Design and synthesis of 4,5-diphenyl-imidazol-1,2,3-triazole hybrids as new anti-diabetic agents: in vitro α-glucosidase inhibition, kinetic and docking studies

Synthesis, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and molecular dynamic simulation of 6-chloro-2-methoxyacridine linked to triazole derivatives

Α-glucosidase inhibition can be useful in the management of carbohydrate-related diseases, especially type 2 diabetes mellitus. Therefore, in this study, a new series of 6-chloro-2-methoxyacridine bearing different aryl triazole derivatives were designed, synthesized, and evaluated as potent α-glucosidase inhibitors. The most potent derivative in this group was 7h bearing para-fluorine with IC50 values of 98.0 ± 0.3 µM compared with standard drug acarbose (IC50 value = 750.0 ± 10.5 μM). A kinetic study of compound 7h revealed that it is a competitive inhibitor against α-glucosidase. Molecular dynamic simulations of the most potent derivative were also executed and indicated suitable interactions with residues of the enzyme which rationalized the in vitro results.

Recent Developments in 1,2,3-Triazole Based α-Glucosidase Inhibitors: Design Strategies, Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanistic Insights

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic and most prevalent metabolic disorder affecting 422 million the people worldwide and causing life-threatening associated conditions including disorders of kidney, heart, and nervous system as well as leg amputation and retinopathy. Steadily rising cases from the last few decades suggest the failure of currently available drugs in containment of this disease. α-Glucosidase is a potential target for effectively tackling this disease and attracting significant interest from medicinal chemists around the globe. Besides having a set of side effects, currently available α-glucosidase inhibitors (carbohydrate mimics) offer better tolerability, safety, and synergistic pharmacological outcomes with other antidiabetic drugs therefore medicinal chemists have working extensively over last three decades for developing alternative α-glucosidase inhibitors. The 1,2,3-Triazole nucleus is energetically used by various research groups around the globe for the development of α-glucosidase inhibitors posing it as an optimum scaffold in the field of antidiabetic drug development. This review is a systematic analysis of α-glucosidase inhibitors developed by employing 1,2,3-triazole scaffold with special focus on design strategies, structure-activity relationships, and mechanism of inhibitory effect. This article will act as lantern for medicinal chemists in developing of potent, safer, and effective α-glucosidase inhibitors with desired properties and improved therapeutic efficacy.

Synthesis, antidiabetic activity and molecular docking studies of novel aryl benzylidenethiazolidine-2,4-dione based 1,2,3-triazoles

A series of novel aryl benzylidenethiazolidine-2,4-dione based 1,2,3-triazoles synthesized in a straightforward route consisting of benzylidenethiazolidine-2,4-dione and 1,2,3-triazole pharmacophores. The new scaffolds tested for in vitro antidiabetic activity by inhibition of aldose reductase enzyme and its inhibition measured in half of Inhibition Concentration (IC50). The activity results correlated with standard reference Sorbinil (IC50: 3.45 ± 0.25 µM). Among all the titled compounds 8f (1.42 ± 0.21 µM), 8d (1.85 ± 0.39 µM), 13a (1.94 ± 0.27 µM) and 8b (1.98 ± 0.58 µM) shown potent activity. In addition, molecular docking results against the crystal structure of aldose reductase (PDB ID: 1PWM) revealed that the binding affinities shown by all synthesized compounds are higher than the reference compound Sorbinil. The docking scores, H-bond interactions, and hydrophobic interactions well defined inhibition strength of all compounds.

Evaluation of novel 2-(quinoline-2-ylthio)acetamide derivatives linked to diphenyl-imidazole as α-glucosidase inhibitors: Insights from in silico, in vitro, and in vivo studies on their anti-diabetic properties

