Current treatment options and challenges in patients with Type 1 diabetes: Pharmacological, technical advances and future perspectives

Akkermansia muciniphila restrains the type 1 diabetes onset by eliciting cDC2 and Treg cell differentiation in NOD and STZ-induced experimental model

AIMS

Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila), a Gram-negative anaerobic mucus-layer-degrading bacterium found in the intestinal mucosa, exhibits potential as a probiotic, showing promise in mitigating autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases. This study aims to investigate whether A. muciniphila supplementation might confer protection against type 1 diabetes (T1D) and to elucidate the immunological pathways through which it exerts its beneficial effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 diabetes (T1D) models were used to evaluate the protective effects of A. muciniphila during T1D course. Body weight, blood glucose levels, and T1D incidence were monitored. Immune responses in the pancreas, pancreatic (PLN), and cecal lymph nodes (CLN) and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC) were evaluated by flow cytometry and ELISA.

KEY FINDINGS

Viable A. muciniphila supplementation conferred protection against T1D onset in STZ-induced T1D and NOD mouse models. T1D modulation by A. muciniphila in the STZ model was independent of the gut microbiota, and it was associated with increased tolerogenic type-2 dendritic cells (SIRP-α+CD11b+CD103+) and regulatory T (Treg) cells in PLN and pancreas. BMDC differentiated in the presence of A. muciniphila exhibited a tolerogenic profile and induced Treg cell generation in vitro. A. muciniphila-induced protection in T1D outcome was abrogated in FOXP3-DTR mice depleted of Treg cells, indicating that its action mechanism is dependent on the CD4+Foxp3+ Treg cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

A. muciniphila supplementation attenuates T1D development in mice by modulating the tolerogenic immune response and is a promising new therapeutic tool for this autoimmune disease.

Efficacy and Safety of Automated Insulin Delivery Systems in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGRUOUND

Automated insulin delivery (AID) systems studies are upsurging, half of which were published in the last 5 years. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of AID systems in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM).

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov until August 31, 2023. Randomized clinical trials that compared AID systems with other insulin-based treatments in patients with T1DM were considered eligible. Studies characteristics and glycemic metrics was extracted by three researchers independently.

RESULTS

Sixty-five trials (3,623 patients) were included. The percentage of time in range (TIR) was 11.74% (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.37 to 14.12; P<0.001) higher with AID systems compared with control treatments. Patients on AID systems had more pronounced improvement of time below range when diabetes duration was more than 20 years (-1.80% vs. -0.86%, P=0.031) and baseline glycosylated hemoglobin lower than 7.5% (-1.93% vs. -0.87%, P=0.033). Dual-hormone full closed-loop systems revealed a greater improvement in TIR compared with hybrid closed-loop systems (-19.64% vs. -10.87%). Notably, glycemia risk index (GRI) (-3.74; 95% CI, -6.34 to -1.14; P<0.01) was also improved with AID therapy.

CONCLUSION

AID systems showed significant advantages compared to other insulin-based treatments in improving glucose control represented by TIR and GRI in patients with T1DM, with more favorable effect in euglycemia by dual-hormone full closedloop systems as well as less hypoglycemia for patients who are within target for glycemic control and have longer diabetes duration.

Could hypoxic conditioning augment the potential of mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles as a treatment for type 1 diabetes?

Type1 Diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disorder characterised by the loss of pancreatic β-cells. This β cell loss occurs primarily through inflammatory pathways culminating in apoptosis. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been heavily studied for therapeutic applications due to their regenerative, anti-apoptotic, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory properties. The therapeutic effects of MSCs are mediated through cell-to-cell contact, differentiation, and the release of paracrine factors, which include the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Culturing MSCs in hypoxia, a low oxygen tension state more analogous to their physiological environment, seems to increase the therapeutic efficacy of MSC cell therapy, enhancing their immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic properties. This is also the case with MSC-derived EVs, which show altered properties based on the parent cell preconditioning. In this review, we examine the evidence supporting the potential application of hypoxic preconditioning in strengthening MSC-EVs for treating the inflammatory and apoptotic causes of β cell loss in T1D.

