Interactions between risk and protective factors on problem gambling in Asia

A Double-Edged-Sword Effect of Overplacement: Social Comparison Bias Predicts Gambling Motivations and Behaviors in Chinese Casino Gamblers

Overconfidence, a widely observed cognitive bias, has been linked to increased gambling motivations and behaviors. However, previous studies have largely overlooked overconfidence under a social comparison context, known as overplacement, i.e., the tendency of individuals to believe that they are better than their similar peers. In the present study, we tested the effect of overplacement on gambling motivations and behaviors though a Pilot Survey of Chinese college students (N = 129) and a Field Survey of Chinese Macao casino gamblers (N = 733). Our results revealed a double-edged sword effect of overplacement: Serving as a risk factor, evaluating one self's earning ability as higher than others was linked to more gambling motivations (β = 0.18, p = .005) and frequency (β = 0.18, p = .004); Serving as a protective factor, evaluating oneself as happier than others was linked to less gambling motivations (β = - 0.32, p < .001) and problem behaviors (β = - 0.26, p < .001). These findings expand the relationship between overconfidence and gambling from a cognitive bias perspective to a social comparison perspective. Our study not only revealed a typical profile of gambling motivations and behaviors among different demographic groups in Chinese casino gamblers, but also highlighted the importance of considering social factors in the study of the psychological mechanisms of gambling.

Exploring the Complex Dynamics: Examining the Influence of Deviant Personas in Online Gambling

The widespread use of computers and the Internet has substantially changed the gaming environment during the past ten years. The gambling industry is no longer exclusive to land-based gaming establishments (such as casinos and racetracks). Today, a few keystrokes on a computer are all it takes to access gaming operations. Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat and various other platforms constitute a particular form of access that has drawn more attention from academics in gambling studies. This increasing focus is partially attributable to the fact that social media sites have gained popularity as a means of accessing online gambling websites via hyperlinks hidden inside adverts. Users of social networking platforms can play free-to-play virtual gambling games using programmes. Virtual gaming platforms are the new name for these free-to-play simulation games of gambling. However, there is evidence to suggest that playing social casino games may serve as a "gateway" to real money gambling. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of deviant personas on online gambling behavior. By examining the relationship between deviant personas and online gambling, we seek to enhance our understanding of the factors that contribute to problematic gambling behaviors in virtual environments. Employing a robust methodological approach, this research amalgamates the analytical power of PLS-SEM (Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling) to explore the factors influencing the intention to adopt online gambling services. The data for this study were obtained by administering an online survey questionnaire to a sample of 325 aware customers of online gambling. The study's discerning insights have notable implications for the academic community, brand strategists, online game designers, and online gambling platform providers, offering valuable guidance for decision-making and strategy formulation within the burgeoning online gambling industry.

The Role of Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy in Responsible Gambling

Responsible gambling (RG) refers to a set of protective strategies aiming at containing the negative consequences associated with gambling. To improve the effectiveness of RG, it is essential to understand factors influencing gamblers' adherence to RG. Past literatures on addictive behaviors have demonstrated that one's self-efficacy and self-esteem are associated with the adherence to protective behaviors of the specific addictive behaviors. The present study aims to test whether gamblers' self-esteem and RG self-efficacy can be applied to explain their adherence to protective gambling behaviors. Two hundred and thirty-six past-year gamblers were randomly selected to take part in a phone survey. Path analysis showed that both gamblers' RG self-efficacy and self-esteem were positively associated with gamblers' RG behaviors, while RG behaviors were negatively linked to the problem gambling tendency. The findings provided insight into potential promotion and intervention strategies based on self-esteem and self-efficacy and those strategies may be adopted in the primary prevention of gambling disorder.

