Glutamate-induced toxicity in hippocampal slices involves apoptotic features and p38 MAPK signaling

Restoring Homeostasis: Treating Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis by Resolving Dynamic Regulatory Instability

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has an interactive, multifactorial etiology that makes treatment success elusive. This study evaluates how regulatory dynamics impact disease progression and treatment. Computational models of wild-type (WT) and transgenic SOD1-G93A mouse physiology dynamics were built using the first-principles-based first-order feedback framework of dynamic meta-analysis with parameter optimization. Two in silico models were developed: a WT mouse model to simulate normal homeostasis and a SOD1-G93A ALS model to simulate ALS pathology dynamics and their response to in silico treatments. The model simulates functional molecular mechanisms for apoptosis, metal chelation, energetics, excitotoxicity, inflammation, oxidative stress, and proteomics using curated data from published SOD1-G93A mouse experiments. Temporal disease progression measures (rotarod, grip strength, body weight) were used for validation. Results illustrate that untreated SOD1-G93A ALS dynamics cannot maintain homeostasis due to a mathematical oscillating instability as determined by eigenvalue analysis. The onset and magnitude of homeostatic instability corresponded to disease onset and progression. Oscillations were associated with high feedback gain due to hypervigilant regulation. Multiple combination treatments stabilized the SOD1-G93A ALS mouse dynamics to near-normal WT homeostasis. However, treatment timing and effect size were critical to stabilization corresponding to therapeutic success. The dynamics-based approach redefines therapeutic strategies by emphasizing the restoration of homeostasis through precisely timed and stabilizing combination therapies, presenting a promising framework for application to other multifactorial neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuritogenesis and protective effects activated by Angiotensin 1-7 in astrocytes-neuron interaction

The renin angiotensin system (RAS) has been studied for its effects on various neurological disorders. The identification of functional receptors for Ang-(1-7) and Ang II peptides in astrocytes highlights the physiological modulation and the important role of these cells in the central nervous system. The present study aims to understand the role of RAS peptides, particularly Ang-(1-7) and Ang II, in the secretion of trophic factors by astrocytes and their effects on hippocampal neurons. We used primary cultures of astrocytes and neurons from the hippocampus of either sex neonate of Wistar strain rats. In the present study, we demonstrated that the treatment of astrocytes with Ang-(1-7) acts on the modulation of these cells, inducing reactive astrogliosis, identified through the increase in the expression of GFAP. Furthermore, we obtained a conditioned medium from astrocytes treated with Ang-(1-7), which in addition to promoting the secretion of neurotrophic factors essential for neuronal-glial interactions that are fundamental for neuritogenesis and neuronal survival, showed a neuroprotective effect against glutamatergic excitotoxicity. In turn, Ang II does not exhibit the same effects on astrocyte modulation, exacerbating deleterious effects on brain RAS. Neuron-astrocyte interactions have been shown to be an integral part of the central effects mediated by RAS, and this study has significantly contributed to the understanding of the biochemical mechanisms involved in the functioning of this system.

Neonatal Isoflurane Exposure in Rats Impairs Short-Term Memory, Cell Viability, and Glutamate Uptake in Slices of the Frontal Cerebral Cortex, But Not the Hippocampus, in Adulthood

Neonatal exposure to general anesthetics has been associated with neurotoxicity and morphologic changes in the developing brain. Isoflurane is a volatile anesthetic widely used in pediatric patients to induce general anesthesia, analgesia, and perioperative sedation. In the present study, we investigated the effects of a single neonatal isoflurane (3% in oxygen, 2 h) exposure in rats at postnatal day (PND) 7, in short-term (24 h - PND8) and long-term (adulthood) protocols. In PND8, ex vivo analysis of hippocampal and frontal cortex slices evaluated cell viability and susceptibility to in vitro glutamate challenge. In adult rats, behavioral parameters related to anxiety-like behavior, short-term memory, and locomotor activity (PND60-62) and ex vivo analysis of cell viability, membrane permeability, glutamate uptake, and susceptibility to in vitro glutamate challenge in hippocampal and cortical slices from PND65. A single isoflurane (3%, 2 h) exposure at PND7 did not acutely alter cell viability in cortical and hippocampal slices of infant rats (PND8) per se and did not alter slice susceptibility to in vitro glutamate challenge. In rat's adulthood, behavioral analysis revealed that the neonatal isoflurane exposure did not alter anxiety-like behavior and locomotor activity (open field and rotarod tests). However, isoflurane exposure impaired short-term memory evaluated in the novel object recognition task. Ex vivo analysis of brain slices showed isoflurane neonatal exposure selectively decreased cell viability and glutamate uptake in cortical slices, but it did not alter hippocampal slice viability or glutamate uptake (PND65). Isoflurane exposure did not alter in vitro glutamate-induced neurotoxicity to slices, and isoflurane exposure caused no significant long-term damage to cell membranes in hippocampal or cortical slices. These findings indicate that a single neonatal isoflurane exposure did not promote acute damage; however, it reduced cortical, but not hippocampal, slice viability and glutamate uptake in the adulthood. Additionally, behavioral analysis showed neonatal isoflurane exposure induces short-term recognition memory impairment, consolidating that neonatal exposure to volatile anesthetics may lead to behavioral impairment in the adulthood, although it may damage brain regions differentially.

Ibuprofen treatment ameliorates memory deficits in rats with collagen-induced arthritis by normalizing aberrant MAPK/NF-κB and glutamatergic pathways

Many studies have indicated that the risk of cognitive impairment is higher in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Additionally, patients with RA may have a lower incidence of cognitive impairment with long-term use of ibuprofen. This study was aimed at investigating the impacts of RA on memory function and the mechanisms that ibuprofen may exhibit to improve memory function in rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Ibuprofen (30 mg/kg) was given twice daily to CIA rats for two weeks starting from Day 18 following the first immunization. Memory function was measured by the Morris water maze (MWM) test and long-term potentiation (LTP). The proinflammatory cytokine levels and downstream signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), were examined. Furthermore, the glutamatergic system, including glutamate transporters/receptors and brain extracellular levels of glutamate, was investigated. The results showed that the impaired learning memory in CIA rats, examined by the MWM test and LTP, can be ameliorated by ibuprofen treatment. Along with the improvement in memory deficits, ibuprofen attenuated both neuroinflammation and the associated elevated levels of phosphorylated p38, JNK, and p65 in the hippocampus of CIA rats. In addition, the decreased excitatory amino acid transporter 2 level, the increased extracellular glutamate, and the upregulated hippocampal NMDA receptor 2B of CIA rats were all normalized by ibuprofen treatment. These findings suggest that the effect of ibuprofen on the memory improvement in CIA rats is associated with the normalization of the activated MAPK and NF-κB pathways and the aberrant glutamatergic system.