Current Challenges in Pancreas and Islet Transplantation: A Scoping Review

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is an autoimmune condition characterized by the destruction of pancreatic β-cells, necessitating insulin therapy to prevent life-threatening complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis. Despite advancements in glucose monitoring and pharmacological treatments, managing this disease remains challenging, often leading to long-term complications and psychological burdens, including diabetes distress. Advanced treatment options, such as whole-pancreas transplantation and islet transplantation, aim to restore insulin production and improve glucose control in selected patients with diabetes. The risk of transplant rejection necessitates immunosuppressive therapy, which increases susceptibility to infections and other adverse effects. Additionally, surgical complications, including infection and bleeding, are significant concerns, particularly for whole-pancreas transplantation. Recently, stem cell-derived therapies for type 1 diabetes have emerged as a promising alternative, offering potential solutions to overcome the limitations of formerly established transplantation methods. The purpose of this scoping review was to: (1) summarize the current evidence on achieved insulin independence following various transplantation methods of insulin-producing cells in patients with type 1 diabetes; (2) compare insulin independence rates among whole-pancreas transplantation, islet cell transplantation, and stem cell transplantation; and (3) identify limitations, challenges and potential future directions associated with these techniques. We systematically searched three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) from inception to November 2024, focusing on English-language, peer-reviewed clinical studies. The search terms used were 'transplantation' AND 'type 1 diabetes' AND 'insulin independence'. Studies were included if they reported on achieved insulin independence, involved more than 10 patients with type 1 diabetes, and had a mean follow-up period of at least one year. Reviewers screened citations and extracted data on transplant type, study population size, follow-up duration, and insulin independence rates. We identified 1380 papers, and after removing duplicates, 705 papers remained for title and abstract screening. A total of 139 English-language papers were retrieved for full-text review, of which 48 studies were included in this review. The findings of this scoping review indicate a growing body of literature on transplantation therapy for type 1 diabetes. However, significant limitations and challenges, like insufficient rates of achieved insulin independence, risks related to immunosuppression, malignant diseases, and ethical issues remain with each of the established techniques, highlighting the need for innovative approaches such as stem cell-derived islet transplantation to promote β-cell regeneration and protection.

Insulin-Independent Regulation of Type 1 Diabetes via Brown Adipocyte-Secreted Proteins and the Novel Glucagon Regulator Nidogen-2

Current treatments for type 1 diabetes (T1D) focus on insulin replacement. We demonstrate the therapeutic potential of a secreted protein fraction from embryonic brown adipose tissue (BAT), independent of insulin. The large molecular weight secreted fraction mediates insulin receptor-dependent recovery of euglycemia in a T1D animal model, nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, by suppressing glucagon secretion. This fraction also promotes white adipocyte differentiation and browning, maintains healthy BAT, and enhances glucose uptake in adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. From this fraction, we identify nidogen-2 as a critical BAT-secreted protein that reverses hyperglycemia in NOD mice, inhibits glucagon secretion from pancreatic α-cells, and mimics other actions of the entire secreted fraction. These findings confirm that BAT transplants affect physiology and demonstrate that BAT-secreted peptides represent a novel therapeutic approach to diabetes management. Furthermore, our research reveals a novel signaling role for nidogen-2, beyond its traditional classification as an extracellular matrix protein.

HIGHLIGHTS

The large molecular weight brown adipocyte-secreted protein fraction suppresses glucagon secretion and normalizes glycemia in mouse models of type 1 diabetes (T1D), independent of insulin, offering a novel therapeutic strategy for disease management.Nidogen-2, a critical component of this fraction, is identified as an inhibitor of glucagon secretion in pancreatic α-cells by regulating intracellular messenger activities.The large-secreted protein fraction prevents T1D-related whitening of brown adipose tissue, promotes adipocyte differentiation, and enhances browning of inguinal white adipose tissue.This fraction enhances glucose uptake in adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver through an insulin receptor-dependent pathway.