Stressful Life Events and Problem Gambling Among Chinese Lottery Gamblers: The Mediating Effects of Coping Strategies and Magical Thinking

Problem gambling poses serious harm to individuals and societies worldwide. This study aims to investigate the relationship between stressful life events and problem gambling, and further explore the mediating role of coping strategies and magical thinking. Currently, the research on problem gambling is widely conducted worldwide. However, due to the unique characteristics of China's gambling industry, research on problem gambling conducted in the Chinese mainland has always been an underrepresented area in international gambling research. This study recruited participants from a province in central China, and data from 483 of them were ultimately analyzed. The data analysis results indicate that task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, avoidance-oriented coping, and magical thinking all serve as mediators in the relationship between stressful life events and problem gambling. Emotion-oriented coping and magical thinking, avoidance-oriented coping and magical thinking, all serve as serial mediators in the relationship between stressful life events and problem gambling. Task-oriented coping and magical thinking did not act as serial mediators in this relationship. This study demonstrates that helping problem gamblers develop effective coping strategies and reduce their level of magical thinking is crucial for treating their problem gambling.

Loot box purchasing and indebtedness: The role of psychosocial factors and problem gambling

Introduction

Loot boxes are increasingly common random-reward monetization mechanisms in digital games. They are popular among gamblers and pose various risks due to their gambling-like nature, but little is known about psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences of purchasing them. This article examined psychosocial associations with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing and indebtedness among past-year gamblers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

Cross-sectional survey data were collected in April 2021 from Finnish, Swedish, and British past-year gamblers aged 18 to 75 (n = 2,022). Measures of loneliness, psychological resilience, and problem gambling were studied in relation to loot box purchasing and indebtedness. Structural equation modeling was used as an analytical technique.

Results

Loneliness was positively associated with self-reported increase in loot box purchasing. No evidence was found regarding the protective role of psychological resilience in loot box purchasing. Increased loot box purchasing was associated with problem gambling. Problem gambling mediated the relationship between loot box purchasing and indebtedness.

Conclusions

The findings bring valuable insight into the psychosocial vulnerabilities and financial consequences in loot box purchasing. Loot box purchasing can add to one's financial strain particularly among vulnerable individuals such as problem gamblers, making it crucial to regulate such monetization practices.

Psychosocial Perspective on Problem Gambling: The role of Social Relationships, Resilience, and COVID-19 Worry

The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified several psychosocial risks and problem behaviors among vulnerable individuals. Given that gambling has high addictive potential, it is important to consider the underlying mechanisms of problem gambling. This study examined psychosocial factors associated with pandemic-time problem gambling.Cross-sectional data were gathered via an online survey of 18-75-year-old Finnish, Swedish, and British respondents (n = 2,022) who reported having gambled at least occasionally during the pandemic. Measures included problem gambling, loneliness, COVID-19 worry, social support, and psychological resilience. Control variables included gender, age, and education. Structural equation modeling was used as an analytical technique.Loneliness was found to be associated with problem gambling. While COVID-19 worry was not directly associated with problem gambling, it predicted higher loneliness, which in turn was associated with problem gambling. Evidence was not found regarding the protective role of resilience or social support in problem gambling. However, social support was found to be associated with higher problem gambling severity. Male gender and younger age were associated with problem gambling.The results bring insight into underlying vulnerabilities regarding problem gambling during the pandemic. More focus should be placed on the quality and sources of social support, as well as on how psychosocial risk and protective factors might work differently among different populations of gamblers.

Problematic Internet Use and Resilience: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Problematic Internet use has become a major problem worldwide due to its numerous negative correlates in the field of health, both mental and physical, and its increasing prevalence, making it necessary to study both its risk and protective factors. Several studies have found a negative relationship between resilience and problematic Internet use, although the results are inconsistent. This meta-analysis assesses the relationship between problematic Internet use and resilience, and analyses its possible moderating variables. A systematic search was conducted in PsycInfo, Web of Science and Scopus. A total of 93,859 subjects from 19 studies were included in the analyses. The results show that there is a statistically-significant negative relationship (r = -0.27 (95% CI [-0.32, -0.22])), without evidence of publication bias. This meta-analysis presents strong evidence of the relationship between the two variables. Limitations and practical implications are discussed.

Resilience and problematic smartphone use: a moderated mediation model

BACKGROUND

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is adversely correlated with resilience. To completely comprehend the mechanism underlying this relationship, however, more investigation is required.