Recent progress (2015-2020) in the investigation of the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rb1, a main active ingredient in Panax ginseng Meyer

Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), one of the most important ingredients in Panax ginseng Meyer, has been confirmed to have favorable activities, including reducing antioxidative stress, inhibiting inflammation, regulating cell autophagy and apoptosis, affecting sugar and lipid metabolism, and regulating various cytokines. This study reviewed the recent progress on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Rb1 against cardiovascular and nervous system diseases, diabetes, and their complications, especially those related to neurodegenerative diseases, myocardial ischemia, hypoxia injury, and traumatic brain injury. This review retrieved articles from PubMed and Web of Science that were published from 2015 to 2020. The molecular targets or pathways of the effects of Rb1 on these diseases are referring to HMGB1, GLUT4, 11β-HSD1, ERK, Akt, Notch, NF-κB, MAPK, PPAR-γ, TGF-β1/Smad pathway, PI3K/mTOR pathway, Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, Nrf2/ARE pathway, and MAPK/NF-κB pathway. The potential effects of Rb1 and its possible mechanisms against diseases were further predicted via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway and disease ontology semantic and enrichment (DOSE) analyses with the reported targets. This study provides insights into the therapeutic effects of Rb1 and its mechanisms against diseases, which is expected to help in promoting the drug development of Rb1 and its clinical applications.

17-β Estradiol Rescued Immature Rat Brain against Glutamate-Induced Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration via Regulating Nrf2/HO-1 and MAP-Kinase Signaling Pathway

Dysregulated glutamate signaling, leading to neuronal excitotoxicity and death, has been associated with neurodegenerative pathologies. 17β-estradiol (E2) is a human steroid hormone having a role in reproduction, sexual maturation, brain health and biological activities. The study aimed to explain the neuroprotective role of E2 against glutamate-induced ROS production, MAP kinase-dependent neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration in the cortex and hippocampus of postnatal day 7 rat brain. Biochemical and immunofluorescence analyses were applied. Our results showed that a single subcutaneous injection of glutamate (10 mg/kg) induced brain oxidative stress after 4 h by disturbing the homeostasis of glutathione (GSH) and revealed an upsurge in ROS and LPO levels and downregulated the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 antioxidant protein. The glutamate-exposed P7 pups illustrated increased phosphorylation of stress-activated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 kinase (p38) and downregulated expression of P-Erk1/2. This was accompanied by pathological neuroinflammation as revealed by enhanced gliosis with upregulated expression of GFAP and Iba-1, and the activation of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α) in glutamate-injected P7 pups. Moreover, exogenous glutamate also reduced the expression of synaptic markers (PSD-95, SYP) and induced apoptotic neurodegeneration in the cortical and hippocampal regions by dysregulating the expression of Bax, Bcl-2 and caspase-3 in the developing rat brain. On the contrary, co-treatment of E2 (10 mg/kg) with glutamate significantly abrogated brain neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and synapse loss by alleviating brain oxidative stress by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant pathway and by deactivating pro-apoptotic P-JNK/P-p38 and activation of pro-survival P-Erk1/2 MAP kinase pathways. In brief, the data demonstrate the neuroprotective role of E2 against glutamate excitotoxicity-induced neurodegeneration. The study also encourages future studies investigating if E2 may be a potent neuroprotective and neurotherapeutic agent in different neurodegenerative diseases.

Contribution of the P2X4 Receptor in Rat Hippocampus to the Comorbidity of Chronic Pain and Depression

The hippocampus is an important region for the interaction between depression and pain. Studies show that the P2X4 receptor plays key role in neuropathic pain. This work investigated the potential implication of the P2X4 receptor in the hippocampus in comorbidity of chronic pain and depression. The rat model induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) plus unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) was used in this study. Our data showed that CCI plus UCMS treatment resulted in abnormal changes in pain and depressive-like behaviors in the rat, accompanied by the upregulated expression of P2X4, NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3) inflammasome, and interleukin-1β and the activation of p38 MAPK in the hippocampus. The P2X4 antagonist 5-BDBD reversed these abnormal changes in the hippocampus, relieved hippocampal neuronal damage, and alleviated the abnormal pain and depressive-like behaviors in the CCI plus UCMS treated rats. These findings suggest that the P2X4 receptor in the hippocampus may mediate and significantly contribute to the pathological processes of comorbid pain and depression.

Molecular and Pharmacological Modulation of CALHM1 Promote Neuroprotection against Oxygen and Glucose Deprivation in a Model of Hippocampal Slices

Calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) is a calcium channel involved in the regulation of cytosolic Ca²⁺ levels. From a physiological point of view, the open state of CALHM1 depends not only on voltage but also on the extracellular concentration of calcium ([Ca²⁺]) ions. At low [Ca²⁺]_e or depolarization, the channel is opened, allowing Ca²⁺ influx; however, high extracellular [Ca²⁺]_e or hyperpolarization promote its resting state. The unique Ca²⁺ permeation of CALHM1 relates to the molecular events that take place in brain ischemia, such as depolarization and extracellular changes in [Ca²⁺]_e, particularly during the reperfusion phase after the ischemic insult. In this study, we attempted to understand its role in an in vitro model of ischemia, namely oxygen and glucose deprivation, followed by reoxygenation (OGD/Reox). To this end, hippocampal slices from wild-type Calhm1^+/+, Calhm1^+/−, and Calhm1^−/− mice were subjected to OGD/Reox. Our results point out to a neuroprotective effect when CALHM1 is partially or totally absent. Pharmacological manipulation of CALHM1 with CGP37157 reduced cell death in Calhm1^+/+ slices but not in that of Calhm1^−/− mice after exposure to the OGD/Reox protocol. This ionic protection was also verified by measuring reactive oxygen species production upon OGD/Reox in Calhm1^+/+ and Calhm1^−/− mice, resulting in a downregulation of ROS production in Calhm1^−/− hippocampal slices and increased expression of HIF-1α. Taken together, we can conclude that genetic or pharmacological inhibition of CALHM1 results in a neuroprotective effect against ischemia, due to an attenuation of the neuronal calcium overload and downregulation of oxygen reactive species production.

Genes to treat excitotoxicity ameliorate the symptoms of the disease in mice models of multiple system atrophy

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is a sporadic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by striatonigral degeneration and olivopontocerebellar atrophy. The main hallmark of MSA is the aggregation of alpha-synuclein in oligodendrocytes, which contributes to the dysfunction and death of the oligodendrocytes, followed by neurodegeneration. Studies suggested that oxidative-excitatory pathway is associated with the progression of the disease. The aim of the current study was to test this concept by overexpression of excitatory amino acid transporter 2, glutamate dehydrogenase and nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-related factor 2 genes in the striatum of two established mouse models of MSA. To induce the first model, we injected the mitochondrial neurotoxin, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP), unilaterally into the right striatum in 2-month-old C57BL/6 male mice. We demonstrate a significant improvement in two drug-induced rotational behavior tests, following unilateral injection the three genes. For the second model, we used transgenic mice expressing the alpha-synuclein gene under the proteolipid protein, in the age of 7 months, boosted with 3-NP to enhance the motor deficits and neurodegeneration. We show that the overexpression of the three genes attenuated the motor-related deficit in the elevated bridge and pole tests. Thus, our study indicates that glutamate excito-oxidative toxicity plays a major role in this MSA model and our gene therapy approach might suggest a novel strategy for MSA treatment.