The inhibition of the α-glucosidase enzyme is crucial for targeting type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). This study introduces a series of synthetic analogs based on thiomethylacetamide-quinoline derivatives linked to diphenyl-imidazole as highly potential α-glucosidase inhibitors. Twenty derivatives were synthesized and screened in vitro against α-glucosidase, revealing IC50 values ranging from 0.18 ± 0.00 to 2.10 ± 0.07 μM, in comparison to the positive control, acarbose. Among these derivatives, compound 10c (IC50 = 0.180 μM) demonstrated the highest potency and revealed a competitive inhibitory mechanism in kinetic studies (Ki = 0.15 μM). Docking and molecular dynamic evaluations elucidated the binding mode of 10c with the active site residues of the α-glucosidase enzyme. Moreover, in vivo assessments on a rat model of DM affirmed the anti-diabetic efficacy of 10c, evidenced by reduced fasting and overall blood glucose levels. The histopathological evaluation enhanced pancreatic islet architecture and hepatocytes in liver sections. In conclusion, novel 2-(quinoline-2-ylthio)acetamide derivatives as potent α-glucosidase inhibitors were developed. Compound 10c emerged as a promising candidate for diabetes management, warranting further investigation for potential clinical applications and mechanistic insights.

Coumarin linked to 2-phenylbenzimidazole derivatives as potent α-glucosidase inhibitors

α-Glucosidase inhibitors have emerged as crucial agents in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In the present study, a new series of coumarin-linked 2-phenylbenzimidazole derivatives 5a-m was designed, synthesized, and evaluated as anti-α-glucosidase agents. Among these derivatives, compound 5k (IC50 = 10.8 µM) exhibited a significant inhibitory activity in comparison to the positive control acarbose (IC50 = 750.0 µM). Through kinetic analysis, it was revealed that compound 5k exhibited a competitive inhibition pattern against α-glucosidase. To gain insights into the interactions between the title compounds and α-glucosidase molecular docking was employed. The obtained results highlighted crucial interactions that contribute to the inhibitory activities of the compounds against α-glucosidase. These derivatives show immense potential as promising starting points for developing novel α-glucosidase inhibitors.

Alpha-glucosidase inhibitory and hypoglycemic effects of imidazole-bearing thioquinoline derivatives with different substituents: In silico, in vitro, and in vivo evaluations

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels. It was shown that modulating the activity of α-glucosidase, an enzyme involved in carbohydrate digestion and absorption, can improve blood sugar control and overall metabolic health in individuals with T2DM. As a result, in the current study, a series of imidazole bearing different substituted thioquinolines were designed and synthesized as α-glucosidase inhibitors. All derivatives exhibited significantly better potency (IC50 = 12.1 ± 0.2 to 102.1 ± 4.9 µM) compared to the standard drug acarbose (IC50 = 750.0 ± 5.0 µM). 8g as the most potent analog, indicating a competitive inhibition with Ki = 9.66 µM. Also, the most potent derivative was subjected to molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation against α-glucosidase to determine its mode of action in the enzyme and study the complex's behavior over time. In vivo studies showed that 8g did not cause acute toxicity at 2000 mg/kg doses. Additionally, in a diabetic rat model, treatment with 8g significantly reduced fasting blood glucose levels and decreased blood glucose levels following sucrose loading compared to acarbose, a standard drug used for blood sugar control. The findings suggest that the synthesized compound 8g holds promise as an α-glucosidase inhibitor for improving blood sugar control and metabolic health.

Emerging Aspects of Triazole in Organic Synthesis: Exploring its Potential as a Gelator

Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC) - commonly known as the "click reaction" - serves as the most effective and highly reliable tool for facile construction of simple to complex designs at the molecular level. It relates to the formation of carbon heteroatomic systems by joining or clicking small molecular pieces together with the help of various organic reactions such as cycloaddition, conjugate addition, ring-opening, etc. Such dynamic strategy results in the generation of triazole and its derivatives from azides and alkynes with three nitrogen atoms in the five-membered aromatic azole ring that often forms gel-assembled structures having gelating properties. These scaffolds have led to prominent applications in designing advanced soft materials, 3D printing, ion sensing, drug delivery, photonics, separation, and purification. In this review, we mainly emphasize the different mechanistic aspects of triazole formation, which includes the synthesis of sugar-based and non-sugar-based triazoles, and their gel applications reported in the literature for the past ten years, as well as the upcoming scope in different branches of applied sciences.

