Coping and Positive Affect in Adolescents of Mothers With and Without a History of Depression

Protective factors enhancing resilience in children of parents with a mental illness: a systematic review

Objectives

A systematic review was conducted to (1) investigate protective factors enhancing resilience in children of parents with a mental illness (COPMI), and (2) examine theoretical and methodological issues in the existing literature.

Method

Following guidelines for systematic reviews, searches were performed using Web of Science, Pubmed and Embase. After screening 5,073 articles 37 fulfilled inclusion criteria and were extracted for review. Results of the present review indicate that there are several ways to help build resilience in COPMI. More specifically, five protective factors emerged from the reviewed literature: Information, Support, Family functioning and Connectedness, Child coping, and Parenting.

Discussion

Research on protective factors in children confronted with parental mental illness is still scarce and for some factors no clear conclusions can be drawn based on the available evidence. To further our understanding of the building blocks and underlying mechanisms of resilience in COPMI, additional rigorously designed studies are needed.

Trajectories of positive and negative affect across adolescence: Maternal history of depression and adolescent sex as predictors

BACKGROUND

Trajectories of affect vary across development, with normative increases in positive affect occurring during childhood and declines in positive affect appearing across adolescence. Little is known, however, about predictors of the trajectories of affect across adolescence. The present study examined associations between changes in adolescent affect across adolescence and maternal history of depression and child sex.

METHODS

Participants were 240 adolescents and their mothers; 185 mothers had a history of depression (i.e., high risk) and 55 mothers did not (i.e., low risk). Youth were assessed annually from 6th grade (meanage = 11.86 years, SD = 0.57, 54.2 % female, 82 % White) through 12th grade. Latent growth models tested the relation of maternal depression history and adolescent sex with trajectories of adolescent affect.

RESULTS

High-risk adolescents exhibited lower levels of PA as compared to low-risk youth (coefficient = -3.51, p = .008, 95 % CI [-6.11, -0.91]). Girls experienced earlier increases in negative affect (NA) as compared to boys, with more positive linear (coefficient = 2.07, p = .002, 95 % CI [0.774, 3.368]) and quadratic (coefficient = -0.29, p = .025, 95 % CI [-0.55, -0.04]) slopes.

LIMITATIONS

Use of self-report measures and limited generalizability.

CONCLUSION

Maternal depression significantly predicted decreases in offspring PA and distinct trajectories of NA in girls and boys. Interventions aimed at reducing risk in adolescent offspring of depressed parents may benefit from targeting PA and supporting girls in early adolescence.

Psychometric Properties of the Persian Version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale Among the Iranian Public People During COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: Several studies indicate a high prevalence of depression around the world during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a valid instrument to capture the depression of an individual in this situation is both important and timely. The present study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) among the public during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran.

Method: This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted in the Iranian population (n = 600) from April to July 2020. A two-part online form was used: sociodemographic characteristics and depression items (CES-D). The construct validity and internal consistency reliability of the scale were evaluated.

Result: The results of the exploratory factor analysis illustrated two factors with 43.35% of the total variance of the depression were explained. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that this model fits well. Internal consistency reliability was evaluated, and it was acceptable.

Conclusion: The findings demonstrated that, in the Iranian sample, this depression scale yielded two factors (somatic and positive affects) solutions with suitable psychometric properties.

The impact of COVID-19 on stress, anxiety, and coping in youth with and without autism and their parents