Thiamine Deficiency Modulates p38MAPK and Heme Oxygenase-1 in Mouse Brain: Association with Early Tissue and Behavioral Changes

Thiamine deficiency (TD) produces severe neurodegenerative lesions. Studies have suggested that primary neurodegenerative events are associated with both oxidative stress and inflammation. Very little is known about the downstream effects on intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal death. The primary aim of this work was to evaluate the modulation of p38^MAPK and the expression of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) in the central nervous system (CNS). Behavioral, metabolic, and morphological parameters were assessed. Mice were separated into six groups: control (Cont), TD with pyrithiamine (Ptd), TD with pyrithiamine and Trolox (Ptd + Tr), TD with pyrithiamine and dimethyl sulfoxide (Ptd + Dmso), Trolox (Tr) and DMSO (Dmso) control groups and treated for 9 days. Control groups received standard feed (AIN-93M), while TD groups received thiamine deficient feed (AIN-93DT). All the groups were subjected to behavioral tests, and CNS samples were collected for cell viability, histopathology and western blot analyses. The Ptd group showed a reduction in weight gain and feed intake, as well as a reduction in locomotor, grooming, and motor coordination activities. Also, Ptd group showed a robust increase in p38^MAPK phosphorylation and mild HO-1 expression in the cerebral cortex and thalamus. The Ptd group showed a decreased cell viability, hemorrhage, spongiosis, and astrocytic swelling in the thalamus. Groups treated with Trolox and DMSO displayed diminished p38^MAPK phosphorylation in both the structures, as well as attenuated thalamic lesions and behavioral activities. These data suggest that p38^MAPK and HO-1 are involved in the TD-induced neurodegeneration in vivo, possibly modulated by oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.

Cell-permeable p38 MAP kinase protects adult hippocampal neurons from cell death

p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (p38) is a member of the MAP kinase family. Previous reports using p38 chemical inhibitors have suggested that its activation contributes to hippocampal neuronal cell death rather than cell survival. In this study, we used both a cell-permeable p38 protein containing the HIV protein transduction domain (PTD) and cultured adult hippocampal neurons, which were differentiated from cultured adult hippocampal neural stem/progenitor cells (NPCs), to evaluate the direct function of p38 on adult hippocampal neurons. Our immunocytochemical experiments demonstrated that wild-type cell-permeable p38 protein prevents cell death of adult hippocampal neurons induced by a low glucose condition. Our findings indicate that cell-permeable p38 protein may be useful in preventing the degeneration of higher brain function occurring through hippocampal neuronal cell death, and furthermore, that the maintenance of intracellular p38 levels could be another therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD).

NMDA receptor-driven calcium influx promotes ischemic human cardiomyocyte apoptosis through a p38 MAPK-mediated mechanism

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity plays a key role in cerebral ischemia. Although NMDAR is also expressed in cardiomyocytes, little research has been performed on NMDAR activity in myocardial ischemia. Here, using an in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) cardiomyocyte model, we evaluated the effects of NMDAR activity upon calcium influx, viability, apoptosis, and investigated the roles of several key mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Primary human neonatal cardiomyocytes were cultured under OGD conditions to mimic in vivo ischemic conditions. Enhancing NMDAR activity via NMDA significantly promoted calcium influx, decreased cell viability, increased apoptosis, and enhanced p38 MAPK phosphorylation in OGD cardiomyocytes (all P < 0.05). These effects were rescued by several calcium-channel blockers (ie, MK-801, La³⁺ , Gap26 peptide, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid) but most potently rescued via the NMDAR-specific antagonist MK-801 or removal of extracellular free calcium (all P < 0.05). Knocking-down p38 MAPK activity by small-molecule inhibition or genetic methods significantly increased cell viability and reduced apoptosis (all P < 0.05). Enhancing p38 MAPK activity abolished MK-801's apoptosis-reducing effects in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. In conclusion, NMDAR-driven calcium influx promotes apoptosis in ischemic human cardiomyocytes, an effect which can be attributed to enhanced p38 MAPK activity.

Guanosine Protects Striatal Slices Against 6-OHDA-Induced Oxidative Damage, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and ATP Depletion

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta which induces severe motor symptoms. 6-OHDA is a neurotoxin widely used in PD animal models due to its high affinity by dopamine transporter, its rapid non-enzymatic auto-oxidation which generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, and for induced mitochondrial dysfunction. We previously reported an in vitro protocol of 6-OHDA-induced toxicity in brain regions slices, as a simple and sensitive assay to screen for protective compounds related to PD. Guanosine (GUO), a guanine-based purine nucleoside, is a neuroprotective molecule that is showing promising effects as an antiparkinsonian agent. To investigate the mechanisms involved on GUO-induced neuroprotection, slices of cortex, striatum, and hippocampus were incubated with GUO in the presence of 6-OHDA (100 μM). 6-OHDA promoted a decrease in cellular viability and increased ROS generation in all brain regions. Disruption of mitochondrial potential, depletion in intracellular ATP levels, and increase in cell membrane permeabilization were evidenced in striatal slices. GUO prevented the increase in ROS generation, disruption in mitochondrial potential, and depletion of intracellular ATP induced by 6-OHDA in striatal slices. In conclusion, GUO was effective to prevent oxidative events before cell damage, such as mitochondrial disruption, intracellular ATP levels depletion, and ROS generation in striatal slices subjected to in vitro 6-OHDA-induced toxicity.

Neurotoxic Agent-Induced Injury in Neurodegenerative Disease Model: Focus on Involvement of Glutamate Receptors

Glutamate receptors play a crucial role in the central nervous system and are implicated in different brain disorders. They play a significant role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Although many studies on NDDs have been conducted, their exact pathophysiological characteristics are still not fully understood. In in vivo and in vitro models of neurotoxic-induced NDDs, neurotoxic agents are used to induce several neuronal injuries for the purpose of correlating them with the pathological characteristics of NDDs. Moreover, therapeutic drugs might be discovered based on the studies employing these models. In NDD models, different neurotoxic agents, namely, kainic acid, domoic acid, glutamate, β-N-Methylamino-L-alanine, amyloid beta, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium, rotenone, 3-Nitropropionic acid and methamphetamine can potently impair both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors, leading to the progression of toxicity. Many other neurotoxic agents mainly affect the functions of ionotropic glutamate receptors. We discuss particular neurotoxic agents that can act upon glutamate receptors so as to effectively mimic NDDs. The correlation of neurotoxic agent-induced disease characteristics with glutamate receptors would aid the discovery and development of therapeutic drugs for NDDs.