METHODS

For this cross-sectional study, the method of stratified random cluster sampling was applied. 834 Chinese undergraduate students (aged 17 to 24) were recruited, and self-reported questionnaires were administered to measure their levels of resilience, perceived social support, the sense of school belonging, and habitual and problematic smartphone use.

RESULTS

The findings showed that resilience both directly and indirectly predicted PSU through perceived social support and the sense of school belonging. Additionally, there were significant moderating effects of habitual smartphone use between resilience and perceived social support, the sense of school belonging, and PSU.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research identified the negative influence of resilience on PSU, and specifically, highlighted the mediation effects of perceived social support and the sense of school belonging. Of significance, we also found the moderation effect of habitual smartphone use in the development of PSU.

The relationship of gambling with sensation-seeking behavior and psychological resilience in university students

PURPOSE

We aimed to analyze the relationship of gambling with university students' sensation-seeking behavior and psychological resilience.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional and correlational research was performed with 650 students. Data collection tools were Personal Information Form, South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), Zuckerman Sensation-Seeking Scale (ZSSS), and Brief Resilience Scale (BRS).

FINDINGS

Of the students, 1.2% were probably pathological gamblers. There was a positive relationship between students' SOGS and ZSSS scores (p < 0.05). However, there was no relationship between students' SOGS and BRS scores (p > 0.05).

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Psychological support units and instructors take an active role in determining the gambling behaviors of students and related factors in advance, raising awareness of gambling, and preventing the negative effects of these behaviors in faculty campuses.

GAMBLINGLESS IN-THE-MOMENT: Protocol for a micro-randomised trial of a gambling Just-In-Time Adaptive Intervention (Preprint)

Background

The presence of discrete but fluctuating precipitants, in combination with the dynamic nature of gambling episodes, calls for the development of tailored interventions delivered in real time, such as just-in-time adaptive interventions (JITAIs). JITAIs leverage mobile and wireless technologies to address dynamically changing individual needs by providing the type and amount of support required at the right time and only when needed. They have the added benefit of reaching underserved populations by providing accessible, convenient, and low-burden support. Despite these benefits, few JITAIs targeting gambling behavior are available.

Objective

This study aims to redress this gap in service provision by developing and evaluating a theoretically informed and evidence-based JITAI for people who want to reduce their gambling. Delivered via a smartphone app, GamblingLess: In-The-Moment provides tailored cognitive-behavioral and third-wave interventions targeting cognitive processes explicated by the relapse prevention model (cravings, self-efficacy, and positive outcome expectancies). It aims to reduce gambling symptom severity (distal outcome) through short-term reductions in the likelihood of gambling episodes (primary proximal outcome) by improving craving intensity, self-efficacy, or expectancies (secondary proximal outcomes). The primary aim is to explore the degree to which the delivery of a tailored intervention at a time of cognitive vulnerability reduces the probability of a subsequent gambling episode.

Methods

GamblingLess: In-The-Moment interventions are delivered to gamblers who are in a state of receptivity (available for treatment) and report a state of cognitive vulnerability via ecological momentary assessments 3 times a day. The JITAI will tailor the type, timing, and amount of support for individual needs. Using a microrandomized trial, a form of sequential factorial design, each eligible participant will be randomized to a tailored intervention condition or no intervention control condition at each ecological momentary assessment across a 28-day period. The microrandomized trial will be supplemented by a 6-month within-group follow-up evaluation to explore long-term effects on primary (gambling symptom severity) and secondary (gambling behavior, craving severity, self-efficacy, and expectancies) outcomes and an acceptability evaluation via postintervention surveys, app use and engagement indices, and semistructured interviews. In all, 200 participants will be recruited from Australia and New Zealand.

Results

The project was funded in June 2019, with approval from the Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee (2020-304). Stakeholder user testing revealed high acceptability scores. The trial began on March 29, 2022, and 84 participants have been recruited (as of June 24, 2022). Results are expected to be published mid-2024.

