goals that are not measurable and vague and may ultimately decrease the individualization of the goal and treatment to a student's specific needs. Because goals are the “road map” for a student's speech-language intervention, it is not surprising that researchers have hypothesized, and more recently observed, that poorly written IEPs goals are negatively related to growth and progress in the curriculum. The purpose of this article is to remind SLPs of the importance of writing goals that are relevant to the findings of assessments, aligned to state academic standards, contain specific and measurable outcomes, and encourage growth in the skills needed to have academic success.

Participation Versus Individual Support: Individual Goals and Curricular Access in Inclusive Special Needs Education

Following the recommendations and conventions of the United Nations on inclusion, many educational systems provide inclusive support for children with special educational needs (SEN) within mainstream classrooms. In this context, multiprofessional planning of inclusive support is crucial and individual educational plans (IEPs) are essential tools for professional implementation of inclusive education. IEP should at the same time provide suitable and achievable educational goals for individual learners with SEN as well as lead to adaptations in teaching methods, fostering participation and curricular access. These two functions are somewhat contradictory. Despite the importance of IEP for the inclusive support of children with SEN, its practical implementation has been often discussed and questioned, focusing on the quality of educational goals and on the curricular access of children with SEN.

This article investigates goal setting in IEP for children with SEN in inclusive classrooms. Domain and quality of educational goals are analyzed as well as important factors influencing goal setting in IEP. Furthermore, the curricular access of children with SEN is focused.

One hundred and twenty-five situations of children with SEN in inclusive classrooms in Switzerland were investigated using teacher questionnaires. Goals in IEPs were analyzed using categories from the International Classification of Functioning Disability and Health (World Health Education, 2007) and criteria for rating goal quality in IEP. Curricular access was investigated measuring the curricular distance of educational goals from the Swiss–French mainstream curriculum.

Results indicate an average to low quality of the goals. Most goals concerned academic topics (56%), and two thirds of the children had goals corresponding to the curricular level. Therefore, the curricular access can be judged as quite good. On the other hand, the question of the right to follow the child’s own pace with adequate curricular adaptations stays under scrutiny.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Updates - Relevant Information for Early Interventionists to Consider

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication skills as well as repetitive, restricted or stereotyped behaviors (1). Early interventionists are often found at the forefront of assessment, evaluation, and early intervention services for children with ASD. The role of an early intervention specialist may include assessing developmental history, providing group and individual counseling, working in partnership with families on home, school, and community environments, mobilizing school and community resources, and assisting in the development of positive early intervention strategies (2, 3). The commonality among these roles resides in the importance of providing up-to-date, relevant information to families and children. The purpose of this review is to provide pertinent up-to-date knowledge for early interventionists to help inform practice in working with individuals with ASD, including common behavioral models of intervention.

Principals’ and Teachers’ Reports of Successful Teaching Strategies With Children With High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder

Little research has been conducted on the evidence base for educational interventions implemented by teachers targeting students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD). Research examining particular techniques perceived as effective may facilitate guidelines for the application of evidence-based practices. A principal and teacher of students with HFASD from each of 29 different schools provided information on their current teaching interventions. Principals participated in an online survey designed to ascertain support for HFASD learners in their school, whereas teachers completed an online reflective journal to document methods they used in the classroom. Both teachers and principals found numerous strategies such as structure and incorporating needs to be successful. Inappropriate communication, disorganisation, and a lack of understanding were considered unhelpful. These results have implications for current practices in classrooms.

Parental Perceptions of Family Centered Care in Medical Homes of Children with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities

Life course theory sets the framework for strong inclusion of family centered care (FCC) in quality medical homes of children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (CNDD). The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of families with their experiences of FCC in medical homes for CNDD. Using a structured questionnaire, the Family-Centered Care Self-Assessment Tool developed by Family Voices, this study surveyed 122 parents of CNDD in a large urban area during 2010-2012. Data collected information on FCC in the provision of primary health care services for CNDD and focused on family-provider partnerships, care setting practices and policies, and community services. Frequency analysis classified participants' responses as strengths in the "most of the time" range, and weaknesses in the "never" range. Only 31 % of parents were satisfied with the primary health care their CNDD received. Based on an accepted definition of medical home services, 16 % of parents reported their CNDD had most aspects of a medical home, 64 % had some, and 20 % had none. Strengths in FCC were primarily evident in the family-provider partnership and care settings when focused on meeting the medical care needs of the child. Weaknesses in FCC were noted in meeting the needs of families, coordination, follow-up, and support with community resources. Improvements in key pediatric health care strategies for CNDD are recommended. CNDD and their families have multifaceted needs that require strong partnerships among parents, providers, and communities. Quality medical homes must include FCC and valued partnerships with diverse families and community-based providers.