Excessive Glutamate Stimulation Impairs ACE2 Activity Through ADAM17-Mediated Shedding in Cultured Cortical Neurons

The excitotoxicity of glutamate plays an important role in the progression of various neurological disorders via participating in inflammation and neuronal damage. In this study, we identified the role of excessive glutamate stimulation in the modulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE2), a critical component in the compensatory axis of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). In primary cultured cortical neurons, high concentration of glutamate (100 µM) significantly reduced the enzymatic activity of ACE2. The elevated activity of ADAM17, a member of the 'A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease' (ADAM) family, was found to contribute to this glutamate-induced ACE2 down-regulation. The decrease of ACE2 activity could be prevented by pre-treatment with antagonists targeting ionotropic glutamate receptors. In addition, the glutamate-induced decrease in ACE2 activity was significantly attenuated when the neurons were co-treated with MitoTEMPOL or blockers that target oxidative stress-mediated signaling pathway. In summary, our study reveals a strong relationship between excessive glutamate stimulation and ADAM17-mediated impairment in ACE2 activity, suggesting a possible cross-talk between glutamate-induced excitotoxicity and dysregulated RAS.

Changes in the expression level of MAPK pathway components induced by monosodium glutamate-administration produce neuronal death in the hippocampus from neonatal rats

Excessive Glutamate (Glu) release may trigger excitotoxic cellular death by the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that transduce extracellular signals to the cell nucleus, which determines the onset of a death program. One such signaling pathway is the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), which is involved in both survival and cell death. Experimental evidences from the use of specific inhibitors supports the participation of some MAPK pathway components in the excitotoxicity mechanism, but the complete process of this activation, which terminates in cell damage and death, is not clearly understood. The present work, we investigated the changes in the expression level of some MAPK-pathway components in hippocampal excitotoxic cell death in the neonatal rats using an experimental model of subcutaneous monosodium glutamate (MSG) administration on postnatal days (PD) 1, 3, 5 and 7. Data were collected at different ages through PD 14. Cell viability was evaluated using fluorescein diacetate mixed with propidium iodide (FDA-PI), and the Nissl-staining technique was used to evaluate histological damage. Transcriptional changes were also investigated in 98 components of the MAPK pathway that are associated with cell damage. These results are an evidence of that repetitive use of MSG, in neonatal rats, induces cell damage-associated transcriptional changes of MAPK components, that might reflect a differential stage of both biochemical and molecular brain maturation. This work also suggests that some of the proteins evaluated such as phosphorylated retinoblastoma (pRb) protein, which was up-regulated, could regulate the response to excitotoxic through modulation of the process of re-entry into the cell cycle in the hippocampus of rats treated with MSG.

Effects of Panax notoginseng ginsenoside Rb1 on abnormal hippocampal microenvironment in rats

Cerebral ischemia damages central neurons, and abnormal microenvironment in ischemic condition is the key factor to the damages. The increase of local concentration of glutamic acid, the overload of Ca²⁺, and the mitochondrial stress caused by release of cytochrome C are important factors of abnormal microenvironment in cerebral ischemia. In this study ginsenoside Rb1, a compound from Panax Notoginseng, was used to intervene abnormal environment of neurons in the hippocampal CA1 region in two animal models (microperfusion model and photothrombosis model).

RESULTS

Compared with the vehicle in the sham group, ginsenoside had following effects. a) ginsenoside Rb1 increased the regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and the stability of neuronal ultrastructure in in the hippocampal CA1 region and improved the adaptability of neurons in two models. b) ginsenoside Rb1 improved the expression level of glial glutamate transporter1 (GLT-1) and reversed the uptake of glutamate (Glu) after ischemia, and as a result thereby decreased the excitability of Glu and the expression level of GLT-1 was proportional to the dose of ginsenoside Rb1 and similar to that of Nimodipine. c) ginsenoside Rb1 inhibited the expression level of NMDAR and the overload of Ca²⁺, thereby reducing neuronal damages. Meanwhile, the expression level of NMDAR was inversely proportional to the dose of ginsenoside Rb1, which was similar to that of Nimodipine. d) ginsenoside Rb1 decreased the release of cytochrome C (Cyt-C) and reduced the damages caused by neuronal mitochondrial stress. Meanwhile, the release of Cyt-C was inversely proportional to the dose of ginsenoside Rb1, which was similar to that of Nimodipine. Ginsenoside Rb1 may be as an effective drug for neuroprotection and improve cerebral blood flow after acute ischemia and prevent the secondary brain damage induced by stroke.

ITH14001, a CGP37157-Nimodipine Hybrid Designed to Regulate Calcium Homeostasis and Oxidative Stress, Exerts Neuroprotection in Cerebral Ischemia

During brain ischemia, oxygen and glucose deprivation induces calcium overload, extensive oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and, finally, massive neuronal loss. In the search of a neuroprotective compound to mitigate this neuronal loss, we have designed and synthesized a new multitarget hybrid (ITH14001) directed at the reduction of calcium overload by acting on two regulators of calcium homeostasis; the mitochondrial Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (mNCX) and L-type voltage dependent calcium channels (VDCCs). This compound is a hybrid of CGP37157 (mNCX inhibitor) and nimodipine (L-type VDCCs blocker), and its pharmacological evaluation revealed a moderate ability to selectively inhibit both targets. These activities conferred concentration-dependent neuroprotection in two models of Ca²⁺ overload, such as toxicity induced by high K⁺ in the SH-SY5Y cell line (60% protection at 30 μM) and veratridine in hippocampal slices (26% protection at 10 μM). It also showed neuroprotective effect against oxidative stress, an activity related to its nitrogen radical scavenger effect and moderate induction of the Nrf2-ARE pathway. Its Nrf2 induction capability was confirmed by the increase of the expression of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory enzyme heme-oxygenase I (3-fold increase). In addition, the multitarget profile of ITH14001 led to anti-inflammatory properties, shown by the reduction of nitrites production induced by lipopolysaccharide in glial cultures. Finally, it showed protective effect in two acute models of cerebral ischemia in hippocampal slices, excitotoxicity induced by glutamate (31% protection at 10 μM) and oxygen and glucose deprivation (76% protection at 10 μM), reducing oxidative stress and iNOS deleterious induction. In conclusion, our hybrid derivative showed improved neuroprotective properties when compared to its parent compounds CGP37157 and nimodipine.