Accuracy of Two Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices During Aerobic and High-Intensity Interval Training in Individuals with Type 1 Diabetes

Background: This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of Dexcom G6 (DG6) and FreeStyle Libre-2 (FSL2) during aerobic training and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Methods: Twenty-six males (mean age 29.3 ± 6.3 years and mean duration of diabetes 14.9 ± 6.1 years) participated in this study. Interstitial glucose levels were measured using DG6 and FSL2, while plasma glucose levels were measured every 10 min using YSI 2500 as the reference for glucose measurements in this study. The measurements began 20 min before the start of exercise and continued for 20 min after exercise. Seven measurements were taken for each subject and exercise. Results: Both DG6 and FSL2 devices showed significant differences compared to YSI glucose data for both aerobic and HIIT exercises. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices exhibited superior performance during HIIT than aerobic training, with DG6 showing a mean absolute relative difference of 14.03% versus 31.98%, respectively. In the comparison between the two devices, FSL2 demonstrated significantly higher effectiveness in aerobic training, yet its performance was inferior to DG6 during HIIT. According to the 40/40 criteria, both sensors performed similarly, with marks over 93% for all ranges and both exercises, and above 99% for HIIT and in the >180 mg/dL range, which is in accordance with FDA guidelines. Conclusions: The findings suggest that the accuracy of DG6 and FSL2 deteriorates during and immediately after exercise but remains acceptable for both devices during HIIT. However, accuracy is compromised with DG6 during aerobic exercise. This study is the first to compare the accuracy of two CGMs, DG6, and FSL2, during two exercise modalities, using plasma glucose YSI measurements as the gold standard for comparisons. It was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT06080542).

Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)-Based Cell Therapy for Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM); Current Progress and Future Approaches

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells. Insulin replacement therapy is currently the mainstay of treatment for T1DM; however, treatment with insulin does not ameliorate disease progression, as dysregulated immune response and inflammation continue to cause further pancreatic β-cell degradation. Therefore, shifting therapeutic strategies toward immunomodulating approaches could be effective to prevent and reverse disease progression. Different immune-modulatory therapies could be used, e.g., monoclonal-based immunotherapy, mesenchymal stem cell, and immune cell therapy. Since immune-modulatory approaches could have a systemic effect on the immune system and cause toxicity, more specific treatment options should target the immune response against pancreatic β-cells. In this regard, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-based immunotherapy could be a promising candidate for modulation of dysregulated immune function in T1DM. CAR-based therapy has previously been approved for a number of hematologic malignancies. Nevertheless, there is renewed interest in CAR T cells' " off-the-shelf " treatment for T1DM. Several pre-clinical studies demonstrated that redirecting antigen-specific CAR T cells, especially regulatory CAR T cells (CAR Tregs), toward the pancreatic β-cells, could prevent diabetes onset and progression in diabetic mice models. Here, we aim to review the current progress of CAR-based immune-cell therapy for T1DM and the corresponding challenges, with a special focus on designing CAR-based immunomodulatory strategies to improve its efficacy in the treatment of T1DM.

The N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Antagonist Dextromethorphan Improves Glucose Homeostasis and Preserves Pancreatic Islets in NOD Mice

For treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus, a combination of immune-based interventions and medication to promote beta-cell survival and proliferation has been proposed. Dextromethorphan (DXM) is an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist with a good safety profile, and to date, preclinical and clinical evidence for blood glucose-lowering and islet-cell-protective effects of DXM have only been provided for animals and individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Here, we assessed the potential anti-diabetic effects of DXM in the non-obese diabetic mouse model of type 1 diabetes. More specifically, we showed that DXM treatment led to five-fold higher numbers of pancreatic islets and more than two-fold larger alpha- and beta-cell areas compared to untreated mice. Further, DXM treatment improved glucose homeostasis and reduced diabetes incidence by 50%. Our data highlight DXM as a novel candidate for adjunct treatment of preclinical or recent-onset type 1 diabetes.

Photobiomodulation in diabetic rats: Effects on morphological, pancreatic parameters, and glucose homeostasis

Photobiomodulation (PBM) has therapeutic effects on wound healing, diabetic microangiopathy, and retinopathy. However, little is known about the use of PBM for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM). In this context, we aimed to evaluate the effects of PBM on pancreas morphology and insulin and glucose tolerance in an experimental model of DM. Thus, DM was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) (60 mg/kg). Subsequently, the rats were treated with PBM (808 nm and 30 J/cm2 ). After euthanasia, morphometric parameters and immunoreactivity for insulin and 8-OHdG were evaluated in the pancreas. The results showed that treated animals had higher values of body mass and higher values in the number of beta cells in the pancreas. In conclusion, PBM resulted in decreased weight loss in STZ-induced diabetic rats and presented a stimulatory effect on the pancreas of the treated animals, highlighting the promising effects of this therapy in the clinical condition of DM.