Discovery of novel 4,5-diphenyl-imidazol-α-aminophosphonate hybrids as promising anti-diabetic agents: Design, synthesis, in vitro, and in silico enzymatic studies

Herein, a novel series of 4,5-diphenyl-imidazol-α-aminophosphonate hybrids 4a-m was designed, synthesized, and evaluated as new anti-diabetic agents. These compounds were evaluated against two important target enzymes in the diabetes treatment: α-glucosidase and α-amylase. These new compounds were synthesized in three steps and characterized by different spectroscopic techniques. The in vitro evaluations demonstrated that all the synthesized compounds 4a-m were more potent that standard inhibitor acarbose against studied enzymes. Among these compound, the most potent compound against both studied enzymes was 3-bromo derivative 4l. The latter compound with IC50 = 5.96 nM was 18-times more potent than acarbose (IC50 = 106.63 nM) against α-glucosidase. Moreover, compound 4l with IC50 = 1.62 nM was 27-times more potent than acarbose (IC50 = 44.16 nM) against α-amylase. Molecular docking analysis revealed that this compound well accommodated in the binding site of α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes with notably more favorable binding energy as compared to acarbose.

Design, synthesis and antidiabetic study of triazole clubbed indole derivatives as α-glucosidase inhibitors

α -Glucosidase is an enzyme present near the brush boundary of the small intestine that is essential in the hydrolysis of carbohydrates to glucose. Because inhibiting this enzyme slows the release of glucose, α-Glucosidase inhibitors are appealing medications for treating diabetes as a carbohydrate-related illness. The present study includes the design, synthesis and antidiabetic potential of novel triazole based indole derivatives as α-glucosidase inhibitor. Among them, the compound R1 was found to be most potent with promising candidate with IC50 value of 10.1 μM and R2 and R3 showed the good inhibitory potency with IC50 values 12.95 μM, 11.35 μM, respectively when compared to the standard drug acarbose having IC50 value of 13.5 μM. In in vivo studies, body weight of the mice was increased when compared to standard drug acarbose, the blood glucose level of the mice was decreased, same as the total cholesterol level, LDL, and triglycerides level decreased in comparison to standard drug. The level HDL was increased as it is a good cholesterol in comparison to standard drug acarbose. Furthermore, these synthesized compounds were docked with α-glucosidase using PDB ID:3WY1 which showed that compound R1 having good docking score -6.734 kcal/mol and compound R2, R3 showed docking score -6.14, -6.10 kcal/mol, respectively when compared with standard acarbose having docking score -4.55 kcal/mol. R1 showed the similar interaction with amino acid PHE166, GLU271, comparison with standard drug Acarbose. The synthesized compounds have been confirmed for antidiabetic activity and may be used for further development of potent compounds.

An insight on medicinal attributes of 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole derivatives as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is the globe's common leading disease which is caused by high consumption of glucose. DM compiles groups of metabolic disorders which are characterized by inadequate secretion of insulin from pancreas, resulting in hyperglycemia condition. Many enzymes play a vital role in the metabolism of carbohydrate known as α-amylase and α-glucosidase which is calcium metalloenzyme that leads to breakdown of complex polysaccharides into glucose. To tackle this problem, search for newer antidiabetic drugs is the utmost need for the treatment and/or management of increasing diabetic burden. The inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase is one of the effective therapeutic approaches for the development of antidiabetic therapeutics. The exhaustive literature survey has shown the importance of medicinally privileged triazole specifically 1,2,3-triazol and 1,2,4-triazoles scaffold tethered, fused and/or clubbed with other heterocyclic rings structures as promising agents for designing and development of novel antidiabetic therapeutics. Molecular hybrids namely pyridazine-triazole, pyrazoline-triazole, benzothiazole-triazole, benzimidazole-triazole, curcumin-triazole, (bis)coumarin-triazole, acridine-9-carboxamide linked triazole, quinazolinone-triazole, xanthone-triazole, thiazolo-triazole, thiosemicarbazide-triazole, and indole clubbed-triazole are few examples which have shown promising antidiabetic activity by inhibiting α-amylase and/or α-glucosidase. The present review summarizes the structure-activity relationship (SAR), enzyme inhibitory activity including IC50 values, percentage inhibition, kinetic studies, molecular docking studies, and patents filed of the both scaffolds as alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, which may be used for further development of potent inhibitors against both enzymes.