In vitro 6-hydroxydopamine-induced toxicity in striatal, cerebrocortical and hippocampal slices is attenuated by atorvastatin and MK-801

Parkinson's disease (PD) involves the loss of striatal dopaminergic neurons, although other neurotransmitters and brain areas are also involved in its pathophysiology. In rodent models to PD it has been shown statins improve cognitive and motor deficits and attenuate inflammatory responses evoked by PD-related toxins. Statins are the drugs most prescribed to hypercholesterolemia, but neuroprotective effects have also been attributed to statins treatment in humans and in animal models. This study aimed to establish an in vitro model of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity, used as an initial screening test to identify effective drugs against neural degeneration related to PD. The putative neuroprotective effect of atorvastatin against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity in rat striatal, cerebrocortical and hippocampal slices was also evaluated. 6-OHDA (100μM) decreased cellular viability in slices obtained from rat cerebral cortex, hippocampus and striatum. 6-OHDA also induced an increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial dysfunction. Co-incubation of 6-OHDA with atorvastatin (10μM) or MK-801 (50μM) an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, partially attenuated the cellular damage evoked by 6-OHDA in the three brain areas. Atorvastatin partially reduced ROS production in the hippocampus and striatum and disturbances of mitochondria membrane potential in cortex and striatum. 6-OHDA-induced toxicity in vitro displays differences among the brain structures, but it is also observed in cerebrocortical and hippocampal slices, besides striatum.

Melatonin protects against oxygen and glucose deprivation by decreasing extracellular glutamate and Nox-derived ROS in rat hippocampal slices

Therapeutic interventions on pathological processes involved in the ischemic cascade, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity and/or apoptosis, are of urgent need for stroke treatment. Melatonin regulates a large number of physiological actions and its beneficial properties have been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate whether melatonin mediates neuroprotection in rat hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen-glucose-deprivation (OGD) and glutamate excitotoxicity. Thus, we describe here that melatonin significantly reduced the amount of lactate dehydrogenase released in the OGD-treated slices, reverted neuronal injury caused by OGD-reoxygenation in CA1 and CA3 hippocampal regions, restored the reduction of GSH content of the hippocampal slices induced by OGD, and diminished the oxidative stress produced in the reoxygenation period. Furthermore, melatonin afforded maximum protection against glutamate-induced toxicity and reversed the glutamate released almost basal levels, at 10 and 30μM concentration, respectively. Consequently, we propose that melatonin might strongly and positively influence the outcome of brain ischemia/reperfusion.

Mystixin-7 Peptide Protects Ionotropic Glutamatergic Mechanisms against Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity In Vitro

Hyperactivation of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) causes glutamate excitotoxicity, a process potentially important for many neurological diseases. This study aims to investigate protective effects of the synthetic corticotrophin-releasing factor-like peptide, mystixin-7 (MTX), on model glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in vitro. The technique online monitoring of electrophysiological parameters (excitatory glutamatergic alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic (AMPAR) and NMDAR-dependent postsynaptic mechanisms) in the olfactory cortex slices was used. Application of L-glutamate in toxic concentration (20 mM) on slices evoked hyperactivation of NMDARs and weaker activation of the AMPARs. Upon further action agonist, the excessive activation of glutamate receptors was replaced by their irreversible blockade. Pretreatment of the slices using MTX in different concentrations (50 and 100 mg/mL) protected both NMDARs and AMPARs from glutamate-induced damage. An enzymatic treatment of MTX reduced hyperactivation of both NMDARs and AMPARs. The present study demonstrated that MTX minipeptide protected the functioning of both NMDARs and AMPARs against glutamate-induced damage. The MTX peptide is a prospective candidate for elaborated medication in treatment of neurological diseases.

The Effect of Chronic Methamphetamine Exposure on the Hippocampal and Olfactory Bulb Neuroproteomes of Rats

Nowadays, drug abuse and addiction are serious public health problems in the USA. Methamphetamine (METH) is one of the most abused drugs and is known to cause brain damage after repeated exposure. In this paper, we conducted a neuroproteomic study to evaluate METH-induced brain protein dynamics, following a two-week chronic regimen of an escalating dose of METH exposure. Proteins were extracted from rat brain hippocampal and olfactory bulb tissues and subjected to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Both shotgun and targeted proteomic analysis were performed. Protein quantification was initially based on comparing the spectral counts between METH exposed animals and their control counterparts. Quantitative differences were further confirmed through multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) LC-MS/MS experiments. According to the quantitative results, the expression of 18 proteins (11 in the hippocampus and 7 in the olfactory bulb) underwent a significant alteration as a result of exposing rats to METH. 13 of these proteins were up-regulated after METH exposure while 5 were down-regulated. The altered proteins belonging to different structural and functional families were involved in processes such as cell death, inflammation, oxidation, and apoptosis.

Neuroprotection Promoted by Guanosine Depends on Glutamine Synthetase and Glutamate Transporters Activity in Hippocampal Slices Subjected to Oxygen/Glucose Deprivation

Guanosine (GUO) has been shown to act as a neuroprotective agent against glutamatergic excitotoxicity by increasing glutamate uptake and decreasing its release. In this study, a putative effect of GUO action on glutamate transporters activity modulation was assessed in hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), an in vitro model of brain ischemia. Slices subjected to OGD showed increased excitatory amino acids release (measured by D-[(3)H]aspartate release) that was prevented in the presence of GUO (100 µM). The glutamate transporter blockers, DL-TBOA (10 µM), DHK (100 µM, selective inhibitor of GLT-1), and sulfasalazine (SAS, 250 µM, Xc(-) system inhibitor) decreased OGD-induced D-aspartate release. Interestingly, DHK or DL-TBOA blocked the decrease in glutamate release induced by GUO, whereas SAS did not modify the GUO effect. GUO protected hippocampal slices from cellular damage by modulation of glutamate transporters, however selective blockade of GLT-1 or Xc- system only did not affect this protective action of GUO. OGD decreased hippocampal glutamine synthetase (GS) activity and GUO recovered GS activity to control levels without altering the kinetic parameters of GS activity, thus suggesting GUO does not directly interact with GS. Additionally, the pharmacological inhibition of GS activity with methionine sulfoximine abolished the effect of GUO in reducing D-aspartate release and cellular damage evoked by OGD. Altogether, results in hippocampal slices subjected to OGD show that GUO counteracts the release of excitatory amino acids, stimulates the activity of GS, and decreases the cellular damage by modulation of glutamate transporters activity.

Passiflora actinia hydroalcoholic extract and its major constituent, isovitexin, are neuroprotective against glutamate-induced cell damage in mice hippocampal slices

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether Passiflora actinia hydroalcoholic extract and its major constituent, isovitexin, protect mice hippocampal brain slices from glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

Neuroprotective effect of the extract against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity (10 mm) was evaluated through cell viability of hippocampal slices. The extract or its flavonoids were directly applied to hippocampal slices and then subjected to glutamate-induced toxicity. Alternatively, hippocampal slices from extract-treated mice were also subjected to the same toxicity protocol.