Variation in Educational Services Receipt Among US Children With Developmental Conditions

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between ease of access to needed community-based services (ease of access) and educational services receipt, and variation in educational services receipt by sociodemographic and need factors among a nationally representative sample of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), developmental delay (DD), and/or intellectual disability (ID).

METHODS

Data from the 2009-2010 National Survey of Children with Special Health Care Needs were linked to the 2011 Survey of Pathways to Diagnosis and Services on a sample of 3502 US children aged 6 to 17 years with ASD, DD, and/or ID. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine associations of educational services receipt with ease of access and sociodemographic and need factors.

RESULTS

Among children with developmental conditions, nearly half (49.7%) lacked easy access to services, and 16.9% did not have an individualized education program (IEP). Among children with an IEP, those with ease of access were more likely to have an IEP that addressed parent concerns about the child's development and education than those unable to easily access services (adjusted odds ratio 2.77; 95% confidence interval 1.71-4.49). Need factors, including functional limitations status, care coordination need, developmental condition type, and early intervention receipt, were significantly associated with educational services receipt.

CONCLUSIONS

Cross-systems initiatives facilitating service access remain important to ensuring the developmental needs of children with ASD, DD, and/or ID are met. Increased interprofessional collaboration promoting quality educational services receipt for children diagnosed with developmental conditions may further reduce disparities.

Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism

It is encouraging that children with autism show a strong response to early intervention, yet more research is needed for understanding the variability in responsiveness to specialized programs. Treatment predictor variables from 47 teachers and children who were randomized to receive the COMPASS intervention (Ruble et al. in The collaborative model for promoting competence and success for students with ASD. Springer, New York, 2012a) were analyzed. Predictors evaluated against child IEP goal attainment included child, teacher, intervention practice, and implementation practice variables based on an implementation science framework (Dunst and Trivette in J Soc Sci 8:143-148, 2012). Findings revealed one child (engagement), one teacher (exhaustion), two intervention quality (IEP quality for targeted and not targeted elements), and no implementation quality variables accounted for variance in child outcomes when analyzed separately. When the four significant variables were compared against each other in a single regression analysis, IEP quality accounted for one quarter of the variance in child outcomes.

Moving from research to practice in the primary care of children with autism spectrum disorders

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), once thought rare, are now commonly encountered in clinical practice. Academic pediatricians may be expected to teach medical students and pediatric residents about ASD, but most likely received limited exposure to ASD during their training. In recent years, research that informs the clinical guidance provided to pediatricians regarding surveillance, screening, and ongoing management of children with ASD has accelerated. By 24 months of age, children with ASD exhibit delays across multiple domains of development, yet the diagnosis is frequently made much later. Careful developmental surveillance lowers the age of identification of children with ASD. Several screening tools appropriate for use in primary care settings can aid in early identification. Improved surveillance and screening is of benefit because early intensive behavioral intervention has the potential to improve the developmental trajectory of children with ASD. Providing appropriate medical care for children with ASD improves both child and family outcomes. Recent research regarding sleep disturbances, gastrointestinal problems, and epilepsy in children with ASD has led to clinical pathways to evaluate and address these issues within the context of primary care. By being aware of and disseminating these research findings, academic pediatricians can help future and current clinicians improve the care of children with ASD.

Disparity of care for children with parent-reported autism spectrum disorders

OBJECTIVE

Although children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are eligible to receive special education services via an individualized education program (IEP), approximately 12% to 20% do not. Our objective was to determine which clinical and demographic characteristics are associated with IEP receipt among a nationally representative sample of children with ASD.

METHODS

Using data from the 2007 National Survey of Children's Health, we determined which clinical and demographic covariates are associated with IEP receipt for children ages 6 to 17 years with a current, parent-reported ASD diagnosis (n = 759). Logistic regression models were used to assess the association of covariates with IEP receipt. Application of weighting techniques made the findings representative of the noninstitutionalized population of US children 6 to 17 years old.