Monitoring the macrophage response towards biomaterial implants using label-free imaging

Understanding the immune system's foreign body response (FBR) is essential when developing and validating a biomaterial. Macrophage activation and proliferation are critical events in FBR that can determine the material's biocompatibility and fate in vivo. In this study, two different macro-encapsulation pouches intended for pancreatic islet transplantation were implanted into streptozotocin-induced diabetes rat models for 15 days. Post-explantation, the fibrotic capsules were analyzed by standard immunohistochemistry as well as non-invasive Raman microspectroscopy to determine the degree of FBR induced by both materials. The potential of Raman microspectroscopy to discern different processes of FBR was investigated and it was shown that Raman microspectroscopy is capable of targeting ECM components of the fibrotic capsule as well as pro and anti-inflammatory macrophage activation states, in a molecular-sensitive and marker-independent manner. In combination with multivariate analysis, spectral shifts reflecting conformational differences in Col I were identified and allowed to discriminate fibrotic and native interstitial connective tissue fibers. Moreover, spectral signatures retrieved from nuclei demonstrated changes in methylation states of nucleic acids in M1 and M2 phenotypes, relevant as indicator for fibrosis progression. This study could successfully implement Raman microspectroscopy as complementary tool to study in vivo immune-compatibility providing insightful information of FBR of biomaterials and medical devices, post-implantation.

Multiple influences of the COVID-19 pandemic on children with diabetes: Changes in epidemiology, metabolic control and medical care

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has heavily affected health worldwide, with the various forms of diabetes in children experiencing changes at various levels, including epidemiology, diabetic ketoacidosis rates and medical care. Type 1 diabetes showed an apparent increase in incidence, possibly owing to a direct damage of the virus to the β-cell. Diabetic ketoacidosis also increased in association with the general fear of referring patients to the hospital. Most children with diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) did not show a worsening in metabolic control during the first lockdown, possibly owing to a more controlled diet by their parents. Glucose sensor and hybrid closed loop pump technology proved to be effective in all patients with type 1 diabetes during the pandemic, especially because the downloading of data allowed for the practice of tele-medicine. Telemedicine has in fact grown around the world and National Health Systems have started to consider it as a routine activity in clinical practice. The present review encompasses all the aspects related to the effects of the pandemic on the different forms of diabetes in children.

Use of Telemedicine Healthcare Systems in Children and Adolescents with Chronic Disease or in Transition Stages of Life: Consensus Document of the Italian Society of Telemedicine (SIT), of the Italian Society of Preventive and Social Pediatrics (SIPPS), of the Italian Society of Pediatric Primary Care (SICuPP), of the Italian Federation of Pediatric Doctors (FIMP) and of the Syndicate of Family Pediatrician Doctors (SIMPeF)

Telemedicine is considered an excellent tool to support the daily and traditional practice of the health profession, especially when referring to the care and management of chronic patients. In a panorama in which chronic pathologies with childhood onset are constantly increasing and the improvement of treatments has allowed survival for them into adulthood, telemedicine and remote assistance are today considered effective and convenient solutions both for the chronic patient, who thus receives personalized and timely assistance, and for the doctors, who reduce the need for direct intervention, hospitalizations and consequent management costs. This Consensus document, written by the main Italian Scientific Societies involved in the use of telemedicine in pediatrics, has the objectives to propose an organizational model based on the relationships between the actors who participate in the provision of a telemedicine service aimed at minors with chronic pathologies, identifying specific project links between the areas of telemedicine in the developmental age from the first 1000 days of life to the age adult. The future scenario will have to be able to integrate digital innovation in order to offer the best care to patients and citizens. It will have to be able to provide the involvement of patients from the very beginning of the design of any care pathway, increasing where possible the proximity of the health service to citizens.

Dietary treatment of type 1 diabetes - once upon a time versus today

Type 1 diabetes is a disease in which nutrition is an integral part of treatment. The type of recommended diets for therapeutic purposes has changed over the years. Proper metabolic equalization of the disease is an enormous challenge and problem for patients at the same time. This review paper discusses the history of dietary treatment of type 1 diabetes and refers to current dietary recommendations and their impact on the patient's health. The important roles of glycaemic index and glycaemic load are pointed out for proper treatment and slowing of the development of complications. Attention is also paid to the role of dietary education as an integral part of therapeutic management. Continuous progress in the development of technology is of great help to the patient.