KEY FINDINGS

Mice supplementation with the extract protected hippocampal slices from in-vitro neurotoxicity. When directly applied to hippocampal slices, the extract showed a higher neuroprotective potential than a commercial dry extract of Passiflora incarnata, which was related to P. actinia extract which had higher isovitexin and total flavonoid content expressed as isovitexin. Isovitexin, but not apigenin, induced a similar neuroprotective response when applied alone, at a concentration equivalent to that found in the extract.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights new neuropharmacological activity of the Passiflora genus, suggesting that it can act as modulator of the glutamatergic system. The search for improved pharmacotherapies with novel mechanisms of action has been shown of great importance for the treatment of resistant neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Creatine affords protection against glutamate-induced nitrosative and oxidative stress

Creatine has been reported to exert beneficial effects in several neurodegenerative diseases in which glutamatergic excitotoxicity and oxidative stress play an etiological role. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of creatine, as compared to the N-Methyl-d-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801), against glutamate or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced injury in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Exposure of cells to glutamate (60-80 mM) or H2O2 (200-300 μM) for 24 h decreased cellular viability and increased dichlorofluorescein (DCF) fluorescence (indicative of increased reactive oxygen species, ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production (assessed by mono-nitrogen oxides, NOx, levels). Creatine (1-10 mM) or MK-801 (0.1-10 μM) reduced glutamate- and H2O2-induced toxicity. The protective effect of creatine against glutamate-induced toxicity involves its antioxidant effect, since creatine, similar to MK-801, prevented the increase on DCF fluorescence induced by glutamate or H2O2. Furthermore, creatine or MK-801 blocked glutamate- and H2O2-induced increases in NOx levels. In another set of experiments, the repeated, but not acute, administration of creatine (300 mg/kg, po) in mice prevented the decreases on cellular viability and mitochondrial membrane potential (assessed by tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester, TMRE, probe) of hippocampal slices incubated with glutamate (10 mM). Creatine concentration-dependent decreased the amount of nitrite formed in the reaction of oxygen with NO produced from sodium nitroprusside solution, suggesting that its protective effect against glutamate or H2O2-induced toxicity might be due to its scavenger activity. Overall, the results suggest that creatine may be useful as adjuvant therapy for neurodegenerative disease treatments.

Involvement of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the antidepressant-like effect of zinc in the chronic unpredictable stress model of depression

Stress and excessive glutamatergic neurotransmission have been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. Therefore, this study was aimed at investigating the influence of zinc on depressive-like behavior induced by chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), on alterations in glutamate-induced toxicity and immunocontent of proteins involved in the control of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus of mice. Mice were subjected to CUS procedure for 14 days. From the 8th to the 14th day, mice received zinc chloride (ZnCl2) (10 mg/kg) or fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, positive control) once a day by oral route. CUS caused a depressive-like behavior evidenced by the increased immobility time in the tail suspension test (TST), which was prevented by treatment with ZnCl2 or fluoxetine. Ex vivo exposure of hippocampal slices to glutamate (10 mM) resulted in a significant decrease on cell viability; however, neither CUS procedure nor drug treatments altered this reduction. No alterations in the immunocontents of GLT-1 and GFAP or p-Akt were observed in any experimental group. The ratio of p-Akt/AKT was also not altered in any group. However, Akt immunocontent was increased in stressed mice and in animals treated with ZnCl2 (stressed or non-stressed mice) and EAAC1 immunocontent was increased in stressed mice treated with ZnCl2, fluoxetine or vehicle and in non-stressed mice treated with ZnCl2 and fluoxetine. These findings indicate a robust effect of zinc in reversing behavioral alteration induced by CUS in mice, through a possible modulation of the glutamatergic neurotransmission, extending literature data regarding the mechanisms underlying its antidepressant-like action.

Neuroprotective mechanism of the novel melatonin derivative Neu-P11 in brain ischemia related models

Stopping the ischemic cascade by targeting its components is a potential strategy for acute ischemic stroke treatment. During ischemia and especially over reperfusion, oxidative stress plays a major role in causing neuronal cell death. Melatonin has been previously reported to provide neuroprotective effects in in vivo models of stroke by a mechanism that implicates melatonin receptors. In this context, this study was planned to test the potential neuroprotective effects of the novel melatonin MT1/MT2 receptor agonist, Neu-P11, against brain ischemia in in vitro and in vivo models, and to elucidate its underlying mechanism of action. Neu-P11 proved to be a good antioxidant, to protect against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity and oxygen and glucose deprivation in hippocampal slices, and to reduce infarct volume in an in vivo stroke model. Regarding its mechanism of action, the protective effect of Neu-P11 was reverted by luzindole (melatonin receptor antagonist), AG490 (JAK2 inhibitor), LY294002 (PI3/AKT inhibitor) and PD98059 (MEK/ERK1/2 inhibitor). In conclusion, Neu-P11 affords neuroprotection against brain ischemia in in vitro and in vivo models by activating a pro-survival signaling pathway that involves melatonin receptors, JAK/STAT, PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK1/2.

Purine receptors are required for DHA-mediated neuroprotection against oxygen and glucose deprivation in hippocampal slices

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is important for central nervous system function during pathological states such as ischemia. DHA reduces neuronal injury in experimental brain ischemia; however, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In the present study, we investigated the effects of DHA on acute hippocampal slices subjected to experimental ischemia by transient oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) and re-oxygenation and the possible involvement of purinergic receptors as the mechanism underlying DHA-mediated neuroprotection. We observed that cellular viability reduction induced by experimental ischemia as well as cell damage and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) production induced by glutamate (10 mM) were prevented by hippocampal slices pretreated with DHA (5 μM). However, glutamate uptake reduction induced by OGD and re-oxygenation was not prevented by DHA. The beneficial effect of DHA against cellular viability reduction induced by OGD and re-oxygenation was blocked with PPADS (3 μM), a nonselective P2X1-5 receptor antagonist as well as with a combination of TNP-APT (100 nM) plus brilliant blue (100 nM), which blocked P2X1, P2X3, P2X2/3, and P2X7 receptors, respectively. Moreover, adenosine receptors blockade with A1 receptor antagonist DPCPX (100 nM) or with A2B receptor antagonist alloxazine (100 nM) inhibited DHA-mediated neuroprotection. The addition of an A2A receptor antagonist ZM241385 (50 nM), or A3 receptor antagonist VUF5574 (1 μM) was ineffective. Taken together, our results indicated that neuroprotective actions of DHA may depend on P2X, A1, and A2B purinergic receptors activation. Our results reinforce the notion that dietary DHA may act as a local purinergic modulator in order to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.