In the wake of COVID-19, the world has become a more uncertain environment-a breeding ground for stress and anxiety, especially for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The study examined stress, anxiety, and coping in a data-driven, real-time assessment of 122 youth with and without ASD and their parents at the height of the COVID-19 shutdown and three-months later. Standardized measures were administered to ascertain stress and coping explicitly related to the pandemic (RSQ COVID-19-Child [self-report], Adult [self-report from the guardian of youth], Parent [report about child]) and anxiety (STAI-C, STAI-A). Multivariate, univariate analyses of variance and hierarchical regression were used. ASD youth endorsed more Trait anxiety and response to specific stressors (e.g., virus). Caregivers of youth with ASD (Adults) self-reported higher anxiety, yet scores were elevated for both groups. Adults of youth with ASD reported more stress, especially related to the virus, access to healthcare, and concern for the future. In the TD group, youth and adults used more Primary and Secondary Control Coping whereas ASD youth and adults used more Disengagement Coping. Adult stress was the primary predictor of parent perception of child stress as well as Child self-reported stress. While the ASD group was consistently high compared to the TD group, there were no significant changes over time for stress or anxiety. Results reveal striking differences in youth with ASD and their parents regarding stress, anxiety, and coping. Findings highlight the need for essential support, access to services, and strategies to enhance psychological and emotional well-being. LAY SUMMARY: This study examined stress, anxiety, and coping related to the COVID-19 pandemic in 61 youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 61 youth with typical development (TD) and their parents. Results showed that ASD youth reported more anxiety and stress. Adults of youth with ASD indicated higher self-reported anxiety and stress than adults of TD youth. TD youth and their parents reported using more adaptive coping strategies. Findings highlight the need for strategies to enhance psychological and emotional well-being.

Impact of Caregiver's Psychological Aspects towards Quality of Life of Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)

BACKGROUND

Families who have children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) are at high risk of experiencing stress. Stress on the family can cause the formation of negative communication in children so that families tend to spend more time in dealing with negative emotions through negative actions. This study aimed to analyze the correlation between stress, anxiety, and depression in caregiver with pediatric ALL outcome.

METHODS

A cross sectional study was conducted on children with ALL and their caregivers at the Pediatric Ward, Dr. Soetomo Hospital, Surabaya. Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) questionnaire were used to measure anxiety and depression in caregivers. Previous stressful experiences in children and caregivers were assessed by The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Children quality of life was assessed by pediatric quality of life inventory (PedsQL™) questionnaire. Pearson and Spearman correlation strength test was performed for the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

There is no significant correlation between stress level of caregivers with the quality of life of children with ALL (P > 0.05). There is negative correlation between the level of anxiety and depression in caregivers with the quality of life of children (P < 0.05). There is negative correlation between children stress level with the quality of life of children (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The psychological condition of the caregiver affects the quality of life of children. The higher the level of anxiety and depression in caregivers, the lower the quality of life of children.<br />.

Links between parental socialization of coping on affect: Mediation by emotion regulation and social exclusion

INTRODUCTION

Parental socialization of coping strategies is associated with various emotion regulation difficulties and continues to impact individuals during emerging adulthood. As emerging adults' transition into adulthood, they experience social stressors that put their emotion regulation skills to the test.

METHODS

The current study examined the associations of the parental socialization of coping strategies and emotion regulation difficulties with emerging adult positive and negative affect in response to social exclusion. Emerging adults (N = 402, 206 males and 196 females) from a large Southern university in the United States were recruited for the study. Participants completed survey measures of parental socialization of coping, positive and negative affect, and emotion regulation difficulties before engaging in a social exclusion task called Cyberball. After the task, participants completed a measure of positive and negative affect again.

RESULTS

Primary parental socialization of coping was associated with emotion regulation difficulties, both of which were associated with affect after the exclusion task, thus supporting the indirect effect of parental coping socialization on affect through a preexisting variable (i.e., emotion regulation) and a causal manipulation (i.e., exclusion task).

CONCLUSIONS

The impact of parental suggestions of coping strategies and emotion regulation difficulties during emerging adulthood indicate that parents continue to be an important point of intervention as individuals' transition to adulthood.