Conclusions

GamblingLess: In-The-Moment forms part of a suite of theoretically informed and evidence-based web-based and mobile gambling interventions. This trial will provide important empirical data that can be used to facilitate the JITAI’s optimization to make it a more effective, efficient, and scalable tailored intervention.

Trial Registration

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) ACTRN12622000490774; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=380757&isClinicalTrial=False

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/38958

Gambling in Spanish Adolescents: Prevalence and Association with Mental Health Indicators

Concern about the development of behavioral addictions in adolescence, including gambling, has increased in recent years. Evidence shows that problem gambling can lead to personal, social, or health problems. However, even though gambling is an illegal activity, studies on this problem are quite limited in Spain. The main objective of this study was to analyze the prevalence of gambling in adolescents in Spain. Moreover, gambling behaviors were examined according to gender and age, and their possible relationship with several mental health indicators was analyzed. The results showed that 20.6% of the adolescents who participated in the study had gambled money in the past year. The highest gambling prevalence was found in boys and in adolescents from the age of 16 years old. Moreover, the results showed that gambling behavior was related to different mental health indicators.

Depression and anxiety symptoms are associated with problematic smartphone use under the COVID-19 epidemic: The mediation models

COVID-19 epidemic has brought wide psychological impacts on the young adults. To investigate the depression and anxiety symptoms and their associations with problematic smartphone use under the COVID-19 epidemic, a total of 847 Chinese undergraduate students joined in this study and were measured with their levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, resilience, perceived social support, the sense of school belonging and problematic smartphone use. Results showed that among the Chinese undergraduate students, the disorder rates of depression and anxiety symptoms were 29.16% and 46.64% respectively, and their symptoms ranged from mild to extreme severe. Depression and anxiety symptoms both positively predicted problematic smartphone use. Resilience, perceived social support and the sense of school belonging partially mediated both associations; resilience and the sense of school belonging exerted buffering effects, while perceived social support exacerbated the impacts. The current study advanced our understanding of the COVID-19 impacts and furthermore, suggested the protective factors for mitigating these impacts.

Beliefs About Gambling Mediate the Effect of Cognitive Style on Gambling Problems

Problem gambling is often accompanied by a range of irrational cognitions that promote excessive gambling. The cognitive basis for these beliefs has been largely overlooked in the gambling literature. Dual process theory suggests there are two parallel cognitive processing systems, an intuitive and an analytic system, and that there are potential individual differences in preference for one or the other cognitive style. The current study explored whether people's cognitive styles are an important factor in the development of specific beliefs about gambling that in-turn contribute to gambling problems. The sample consisted of 1168 regular gamblers (539 female, ranging from 18 to 78 years of age; M = 35.47, SD = 10.78) recruited via Mechanical Turk. Participants completed a survey assessing cognitive style, problem gambling severity, and measures of protective and erroneous beliefs. In a path model, greater analytical thinking and lower intuitive thinking was associated with fewer erroneous gambling beliefs, which in turn were related to fewer gambling problems. A second model showed that protective beliefs also mediated the relationship between cognitive style and gambling, demonstrating that greater analytical thinking and lower intuitive thinking was associated with protective beliefs that similarly reduced problem gambling severity. Results suggest that a person's cognitive style influences peoples gambling by contributing to the endorsement of irrational or unsafe beliefs about gambling. Encouraging people to think more analytically may be useful in reducing erroneous beliefs about gambling that promote problematic gambling behaviour.

Psychometric Properties of the Italian Versions of the Gambling Urge Scale (GUS) and the Gambling Refusal Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (GRSEQ)