RESULTS

In the weighted model, 90% of children with ASD receive an IEP. Maternal education level above high school (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 4.08, P = .01) and presence of perceived need for coordination of care (aOR 3.62, P = .02) were associated with IEP receipt, while Hispanic children were less likely to receive an IEP compared with white children (aOR 0.12, P = .001). The following factors were not associated with IEP receipt: severity of ASD, speech, and behavior problems.

CONCLUSIONS

For children with ASD in the United States, socioeconomic factors, not disability severity, are associated with IEP receipt. Future research should address methods to overcome this disparity in care. Health care providers may help to advocate for appropriate educational services for patients with ASD.

A randomized controlled trial of COMPASS web-based and face-to-face teacher coaching in autism

OBJECTIVE

Most children with autism rely on schools as their primary source of intervention, yet research has suggested that teachers rarely use evidence-based practices. To address the need for improved educational outcomes, a previously tested consultation intervention called the Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success (COMPASS; Ruble, Dalrymple, & McGrew, 2010; Ruble, Dalrymple, & McGrew, 2012) was evaluated in a 2nd randomized controlled trial, with the addition of a web-based group.

METHOD

Forty-nine teacher-child dyads were randomized into 1 of 3 groups: (1) a placebo control (PBO) group, (2) COMPASS followed by face-to-face (FF) coaching sessions, and (3) COMPASS followed by web-based (WEB) coaching sessions. Three individualized goals (social, communication, and independence skills) were selected for intervention for each child. The primary outcome of independent ratings of child goal attainment and several process measures (e.g., consultant and teacher fidelity) were evaluated.

RESULTS

Using an intent-to-treat approach, findings replicated earlier results with a very large effect size (d = 1.41) for the FF group and a large effect size (d = 1.12) for the WEB group relative to the PBO group. There were no differences in overall change across goal domains between the FF and WEB groups, suggesting the efficacy of videoconferencing technology.

CONCLUSIONS

COMPASS is effective and results in improved educational outcomes for young children with autism. Videoconferencing technology, as a scalable tool, has promise for facilitating access to autism specialists and bridging the research-to-practice gap.

Goal attainment scaling as an outcome measure in randomized controlled trials of psychosocial interventions in autism

Goal attainment scaling (GAS) holds promise as an idiographic approach for measuring outcomes of psychosocial interventions in community settings. GAS has been criticized for untested assumptions of scaling level (i.e., interval or ordinal), inter-individual equivalence and comparability, and reliability of coding across different behavioral observation methods. We tested assumptions of equality between GAS descriptions for outcome measurement in a randomized trial (i.e., measurability, equidistance, level of difficulty, comparability of behavior samples collected from teachers vs. researchers and live vs. videotape). Results suggest GAS descriptions can be evaluated for equivalency, that teacher collected behavior samples are representative, and that varied sources of behavior samples can be reliably coded. GAS is a promising measurement approach. Recommendations are provided to ensure methodological quality.

Analysis of Parent, Teacher, and Consultant Speech Exchanges and Educational Outcomes of Students With Autism During COMPASS Consultation

The significant increase in the numbers of students with autism combined with the need for better trained teachers (National Research Council, 2001) call for research on the effectiveness of alternative methods, such as consultation, that have the potential to improve service delivery. Data from 2 randomized controlled single-blind trials indicate that an autism-specific consultation planning framework known as the collaborative model for promoting competence and success (COMPASS) is effective in increasing child Individual Education Programs (IEP) outcomes (Ruble, Dal-rymple, & McGrew, 2010; Ruble, McGrew, & Toland, 2011). In this study, we describe the verbal interactions, defined as speech acts and speech act exchanges that take place during COMPASS consultation, and examine the associations between speech exchanges and child outcomes. We applied the Psychosocial Processes Coding Scheme (Leaper, 1991) to code speech acts. Speech act exchanges were overwhelmingly affiliative, failed to show statistically significant relationships with child IEP outcomes and teacher adherence, but did correlate positively with IEP quality.

The Effects of Consultation on Individualized Education Program Outcomes for Young Children With Autism: The Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success

The effects of a teacher consultation intervention were examined-namely, the collaborative model for promoting competence and success (COMPASS), which was designed to improve objectives of individualized education programs for children with autism. The intervention consists of an initial parent-teacher consultation, followed by four teacher consultations across the school year. Thirty-five teachers and a randomly selected child with autism (M age = 6.1 years) from each classroom participated. Compared to the nonintervention teacher-child dyads, the intervention teacher-child dyads showed improvements in individualized education program objectives, with a large effect size (d = 1.51).