Latina/o Children Living With an Immigrant Mother With Depression: Developmental and Cultural Nuances in Recognition and Coping

The psychological experience of maternal depression and its impact on immigrant Latina/o families often goes unrecognized and unaddressed. Children may feel especially helpless and confused about the changes they observe in their mothers' mood and behavior, and about the deterioration of family relationships. Given the interdependence of family structures of immigrant Latina/o households, maternal depression can be detrimental to Latina/o youth attributions and coping strategies, and to their relationship with their mothers. The quantitative focus of most research on maternal depression in Latina/o samples limits our understanding of family processes in maternal depression. The current qualitative study explores the perceived impact of maternal depression on Latina/o youths' attributions and coping strategies. This inquiry involved focus groups with 12 participants aged 9-16 years to explore their perspectives on maternal depression. All youth had participated in a 12-week multifamily group intervention focused on building family and cultural strengths to address maternal depression on immigrant Latina/o families. Findings of the focus groups illuminated the essential experience of youth living with maternal depression, and indicated that there are developmental considerations for how youth recognize and make meaning of maternal depression, and cope with disrupted family life. Additionally, youth reported engaging in these culture-specific ways of coping: using close sibling relationships and family structure as support, having fathers and extended family members engage in additional and restorative parenting practices, and participating in religious practices to seek refuge from family stress. We propose considerations for intervention and further areas of research.

The Psychometric Properties of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for Iranian Cancer Patients

Objectives:

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was specifically created to assess depression in cancer patients. However, to date, the CES-D has not been validated in Farsi. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the CES-D in Iranian cancer patients.

Methods:

During a three-month period (October to December, 2015), a total of 380 cancer patients completed a Farsi version of the CES-D. The construct validity of the scale was evaluated by exploratory factor analysis. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald Omega. All of the statistical procedure were run by SPSS 22 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

Results:

The construct validity of the CES-D determined three factors (somatic affect, negative affect, and positive affect), which explained 65.60% of the total variance. The internal consistency was greater than 0.70.

Conclusion:

Findings revealed that the Farsi version of the CES-D has acceptable validity and reliability, which can be used to measure depression in Iranian cancer patients.

Focusing too much on individualistic achievement may generate stress and negative emotion: Social rank theory perspective

Individualistic achievement personality has been found to increase personal resources and reduce negative emotions. Whether individualistic achievement is protective against stress or negative emotion or indeed stress generating remains uncertain. The present study examined three models proposed to explain the interrelationship between individualistic achievement, personal resources, daily stress, and negative emotion. One hundred eighteen volunteers (aged 18-59 years; 39 males) were recruited from the community. On the first day of the study, they received copies of a questionnaire measuring daily stress to complete for the next 14 days. On the last day of the study, they filled in questionnaires measuring positive and negative affect, depression, social functioning and individualistic achievement personality. Individualistic achievement was significantly associated with positive affect and social functioning but not with negative affect, depression, and average daily stress. Structural equation modeling analysis showed a significant fit for a model indicating that individualistic achievement personality scores would be positively associated with both personal resources and daily stress, and subsequently personal resources would be negatively associated with negative emotion and daily stress positively associated with negative emotion. Individualistic achievement may be related to both advantages and disadvantages. Further investigation of the nature of individualistic achievement is warranted.

The Role of Affect and Coping in Diabetes Self-Management in Rural Adults with Uncontrolled Diabetes and Depressive Symptoms

Many patients with diabetes have poorly controlled blood sugar levels and remain at risk for serious diabetes complications, despite access to effective diabetes treatments and services. Using the transactional model of stress and coping framework, the study investigated the contributions of affect (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) and coping (maladaptive and adaptive coping from the Brief Cope) on diabetes self-management behaviors, namely diet and exercise. One hundred seventy-eight rural adults with uncontrolled diabetes and moderate depressive symptoms completed the measures. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that positive affect and negative affect were significantly associated with diet and exercise, even after adjusting for diabetes severity, illness intrusiveness, and diabetes knowledge. However, two path analyses clarified that adaptive coping mediated the relationships between affect (positive and negative) and self-management behaviors (diet and exercise). Comprehensive diabetes treatments that include self-management support can assist patients in recognition and use of adaptive emotion-focused coping skills.