Effectiveness and safety of a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm for an artificial pancreas system in outpatients with type 1 diabetes (T1D): systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness and safety of a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm for an artificial pancreas system in outpatients with type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Central, and the Web of Science to December 2021. The eligibility criteria for study selection were randomized controlled trials comparing artificial pancreas systems (MPC, PID, and fuzzy algorithms) with conventional insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes patients. The heterogeneity of the overall results was identified by subgroup analysis of two factors including the intervention duration (overnight and 24 h) and the follow-up periods (< 1 week, 1 week to 1 month, and > 1 month).

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included a total of 41 studies. Considering the effect on the percentage of time maintained in the target range between the MPC-based artificial pancreas and conventional insulin therapy, the results showed a statistically significantly higher percentage of time maintained in the target range in overnight use (10.03%, 95% CI [7.50, 12.56] p < 0.00001). When the follow-up period was considered, in overnight use, the MPC-based algorithm showed a statistically significantly lower percentage of time maintained in the hypoglycemic range (-1.34%, 95% CI [-1.87, -0.81] p < 0.00001) over a long period of use (> 1 month).

CONCLUSIONS

Overnight use of the MPC-based artificial pancreas system statistically significantly improved glucose control while increasing time maintained in the target range for outpatients with type 1 diabetes. Results of subgroup analysis revealed that MPC algorithm-based artificial pancreas system was safe while reducing the time maintained in the hypoglycemic range after an overnight intervention with a long follow-up period (more than 1 month).

Diabetes-related research priorities of people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study in Germany

To investigate (i) the importance and priorities of research objectives for people with type 1 (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM); (ii) subgroups with specific research priorities; (iii) associated factors (e.g., sociodemographic characteristics) of the subgroups. The cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2018 using data from 869 respondents (29.0% response, 31.2% female, mean age 61.3 years, 62.7% T2DM) from a German statutory health insurance population. Diabetes-related research priorities were assessed with a questionnaire. Subgroups and associated factors were identified using latent class analysis. Three subgroups were found in T1DM: (1) high priority for the research topic 'healing diabetes' and moderate priority for the research topic 'prevention of long-term complications', (2) priorities for simplifying handling (high) and stress reduction (moderate), (3) priorities for healing diabetes (high) and simplifying handling (high). Three subgroups were found in T2DM: (1) priorities for simplifying handling (moderate), diabetes prevention (moderate) and prevention of long-term complications (moderate), (2) priorities for stress reduction (high) and diabetes prevention (moderate), (3) priorities for simplifying handling (high) and stress reduction (high). Classes differed in age and HbA_1c. Knowledge about research priorities enables researchers to align their work with the needs of people with diabetes.

Stem cell therapy for type 1 diabetes: a scientometric assessment of global research during the twenty-first century

Purpose

We aimed to provide a scientometric assessment of global research in stem cell therapy (SCT) for type 1 diabetes (T1D) during 1999-2020.

Methods

The published data on SCT in T1D were retrieved from Elsevier's Scopus database and analyzed using select bibliometric tools. We used VOSviewer software and the Biblioshiny app to construct and visualize bibliometric networks.

Results

The global yield totaled 1806 publications in the 22-year study period, registering a 17.7% annual growth peaking at 196.9% in the last 11 years. The average citations per publication (CPP) decreased from 62.0 during 1999-2009 to 24.3 during 2010-2020. The funded publications were 727 (40.2%). Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were only 2.4% (45). Amongst 70 participating countries, the USA led with a 38.6% share. Of the 388 global organizations, Harvard Medical School, USA, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Italy, and the University of Florida, USA were the topmost contributors. Florina, Couri, and Trucco were the top productive authors, whereas Melton, Abdi, and Simoes were the most impactful. Only 129 (3.1%) publications were highly-cited; their total and average CPP were 31,228 and 214.0 (range 101-1841), respectively.