Gambling urges and gambling refusal self-efficacy beliefs play a major role in the development and maintenance of problem gambling. This study aimed to translate the Gambling Urge Scale (GUS) and the Gambling Refusal Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (GRSEQ) from English to Italian (GUS-I, GRSEQ-I) and to test their factor structure, internal consistency, construct validity, concurrent validity, and gender differences in 513 individuals from the Italian community. Factor structure and construct validity were tested through Confirmatory Factor Analysis, internal consistency through Cronbach’s alpha, concurrent validity through correlations with gambling-related cognitions (GRCS-I), probable pathological gambling (SOGS-I), and gambling functioning (GFA-R-I). Results confirmed that the 6 items of the GUS-I load highly on one dimension of Gambling Urge, and each of the 26 items of the GRSEQ-I load highly on their relevant sub-dimension, among the following: situations/thoughts, drugs, positive emotions, negative emotions. Both scales are internally consistent and show concurrent validity with gambling-related cognitions, probable pathological gambling, and gambling functioning. Males score higher than females at the GUS-I; females score higher than males at the GRSEQ-I. The findings from the present study suggest that the GUS-I and the GRSEQ-I are internally consistent and valid scales for the assessment of gambling urges and gambling refusal self-efficacy in Italian individuals from the community, with significant repercussions in terms of assessment, prevention, and intervention.

Gambling and the Role of Resilience in an International Online Sample of Current and Ex-serving Military Personnel as Compared to the General Population

Compared to the general population, military personnel are particularly vulnerable to developing gambling problems. The present study examined the presentation of gambling-including gambling frequency, personal thoughts on reducing gambling and recommendations from others to reduce gambling-across these populations. Additionally, the study measured the association between gambling and various psychosocial risk and protective factors-including psychological distress, suicidal ideation, external encouragement to reduce substance use, days out of role, personal wellbeing, resilience, social support and intimate bonds. Data was extracted from the Global Health & Wellbeing Survey, an online self-report survey conducted in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. Of the 10,765 eligible respondents, 394 were military veterans and 337 were active military personnel. Consistent with previous research, a higher proportion of gambling behaviours were observed in both current and ex-serving military samples, compared to the general population. To varying degrees, significant associations were found between the different gambling items and all psychosocial risk and protective factors in the general population sample. However, the military sample yielded only one significant association between gambling frequency and the protective factor 'resilience'. A post hoc stepwise linear regression analysis demonstrated the possible mediating role resilience plays between gambling frequency and other psychosocial risk (psychological distress, and suicidal thoughts and behaviour) and protective factors (personal wellbeing) for the military sample. Given the findings, it is recommended that routine screening tools identifying problem gambling are used within the military, and subsequent resilience focused interventions are offered to at risk personnel.

Effectiveness of At-Risk Gamblers' Temporary Self-Exclusion from Internet Gambling Sites

To prevent risks associated with online gambling, many jurisdictions propose self-exclusion strategies as a part of a responsible gambling policy. To protect online gamblers, French law provides for a 7-day temporary non-reducible and voluntary self-exclusion measure that applies only to select websites. The objective of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of this self-exclusion measure for at-risk online gamblers. It was an experimental randomized controlled trial targeted at risk prevention. The main outcomes were the money wagered and time spent gambling assessed 15 days (short-term) and 2 months (medium-term) after the implementation of the self-exclusion measure. The effectiveness of self-exclusion was also compared according to the gambling type (pure chance games, such as lottery or scratch tickets, skill and chance bank games such as sports betting or horserace betting, and skill and chance games such as poker). Sixty participants were randomly assigned to the experimental condition (n = 30; with the implementation of a self-exclusion measure) or control condition (n = 30). The randomization was stratified according to their favorite game [pure chance games (n = 20), skill and chance bank games (n = 20), and skill and chance social games (n = 20)]. The results revealed that self-exclusion had no short-term impact-but did have a medium-term impact-on gambling habits. After 2 months, the gambling-related cognitions ("illusion of control" and "the perceived inability to stop gambling") and the subscale "desire" of the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS) have decreased. Participants' opinions about the impact and effectiveness of self-exclusion were discussed. To conclude, it appeared that temporary self-exclusion is an interesting tool to protect online gamblers from excessive practices, but several modifications have to be made to improve its effectiveness and use.