Resilience in Adolescents with Cancer: Association of Coping with Positive and Negative Affect

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prospective association between adolescents' coping with cancer-related stress and observed positive and negative affect during a mother-adolescent interaction task involving discussion of cancer-related stressors.

METHODS

Adolescents (age 10-15 years) self-reported about their coping and affect approximately 2 months after cancer diagnosis. Approximately 3 months later, adolescents and mothers were video recorded having a discussion about cancer, and adolescents were coded for expression of positive affect (positive mood) and negative affect (sadness and anxiety).

RESULTS

Adolescents' use of secondary control coping (i.e., acceptance, cognitive reappraisal, and distraction) in response to cancer-related stress predicted higher levels of observed positive affect, but not negative affect, over time.

CONCLUSION

Findings provide support for the importance of coping in the regulation of positive emotions. The potential role of coping in preventive interventions to enhance resilience in adolescents facing cancer-related stress is highlighted.

Maternal and Paternal Influences on Children's Coping with Cancer-Related Stress

Childhood cancer is a significant source of stress for children and families, and children's coping with cancer-related stress is a key predictor of emotional adjustment. To extend understanding of the determinants of children's coping with cancer-related stress, this study examined whether mothers' and fathers' functioning after their child's diagnosis-including coping and depressive symptoms-is predictive of children's coping over time. Participants included 166 children (M_age = 13.47, SD = 2.47, 51.2% female), 161 mothers, and 83 fathers. Approximately two months post-diagnosis (T1), parents reported on their coping and depressive symptoms. At T1 and approximately 12 months later (T2), children reported on their coping. Results indicated that mothers' coping and depressive symptoms were correlated with children's coping at T1; fathers' coping and depressive symptoms were generally not associated with children's coping at T1. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that fathers' secondary control coping (i.e., coping aimed at adapting to cancer-related stress) predicted higher levels of secondary control coping in children over time. Mothers' depressive symptoms predicted lower levels of secondary control coping over time in girls, and fathers' depressive symptoms predicted lower levels of secondary control coping over time across sex. Parents' functioning after their child's cancer diagnosis may shape how children cope with cancer-related stress. Parents' coping and depressive symptoms may be important targets for interventions aiming to promote positive adjustment in children with cancer.

Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review

In this meta-analytic and narrative review, we examine several overarching issues related to the study of coping, emotion regulation, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence, including the conceptualization and measurement of these constructs. We report a quantitative meta-analysis of 212 studies (N = 80,850 participants) that measured the associations between coping and emotion regulation with symptoms of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Within the meta-analysis we address the association of broad domains of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., total coping, emotion regulation), intermediate factors of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., primary control coping, secondary control coping), and specific coping and emotion regulation strategies (e.g., emotional expression, cognitive reappraisal) with internalizing and externalizing symptoms. For cross-sectional studies, which made up the majority of studies included, we examine 3 potential moderators: age, measure quality, and single versus multiple informants. Finally, we separately consider findings from longitudinal studies as these provide stronger tests of the effects. After accounting for publication bias, findings indicate that the broad domain of emotion regulation and adaptive coping and the factors of primary control coping and secondary control coping are related to lower levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Further, the domain of maladaptive coping, the factor of disengagement coping, and the strategies of emotional suppression, avoidance, and denial are related to higher levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Finally, we offer a critique of the current state of the field and outline an agenda for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

Letting Oneself Go Isn't Enough: Cognitively Oriented Expressive Writing Reduces Preadolescent Peer Problems

Peer problems are a stressor for many early adolescents, and simple cost-effective tools for managing peer stress are needed. Expressive writing (EW) may be one such tool. With a sample of middle school children aged 12-14 years (n = 119; 53% males), this research evaluates whether cognitively oriented expressive writing (CEW), which focuses more on psychological self-distancing, improves personal well-being better than traditional EW, which focuses more on emotional disclosure. CEW-compared with EW-slightly enhanced long-term social adjustment for the entire sample, and increased positive affect for those early adolescents that reported more peer problems at baseline. These findings suggest that structured writing instructions with early adolescents may be key to improvements.