Conclusions

The quantity of research in SCT for T1D has increased during the last two decades while the quality has dipped. The research landscape is dominated by high-income North-American and Western-European countries. There is a need for conducting large-scale RCTs and promoting research collaborations between high- and low-income countries for long-term sustainability and global impact.

Are nocturnal hypoglycemia prevention strategies influenced by diabetes technology usage? A BETTER registry analysis

AIM

To assess the association of nocturnal hypoglycemia prevention strategies (NH-PS) and diabetes technology usage (insulin pump and/or continuous glucose monitors [CGM]) in people with type 1 diabetes (PWT1D).

METHODS

Logistic regression models were used to describe associations between self-reported NH-PS and diabetes technology (pump with intermittently-scanned or real-time CGM (isCGM or rtCGM), or automated insulin delivery (AID)), hypoglycemia history, and fear of hypoglycemia (FOH).

RESULTS

Among 831 adults (65 % female, aged 44 ± 15 years, T1D duration 26 ± 15 years), 32 % reported HbA1c ≤ 7.0 %, 88 % used ≥ 1 diabetes technology, 66 % reported ≥ 1 symptomatic NH in the past month, and 64 % used ≥ 2 NH-PS. Compared to multiple daily injections (MDI) + capillary blood glucose (CBG), bedtime snack consumption was less likely among pump + isCGM (OR [95 %CI]: 0.55 [0.31, 0.98]), pump + rtCGM (0.40 [0.20, 0.81]), and AID (0.34 [0.17, 0.66]) users, while evening insulin basal reduction was associated with CSII + CBG (3.15 [1.25, 7.99]), pump + isCGM 4.00 [1.99, 8.01]), and pump + rtCGM 2.89 [1.28, 6.50] use. Elevated FOH was associated with snack consumption (1.37 [1.00, 1.89]), evening bolus insulin avoidance (1.77 [1.11, 2.83]), limiting exercise (2.50 [1.30, 4.82]), and limiting alcohol consumption (2.33 [1.15, 4.70]) as NH-PS.

CONCLUSION

Technology use and elevated FOH might influence PWT1D' choice of NH-PS.

Patient Satisfaction of Telemedicine in Pediatric and Young Adult Type 1 Diabetes Patients During Covid-19 Pandemic

The aim of this study was to evaluate the satisfaction of the use of telemedicine and telenursing in children and young adults with Type 1 Diabetes and their families followed in the Regional Pediatric Diabetes Center of Giannina Gaslini Institute (Liguria, Italy). An anonymous survey form was administered to 290 patients (138 filled out by caregivers and 152 by patients). The questionnaire consisted of two parts: the first one included a series of questions related to the patient's personal and medical data; the second one was directed toward the satisfaction in the use of telemedicine and telenursing during Covid-19 pandemic. The data collected showed that 92.4% of the population was overall very satisfied with the quality of the service provided. Satisfaction was much higher especially in those who live outside of the province of Genoa (p = 0.017) and in those on insulin pump treatment (p = 0.037). Telemedicine and telenursing have an essential role in diabetology and are highly appreciated in our Center, where most patients prefer to continue regular follow-up via video-call as well as in person. Telenursing was also proved to be an effective and appreciated tool for educating and supporting patients using insulin pumps and glucose sensors.

New Horizons: Next-Generation Insulin Analogues: Structural Principles and Clinical Goals

Design of "first-generation" insulin analogues over the past 3 decades has provided pharmaceutical formulations with tailored pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) properties. Application of a molecular tool kit-integrating protein sequence, chemical modification, and formulation-has thus led to improved prandial and basal formulations for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Although PK/PD changes were modest in relation to prior formulations of human and animal insulins, significant clinical advantages in efficacy (mean glycemia) and safety (rates of hypoglycemia) were obtained. Continuing innovation is providing further improvements to achieve ultrarapid and ultrabasal analogue formulations in an effort to reduce glycemic variability and optimize time in range. Beyond such PK/PD metrics, next-generation insulin analogues seek to exploit therapeutic mechanisms: glucose-responsive ("smart") analogues, pathway-specific ("biased") analogues, and organ-targeted analogues. Smart insulin analogues and delivery systems promise to mitigate hypoglycemic risk, a critical barrier to glycemic control, whereas biased and organ-targeted insulin analogues may better recapitulate physiologic hormonal regulation. In each therapeutic class considerations of cost and stability will affect use and global distribution. This review highlights structural principles underlying next-generation design efforts, their respective biological rationale, and potential clinical applications.