The Comorbidity of Gambling Disorder among Macao Adult Residents and the Moderating Role of Resilience and Life Purpose

Macao, China’s only city with legalized casinos, has maintained a high prevalence of gambling participation and gambling disorder (GD) over the past decade. The mental health risks associated with such high levels have been overlooked. In order to estimate the comorbid prevalence of GD with depression, anxiety, and Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and to explore the potential buffering effect of psychological resilience and purpose in life, this study obtained a representative adult Chinese sample (N = 1000, 44% male, aged 18–97 years) from a telephone survey conducted between October and November of 2016. As hypothesized, the highest psychiatric comorbid prevalence was observed in the GD subgroup (n = 19, 21.1% probable IGD, 26.3% probable depression, and 37.0% probable anxiety). All these mental health problems could increase one’s proclivity to GD, and vice versa. Psychological resilience was found to buffer the association between anxiety symptoms and probable GD (χ²(1) = 4.30, p = 0.04/GD symptoms, F_change (1,162) = 6.29, p = 0.01), whereas purpose in life did not display any hypothesized moderating effect. These results indicate the usefulness of mental health screening for GD, taking into consideration its associated risks, and of fostering psychological resilience in prevention and treatment programs.

Negative Mood States or Dysfunctional Cognitions: Their Independent and Interactional Effects in Influencing Severity of Gambling Among Chinese Problem Gamblers in Hong Kong

Gambling-related cognitions and negative psychological states have been proposed as major factors in the initiation and maintenance of problem gambling (PG). While there are a substantial number of studies supporting the role of cognitive dysfunctions in the initiation and maintenance of PG, very few empirical studies have explored the specific role of negative psychological states in influencing PG behaviours. In addition, very few studies have examined the interaction effects of cognitive dysfunctions and negative psychological states in exerting influence on PG behaviours. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the main and interaction effects of gambling-related cognitions and psychological states on the gambling severity among a group of problem gamblers in Hong Kong. A cross-sectional research design was adopted. A purposive sample of 177 problem gamblers who sought treatment from a social service organization in Hong Kong completed a battery of standardised questionnaires. While gambling-related cognitions were found to exert significant effects on gambling severity, negative psychological states (i.e. stress) significantly moderated the relationship between gambling cognitions and gambling severity. In essence, those participants who reported a higher level of stress had more stable and serious gambling problems than those who reported a lower level of stress irrespective of the level of gambling-related cognitions. The findings of the moderating role of negative emotions in the relationship between cognitive distortions and severity of gambling provide insight towards developing an integrated intervention model which includes both cognitive-behavioural and emotion regulation strategies in helping people with PG.

Distorted Beliefs about Luck and Skill and Their Relation to Gambling Problems and Gambling Behavior in Dutch Gamblers

Gamblers' cognitive distortions are thought to be an important mechanism involved in the development and maintenance of problem gambling. The Gambling Cognitions Inventory (GCI) evaluates two categories of distortions: beliefs that one is lucky (i.e., "Luck/Chance") and beliefs that one has special gambling-related skills (i.e., "Skill/Attitude"). Prior psychometric evaluations of the GCI demonstrated the utility of both subscales as measures of distortions and their concurrent relations to gambling problems among Canadian gamblers. However, these associations have not yet been studied in gamblers from other cultures nor have relationships between the GCI and indices of gambling behavior been investigated. In addition, the predictive validity of the GCI scales have not been evaluated in studies to date. The present study investigated the validity of the GCI as a measure of cognitive distortions in a sample of 49 Dutch gamblers by examining its concurrent and prospective relationships to both gambling problems (as measured through a standardized nine-item questionnaire assessing gambling-related problems) and behaviors (as measured through two variables: days spent gambling and time spent gambling in minutes) at baseline and over 1-month and 6-month intervals. The GCI subscales were internally consistent at all timepoints, and moderately to strongly inter-correlated at all timepoints. Each subscale correlated with an independent dimension of gambling both concurrently and prospectively: Luck/Chance was related to greater gambling problems and Skill/Attitude was related to greater gambling behavior. Thus, the two GCI subscales, while inter-correlated, appear to be related to different gambling outcomes, at least among Dutch gamblers. Moreover, the first evidence of the predictive validity of the GCI scales was demonstrated over a 1-month and 6-month interval. It is recommended that both types of cognitive distortions be considered in research and clinical practice to fully understand and address individual risk for excessive and problematic gambling.