Ecological Momentary Assessment of Adolescent Problems, Coping Efficacy, and Mood States Using a Mobile Phone App: An Exploratory Study

BACKGROUND

Mobile technologies have the potential to be used as innovative tools for conducting research on the mental health and well-being of young people. In particular, they have utility for carrying out ecological momentary assessment (EMA) research by capturing data from participants in real time as they go about their daily lives.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to explore the utility of a mobile phone app as a means of collecting EMA data pertaining to mood, problems, and coping efficacy in a school-based sample of Irish young people.

METHODS

The study included a total of 208 participants who were aged 15-18 years, 64% female (113/208), recruited from second-level schools in Ireland, and who downloaded the CopeSmart mobile phone app as part of a randomized controlled trial. On the app, participants initially responded to 5 single-item measures of key protective factors in youth mental health (formal help-seeking, informal help-seeking, sleep, exercise, and sense of belonging). They were then encouraged to use the app daily to input data relating to mood states (happiness, sadness, anger, stress, and worry), daily problems, and coping self-efficacy. The app automatically collected data pertaining to user engagement over the course of the 28-day intervention period. Students also completed pen and paper questionnaires containing standardized measures of emotional distress (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale; DASS-21), well-being (World Health Organization Well-Being Index; WHO-5), and coping (Coping Strategies Inventory; CSI).

RESULTS

On average the participants completed 18% (5/28) of daily ratings, and engagement levels did not differ across gender, age, school, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or nationality. On a scale of 1 to 10, happiness was consistently the highest rated mood state (overall mean 6.56), and anger was consistently the lowest (overall mean 2.11). Pearson correlations revealed that average daily ratings of emotional states were associated with standardized measures of emotional distress (r_happiness=-.45, r_sadness=.51, r_anger=.32, r_stress=.41, r_worry=.48) and well-being (r_happiness=.39, r_sadness =-.43, r_anger=-.27, r_stress=-.35, r_worry=-.33)_. Inferential statistics indicated that single-item indicators of key protective factors were related to emotional distress, well-being, and average daily mood states, as measured by EMA ratings. Hierarchical regressions revealed that greater daily problems were associated with more negative daily mood ratings (all at the P<.001 level); however, when coping efficacy was taken into account, the relationship between problems and happiness, sadness, and anger became negligible.

CONCLUSIONS

While engagement with the app was low, overall the EMA data collected in this exploratory study appeared valid and provided useful insights into the relationships between daily problems, coping efficacy, and mood states. Future research should explore ways to increase engagement with EMA mobile phone apps in adolescent populations to maximize the amount of data captured by these tools.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02265978; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02265978 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6mMeYqseA).

Sexual intercourse among adolescent daughters of mothers with depressive symptoms from minority families

This study investigated the association between maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent engagement in sexual intercourse in a non-clinical sample of mothers and their adolescent daughters from minority families. The current study explores ways in which maternal depression, family factors, and adolescent sex interact. Data were from a cross-sectional study of 176 mother-daughter dyads, including a subset of mothers with HIV. Logistic regression analyses revealed that among mothers who were not current marijuana users, more maternal depressive symptoms was associated with daughters' engagement in sexual intercourse. Neither parent-child conflict nor parental involvement significantly mediated the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent sex. This study provides the first empirical evidence that non-clinical depressive symptoms in mothers are associated with adolescent engagement in sexual intercourse.