Both creatine and its product phosphocreatine reduce oxidative stress and afford neuroprotection in an in vitro Parkinson's model

Creatine is the substrate for creatine kinase in the synthesis of phosphocreatine (PCr). This energetic system is endowed of antioxidant and neuroprotective properties and plays a pivotal role in brain energy homeostasis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of creatine and PCr against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death in rat striatal slices, used as an in vitro Parkinson's model. The possible involvement of the signaling pathway mediated by phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), and glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) was also evaluated. Exposure of striatal slices to 6-OHDA caused a significant disruption of the cellular homeostasis measured as 3-(4,5 dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide reduction, lactate dehydrogenase release, and tyrosine hydroxylase levels. 6-OHDA exposure increased the levels of reactive oxygen species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances production and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in rat striatal slices. Furthermore, 6-OHDA decreased the phosphorylation of Akt (Serine(473)) and GSK3β (Serine(9)). Coincubation with 6-OHDA and creatine or PCr reduced the effects of 6-OHDA toxicity. The protective effect afforded by creatine or PCr against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity was reversed by the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. In conclusion, creatine and PCr minimize oxidative stress in striatum to afford neuroprotection of dopaminergic neurons.

Protective effects of the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 on NMDA‑induced injury in primary cerebral cortical neurons

The p38 pathway, which is important in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family protein signaling, leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and activation of caspase-3. B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl‑2) family members are involved in the regulation of activities associated with the survival and death of neurons through apoptosis and have important functions in most types of apoptosis. In the present study, the effects of the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 on N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced cerebral cortical neuron apoptosis were observed to further analyze the possible mechanisms of NMDA-induced neuronal death. Cultured primary cortical neurons were randomly divided into five groups: A control group, NMDA group and three SB203580 interventional groups. The lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and MTT assays were employed to investigate the effects of the drugs on apoptosis. The morphology of apoptotic cells was observed using acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) fluorescence staining. The expression levels of phospho‑(p)‑p38MAPK, Bcl‑2 and Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) were assessed by immunohistochemical methods and western blot analysis to investigate the possible underlying protective mechanisms. The cell viability markedly decreased following incubation with NMDA. The protein levels of cell death repressor Bcl-2 and the levels of Bcl-2/Bax were downregulated. The protein levels of p‑p38MAPK and cell death promoter Bax increased significantly in cells with NMDA treatment. However, these changes were inhibited by SB203580 treatment, particularly in the high‑dose group. Neuronal death induced by NMDA in primary cortical neurons was caused in part by apoptosis, which was mediated through the activation of the p38 signaling pathway by NMDA. SB203580 has neuroprotective effects against NMDA‑induced apoptosis.

Inhibition of neuronal p38α, but not p38β MAPK, provides neuroprotection against three different neurotoxic insults

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway plays a key role in pathological glial activation and neuroinflammatory responses. Our previous studies demonstrated that microglial p38α and not the p38β isoform is an important contributor to stressor-induced proinflammatory cytokine upregulation and glia-dependent neurotoxicity. However, the contribution of neuronal p38α and p38β isoforms in responses to neurotoxic agents is less well understood. In the current study, we used cortical neurons from wild-type or p38β knockout mice, and wild-type neurons treated with two highly selective inhibitors of p38α MAPK. Neurons were treated with one of three neurotoxic insults (L-glutamate, sodium nitroprusside, and oxygen-glucose deprivation), and neurotoxicity was assessed. All three stimuli led to neuronal death and neurite degeneration, and the degree of neurotoxicity induced in wild-type and p38β knockout neurons was not significantly different. In contrast, selective inhibition of neuronal p38α was neuroprotective. Our results show that neuronal p38β is not required for neurotoxicity induced by multiple toxic insults, but that p38α in the neuron contributes quantitatively to the neuronal dysfunction responses. These data are consistent with our previous findings of the critical importance of microglia p38α compared to p38β, and continue to support selective targeting of the p38α isoform as a potential therapeutic strategy.

Aloysia gratissima prevents cellular damage induced by glutamatergic excitotoxicity

Objectives

Aloysia gratissima aqueous extract (AE) was investigated as a putative protective agent against quinolinic acid (QA)-induced seizures in mice and hippocampal cell damage. Additionally, AE and ferulic acid (FA), the major compound of AE, were tested against neurotoxicity evoked by glutamate or its N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) agonist, QA on hippocampal slices, in vitro.

Methods

Mice were treated with AE before QA infusion (36.8 nmol/site) and seizures were analysed. Cellular viability and modulation of excitatory amino acid transport were verified in hippocampal slices. In-vitro AE or FA was tested against neurotoxicity induced by glutamate or QA.

Key findings

AE did not prevent QA-induced seizures; however, it prevented cellular death and disruption of excitatory amino acid transport. In-vitro AE (0.1 or 1.0 mg/ml) or FA (1 or 10 μm), improved cell viability against citotoxicity exerted by glutamate or QA, respectively. Both AE and FA have protective effects depending on activation of the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signalling pathway.

Conclusions

AE attenuated QA-induced cell damage possibly involving the glutamate transport modulation through NMDAR interaction. FA shows a similar profile of neuroprotection promoted by AE. Therefore, AE treatment might be a useful strategy in preventing brain damage caused by exacerbation of glutamatergic toxicity in nervous system disorders.

Resveratrol protects astrocytes against traumatic brain injury through inhibiting apoptotic and autophagic cell death

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often caused by accidents that damage the brain. TBI can induce glutamate excitotoxicity and lead to neuronal and glial cell death. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of cell death during the secondary damage caused by TBI in vivo and in vitro, as well as the protective effect of resveratrol (RV). Here we report that glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) activation and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 processing were induced in rat brains exposed to TBI. In the in vitro TBI model, apoptotic and autophagic cell death were induced through glutamate-mediated GSK-3β activation in normal CTX TNA2 astrocytes. The GSK-3β inhibitor SB216763 or transfection of GSK-3β small-interfering RNA increases cell survival. By contrast, overexpression of GSK-3β enhanced glutamate excitotoxicity. Administration of RV reduced cell death in CTX TNA2 astrocytes by suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated GSK-3β activation, the mechanism by which RV also exerted protective effects in vivo. Mitochondrial damages, including the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) and mitochondrial depolarization, were induced by glutamate through the ROS/GSK-3β pathway. Moreover, cyclosporine A, an MPTP inhibitor, suppressed mitochondrial damage and the percentages of cells undergoing autophagy and apoptosis and thereby increased cell survival. Taken together, our results demonstrated that cell death occurring after TBI is induced through the ROS/GSK-3β/mitochondria signaling pathway and that administration of RV can increase cell survival by suppressing GSK-3β-mediated autophagy and apoptosis. Therefore, the results indicated that resveratrol may serve as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of TBI.