Design, synthesis, and cytotoxic evaluation of quinazoline derivatives bearing triazole-acetamides

A novel series of quinazoline-based agents bearing triazole-acetamides 8a-l were designed and synthesized. All the obtained compounds were tested for in vitro cytotoxic activities against three human cancer cell lines named HCT-116, MCF-7, and HepG2, as well as a normal cell line WRL-68 after 48 and 72 h. The results implied that quinazoline-oxymethyltriazole compounds exhibited moderate to good anticancer potential. The most potent derivative against HCT-116 was 8a (X = 4-OCH₃ and R = H) with IC₅₀ values of 10.72 and 5.33 μM after 48 and 72 h compared with doxorubicin with IC₅₀ values of 1.66 and 1.21 μM, respectively. The same trend was seen in the HepG2 cancerous cell line in which 8a recorded the best results with IC₅₀ values of 17.48 and 7.94 after 48 and 72 h, respectively. The cytotoxic analysis against MCF-7 showed that 8f with IC₅₀ = 21.29 μM (48 h) exhibited the best activity, while compounds 8k (IC₅₀ = 11.32 μM) and 8a (IC₅₀ = 12.96 μM), known as the most effective cytotoxic agents after 72 h. Doxorubicin as positive control exhibited IC₅₀ values of 1.15 and 0.82 μM after 48 and 72 h, respectively. Noteworthy, all derivatives showed limited toxicity against the normal cell line. Moreover, docking studies were also presented to understand the interactions between these novel derivatives and possible targets.

A review on α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of first row transition metal complexes: a futuristic strategy for treatment of type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by high blood glucose levels and has emerged as a controversial public health issue worldwide. The increasing number of patients with T2DM on one hand, and serious long-term complications of the disease such as obesity, neuropathy, and vascular disorders on the other hand, have induced a huge economic impact on society globally. In this regard, inhibition of α-glucosidase, the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of carbohydrates in the body has been the main therapeutic approach to the treatment of T2DM. As α-glucosidase inhibitors (α-GIs) have occupied a special position in the current research and prescription drugs are generally α-GIs, researchers have been encouraged to design and synthesize novel and efficient inhibitors. Previously, the presence of a sugar moiety seemed to be crucial for designing α-GIs since they can attach to the carbohydrate binding site of the enzyme mimicking the structure of disaccharides or oligosaccharides. However, inhibitors lacking glycosyl structures have also shown potent inhibitory activity and development of non-sugar based inhibitors is accelerating. In this respect, in vitro anti-α-glucosidase activity of metal complexes has attracted lots of attention and this paper has reviewed the inhibitory activity of first-row transition metal complexes toward α-glucosidase and discussed their probable mechanisms of action.

Urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker: synthesis, antimicrobial potential, pharmacokinetic profile and in silico mechanistic studies

Some urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker were synthesized via Cu(I)-catalysed click reaction. After successfully analysed by various spectral techniques including FTIR, NMR and HRMS, antimicrobial screening of the synthesized hybrids along with their precursors was carried out against two Gram (+) bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus endophyticus), two Gram (-) bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens) and two fungi (Candida albicans and Rhizopus oryzae). All the synthesized compounds (4a-4l) displayed better biological response than the standard fluconazole against both of the tested fungi. Compounds 4h and 4j were found to be the most active compounds against R. oryzae and C. albicans, respectively. Molecular docking of hybrid 4j and its alkyne precursor 1b in the active site of C. albicans target sterol 14-α demethylase was also performed and was also supported by molecular dynamics studies. In silico ADME prediction of synthesized urea-thiazole/benzothiazole hybrids with a triazole linker and their alkyne precursors was also predicted.

Design and synthesis of phenoxymethybenzoimidazole incorporating different aryl thiazole-triazole acetamide derivatives as α-glycosidase inhibitors

A novel series of phenoxymethybenzoimidazole derivatives (9a-n) were rationally designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their α-glycosidase inhibitory activity. All tested compounds displayed promising α-glycosidase inhibitory potential with IC₅₀ values in the range of 6.31 to 49.89 μM compared to standard drug acarbose (IC₅₀ = 750.0 ± 10.0 μM). Enzyme kinetic studies on 9c, 9g, and 9m as the most potent compounds revealed that these compounds were uncompetitive inhibitors into α-glycosidase. Docking studies confirmed the important role of benzoimidazole and triazole rings of the synthesized compounds to fit properly into the α-glycosidase active site. This study showed that this scaffold can be considered as a highly potent α-glycosidase inhibitor.