Testing Specificity: Associations of Stress and Coping with Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in Youth

Research has documented the co-occurrence of symptoms of anxiety and depression across the lifespan, suggesting that these symptoms share common correlates and etiology. The present study aimed to examine potential specific and/or transdiagnostic correlates of symptoms of anxiety and depression in at-risk youth. The present study examined youth stress associated with parental depression and youth coping as potential correlates of symptoms of anxiety and depression in a sample of children of depressed parents. One hundred eighty parents with a history of depression and their children ages 9-15 completed measures assessing youths' stress associated with parental depression (RSQ), symptoms of anxiety and depression (YSR and CBCL), and coping (RSQ). The results support the hypothesis that secondary control coping is a transdiagnostic correlate of symptoms of anxiety and depression in youth. Youth stress related to parental depression and primary control coping were specific correlates of youth depressive symptoms and not anxiety symptoms. Disengagement coping was not a significant correlate of symptoms of anxiety or depression in youth. Results suggest that there are both transdiagnostic and specific correlates of symptoms of anxiety and depression in youth. The current study provides evidence to suggest specific types of stress and strategies to cope with this stress demonstrate specificity to symptoms of anxiety and depression in high-risk offspring of depressed parents. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the relationship between stress, coping, and symptoms to inform prevention and treatment research.

Determinants of Effective Caregiver Communication After Adolescent Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the effects of caregiver mental health and coping strategies on interactions with an injured adolescent acutely after traumatic brain injury (TBI).

DESIGN

Multi-site, cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Outpatient setting of 3 tertiary pediatric hospitals and 2 tertiary general medical centers.

PARTICIPANTS

Adolescents (N = 125) aged 12-17 years, 1-6 months after being hospitalized with complicated mild to severe TBI.

METHODS

Data were collected as part of a multi-site clinical trial of family problem-solving therapy after TBI. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationship of caregiver and environmental characteristics to the dimensions of effective communication, warmth, and negativity during caregiver-adolescent problem-solving discussions.

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

Adolescent and caregiver interactions, as measured by the Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales.

RESULTS

Caregivers who utilized problem-focused coping strategies were rated as having higher levels of effective communication (P < .01), as were those with higher socioeconomic status (P < .01). Problem-focused coping style and higher socioeconomic status were also associated lower levels of negative interactions (P < .01 and P < .05, respectively). Female gender of the adolescent and fewer children in the home were associated with increased parental warmth during the interaction (P < .01 and P < .05, respectively). Neither adolescent TBI severity nor caregiver depression significantly influenced caregiver-teen interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Problem-focused coping strategies are associated with higher levels of effective communication and lower levels of caregiver negativity during the initial months after adolescent TBI, suggesting that effective caregiver coping may facilitate better caregiver-adolescent interactions after TBI.

Coping with having a depressed mother: The role of stress and coping in hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis dysfunction in girls at familial risk for major depression

Having a depressed mother is one of the strongest predictors of depression in adolescence. We investigated whether the stress of having a mother with recurrent depression is associated with dysfunction in adolescents in the HPA axis and whether the tendency to use involuntary coping strategies in dealing with this stress is associated with exacerbation of dysfunction in this system. Sixty-four never-disordered daughters of mothers with recurrent depression (high risk) and 64 never-disordered daughters of never-disordered mothers (low risk) completed diurnal cortisol and stress assessments. High-risk girls secreted more diurnal cortisol than did low-risk girls. Whereas low-risk girls secreted higher levels of cortisol with increasing stress associated with having a depressed mother, no such relation was present in high-risk girls. Finally, in contrast to low-risk girls, girls at familial risk for depression who more frequently used involuntary versus voluntary coping exhibited the greatest elevations in diurnal cortisol. These findings indicate that a tendency to utilize involuntary, as opposed to voluntary, coping strategies in dealing with stress involving maternal depression exacerbates already high levels of cortisol in youth at risk for depression. Future research that examines whether interventions aimed at increasing the use of voluntary coping strategies normalizes HPA axis dysfunction is of interest.