Novel osmotin attenuates glutamate-induced synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration via the JNK/PI3K/Akt pathway in postnatal rat brain

The glutamate-induced excitotoxicity pathway has been reported in several neurodegenerative diseases. Molecules that inhibit the release of glutamate or cause the overactivation of glutamate receptors can minimize neuronal cell death in these diseases. Osmotin, a homolog of mammalian adiponectin, is a plant protein from Nicotiana tabacum that was examined for the first time in the present study to determine its protective effects against glutamate-induced synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration in the rat brain at postnatal day 7. The results indicated that glutamate treatment induced excitotoxicity by overactivating glutamate receptors, causing synaptic dysfunction and neuronal apoptosis after 4 h in the cortex and hippocampus of the postnatal brain. In contrast, post-treatment with osmotin significantly reversed glutamate receptor activation, synaptic deficit and neuronal apoptosis by stimulating the JNK/PI3K/Akt intracellular signaling pathway. Moreover, osmotin treatment abrogated glutamate-induced DNA damage and apoptotic cell death and restored the localization and distribution of p53, p-Akt and caspase-3 in the hippocampus of the postnatal brain. Finally, osmotin inhibited glutamate-induced PI3K-dependent ROS production in vitro and reversed the cell viability decrease, cytotoxicity and caspase-3/7 activation induced by glutamate. Taken together, these results suggest that osmotin might be a novel neuroprotective agent in excitotoxic diseases.

Neuroprotective action of deer bone extract against glutamate or Aβ₁₋₄₂-induced oxidative stress in mouse hippocampal cells

Water extracts of deer bone, called nokgol in Korean, and deer antlers have been traditionally used as anti-aging medicines. Deer antler extract is known to possess various activities, including anti-aging or anti-amnesic activity. However, there are no reports about the neuroprotective effect of deer bone extract (DBE). The objective of this study was to examine the neuroprotective effect of DBE on glutamate-induced cell death of mouse hippocampal cells (HT-22 cells) and to elucidate the mode of neuroprotective action of DBE. In this study, HT-22 cells was pretreated with DBE before stimulation with glutamate, and then, the effects of DBE on cell viability, oxidative stress markers, and MAP kinases were determined. Separately, the effect of DBE on H₂O₂ or amyloid beta peptide (1-42) (Aβ₁₋₄₂)-induced cytotoxicity of HT-22 cells was evaluated. DBE protected HT-22 cells from glutamate-induced cell death and prevented the increase in lactate dehydrogenase leakage in HT-22 cells. DBE also prevented glutamate-induced oxidative stress, as indicated by increased reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation as well as by decreases in glutathione (GSH) levels and GSH peroxidase activity. In addition, DBE inhibited glutamate-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), p38, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase, indicators of oxidative stress-induced cell death. Furthermore, DBE also protected against H₂O₂ and Aβ₁₋₄₂-induced cytotoxicity. These results suggest that DBE may be a useful functional agent for the prevention against neurodegenerative disorders involving oxidative stress.

Role of transient receptor potential channel 1 (TRPC1) in glutamate-induced cell death in the hippocampal cell line HT22

Transient receptor potential channel 1 (TRPC1; a cation channel activated by store depletion and/or through an intracellular messenger) is expressed in a variety of tissues, including the brain. To study the physiological function of TRPC1, we investigated the role of endogenously expressed TRPC1 in glutamate-induced cell death, using the murine hippocampal cell line HT22. Knocking down TRPC1 mRNA using TRPC1-shRNA or blocking of TRPC channels using 2-APB (≥200 μM) robustly attenuated glutamate-induced cell death after 24 h of incubation with 5 mM glutamate. Glutamate toxicity in HT22 cells seems to involve metabotropic glutamate receptor mGluR5 since MPEP (2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine), an mGluR5 antagonist (≥100 μM), abrogated glutamate toxicity. Furthermore, a direct activation of mGluR5 by CHPG [(RS)-chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine; 100 μM or 300 μM] promoted HT22 cell death. TRPC1 knock-down markedly reduced CHPG-induced cell death. These observations suggest that glutamate-induced cell death in HT22 cells activates mGluR5 receptors, which significantly increases Ca(2+) influx through TRPC1 channels. TRPC1 knock-down prevented glutamate- and CHPG-induced cell death, suggesting that glutamate-induced toxicity in HT22 cells is mediated through TRPC1 channels and an mGluR5-dependent pathway. Together, this work provides evidence for a novel receptor activation pathway of TRPC1 in glutamate-induced toxicity.

In vitro manganese exposure disrupts MAPK signaling pathways in striatal and hippocampal slices from immature rats

The molecular mechanisms mediating manganese (Mn)-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the immature central nervous system, have yet to be completely understood. In this study, we investigated whether mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) could represent potential targets of Mn in striatal and hippocampal slices obtained from immature rats (14 days old). The aim of this study was to evaluate if the MAPK pathways are modulated after subtoxic Mn exposure, which do not significantly affect cell viability. The concentrations of manganese chloride (MnCl₂; 10-1,000  μM) caused no change in cell viability in slices exposed for 3 or 6 hours. However, Mn exposure significantly increased extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, as well as c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) 1/2/3 phosphorylation at both 3 and 6 hours incubations, in both brain structures. Furthermore, Mn exposure did not change the total content or phosphorylation of TH at the serine 40 site in striatal slices. Thus, Mn at concentrations that do not disrupt cell viability causes activation of MAPKs (ERK1/2 and JNK1/2/3) in immature hippocampal and striatal slices. These findings suggest that altered intracellular MAPKs signaling pathways may represent an early event concerning the effects of Mn in the immature brain.

Acute atorvastatin treatment exerts antidepressant-like effect in mice via the L-arginine-nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate pathway and increases BDNF levels

Atorvastatin is a synthetic and lipophilic statin that presents a good effect in decreasing cholesterol levels and is safe and well tolerated. Population-based studies have suggested a positive role of statins in reducing depression risk. This study aimed at investigating the atorvastatin effect in the tail suspension test (TST) and in the forced swimming test (FST). The participation of NMDA receptors and L-arginine-NO-cGMP in an atorvastatin antidepressant-like effect in the TST was evaluated. Acute atorvastatin administration (0.1-30 mg/kg) reduced the immobility time both in TST and FST. A similar effect was observed by using imipramine as a positive control in the TST and FST (1 and 0.1-1 mg/kg, p.o., respectively). An atorvastatin (0.1 mg/kg) antidepressant-like effect was prevented by the pretreatment of mice with NMDA (0.1 pmol/site, i.c.v.), L-arginine (750 mg/kg, i.p.) or sildenafil (5 mg/kg, i.p.). The administration of MK-801 (0.001 mg/kg, i.p.), ketamine (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.), 7-nitroindazole (50 mg/kg, i.p.), methylene blue (20 mg/kg, i.p.), or ODQ (30 pmol/site i.c.v.) in combination with a subeffective dose of atorvastatin (0.01 mg/kg, p.o.) reduced the immobility time in the TST compared to drugs alone, showing the participation of the pathway L-arginine-NO-cGMP. The administration of drugs did not produce any significant alteration in locomotor activity in the open-field test. Acute atorvastatin treatment (0.1-10.0 mg/kg, v.o.) increased the hippocampal BDNF levels, which is an effect that has not been observed in imipramine-treated mice. These results demonstrate that atorvastatin exerts an antidepressant-like effect and point to dependence on the inhibition of NMDA receptors and NO-cGMP synthesis, and on the increase of hippocampal BDNF levels.