Attentional Biases in Currently Depressed Children: An Eye-Tracking Study of Biases in Sustained Attention to Emotional Stimuli

Cognitive theories state attentional biases contribute to the development and maintenance of depression. Like depressed adults, there is growing evidence for the presence of attentional biases to sad stimuli in depressed youth. Although the direction of this bias among children remains unclear, preliminary evidence indicates attentional avoidance of sad stimuli in children. This is the first known sudy to use eye-tracking to investigate the exact nature of attention biases among depressed children. To assess sustained attention, the current study used eye-tracking and a passive viewing task in which children viewed a series of four facial expressions (angry, happy, sad, neutral) presented simultatiously for 20 s on a computer screen. The current study compared the attentional allocation of currently depressed children (n = 19; M age = 11.21) to a group of never depressed children (n = 22; M age = 10.82). Consistent with earlier research with children, we found that children with current major or minor depression, compared to children with no history of depression, exhibited attentional avoidance of sad facial stimuil as well as some evidence for preferential attention to happy faces. This study provides additional evidence that although depressed children demonstrate mood congruent attentional biases like that observed depressed adults, the nature of these biases may reflect attentional avoidance of sad stimuli, rather than preferential attention.

Interactive models of depression vulnerability: the role of childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, and coping

OBJECTIVES

This prospective study investigated whether within-individual relations between depression vulnerability factors (childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, maladaptive coping) and depressive symptom trajectories varied as a function of the number of prior major depressive episodes (MDEs) experienced in their lifetime.

DESIGN

Participants were 68 young adults who varied with regard to their history of depression; 32 were remitted depressed and 36 were never depressed.

METHODS

Depressive symptoms and disorders were assessed using semi-structured psychiatric interviews conducted twice over a 6-month period; interviews yielded weekly ratings of depressive symptoms during the follow-up interval. Childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes and coping were assessed with self-report measures. Data analyses were conducted using time-lagged multilevel models.

RESULTS

Individuals with more previous MDEs who reported greater childhood trauma exposure, more dysfunctional attitudes, or greater use of maladaptive coping strategies experienced more rapid increases in depressive symptoms during the follow-up period. A significant interaction of coping, number of previous MDEs, and time was found indicating that among individuals with less adaptive coping (i.e., lower primary or lower secondary control coping scores), depressive symptoms rating (DSR) increased significantly in relation to number of prior depressive episodes; no change in DSR was observed for never-depressed individuals. Among individuals with higher primary control coping scores, significant increases in DSR scores were observed for individuals with ≥3 prior MDEs only.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the need for treatment and prevention programmes that target stress reactivity and coping strategies early in the course of depression.

Cancer-related sources of stress for children with cancer and their parents

OBJECTIVES

The current study examines reports and correlates of cancer-specific stressors in children with cancer and their parents. Measures Mothers (n = 191) and fathers (n = 95) reported on their own and their child's stressors, general perceived stress, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Children (n = 106) completed self-reports of their own stressors and posttraumatic stress symptoms.

RESULTS

Mother and father self-reports were positively correlated, but mothers reported higher levels of stressors than fathers. Child and parent reports of children's stressors were positively correlated, but parents rated physical effects as more stressful while children rated role-functioning stressors as more stressful. Parents' and childrens' reports of stressors were also positively associated with general perceived stress and posttraumatic stress symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings extend research on stress in children with cancer and their parents, and may help inform research on risk and intervention in pediatric cancer populations.

Coping, Negative Cognitive Style and Depressive Symptoms in Children of Depressed Parents

Coping and negative cognitive style were studied in relation to depressive symptoms in children at risk for depression. In a sample of 165 children (ages 9-15) of depressed parents, the main and interaction effects of coping and negative cognitive style were examined in association with children's depressive symptoms measured by parent and child report on questionnaires and diagnostic interviews. Negative cognitive style was related to three types of coping (primary control, secondary control, and disengagement). Furthermore, coping and negative cognitive style made independent contributions to depressive symptoms. Little support emerged for interactive effects on depressive symptoms. Implications for future research with this high-risk population of children are considered.