Efficacy and safety of closed-loop insulin delivery versus sensor-augmented pump in the treatment of adults with type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Controversy remains regarding whether closed-loop (CL) insulin delivery or insulin sensor-augmented pump (SAP) delivery is more efficient for clinical treatment. Therefore, we aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of CL insulin delivery systems versus insulin SAP delivery for adults with type 1 diabetes (T1D).

METHODS

Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, the Cochrane Library, and other databases were searched for related articles, and we analyzed the average blood glucose (BG), time in range (TIR), and adverse effects (AEs) as primary endpoints to evaluate efficacy and safety.

RESULTS

Of 1616 articles, 12 randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) were included in the final analysis. Regarding BG control efficacy, CL insulin delivery resulted better outcomes than SAP therapy with regard to the average BG value, which was detected and recorded by continuous glucose monitoring (mean difference [MD][mmol/L]:  - 0.25 95% confidence interval [CI]  - 0.42 to - 0.08, p = 0.003); TIR 3.9-10 mmol/L (MD [%]: 7.91 95% CI 4.45-11.37, p < 0.00001). Similar results were observed for the secondary outcomes including low blood glucose index (LBGI) (MD:  - 0.41 95% CI - 0.55 to - 0.26, p < 0.00001), high blood glucose index (HBGI) (MD:  - 2.56 95% CI - 3.38 to - 1.74, p < 0.00001), and standard deviation (SD) of glucose variability (MD [mmol/L]: -0.25 95% CI - 0.44 to - 0.06, p = 0.01). Furthermore, SAP therapy was associated with more adverse effects (risk ratio: 0.20 95% CI 0.07-0.52, p = 0.001) than CL insulin delivery, and one of the most common adverse effects was hypoglycemia.

CONCLUSIONS

CL insulin delivery appears to be a better treatment method than SAP therapy for adults with T1D because of its increased BG control efficacy and decreased number of hypoglycemic events.

Structural principles of insulin formulation and analog design: A century of innovation

BACKGROUND

The discovery of insulin in 1921 and its near-immediate clinical use initiated a century of innovation. Advances extended across a broad front, from the stabilization of animal insulin formulations to the frontiers of synthetic peptide chemistry, and in turn, from the advent of recombinant DNA manufacturing to structure-based protein analog design. In each case, a creative interplay was observed between pharmaceutical applications and then-emerging principles of protein science; indeed, translational objectives contributed to a growing molecular understanding of protein structure, aggregation and misfolding.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

Pioneering crystallographic analyses-beginning with Hodgkin's solving of the 2-Zn insulin hexamer-elucidated general features of protein self-assembly, including zinc coordination and the allosteric transmission of conformational change. Crystallization of insulin was exploited both as a step in manufacturing and as a means of obtaining protracted action. Forty years ago, the confluence of recombinant human insulin with techniques for site-directed mutagenesis initiated the present era of insulin analogs. Variant or modified insulins were developed that exhibit improved prandial or basal pharmacokinetic (PK) properties. Encouraged by clinical trials demonstrating the long-term importance of glycemic control, regimens based on such analogs sought to resemble daily patterns of endogenous β-cell secretion more closely, ideally with reduced risk of hypoglycemia.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Next-generation insulin analog design seeks to explore new frontiers, including glucose-responsive insulins, organ-selective analogs and biased agonists tailored to address yet-unmet clinical needs. In the coming decade, we envision ever more powerful scientific synergies at the interface of structural biology, molecular physiology and therapeutics.

Pancreas transplantation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To define recent changes and future directions in the practice of pancreas transplantation (PT). Two major events have occurred in the past 18 months: COVID-19 pandemic, and the first world consensus conference on PT. Several innovative studies were published after the consensus conference.

RECENT FINDINGS

During COVID-19 pandemic PT activity decreased. COVID-19 in transplant recipients increases mortality rates, but data from kidney transplantation show that mortality might be higher in waitlisted patients.The world consensus conference provided 49 jury deliberations on the impact of PT on management of diabetic patients and 110 practice recommendations.Recent evidence demonstrates that PT alone is safe and effective, that results of simultaneous pancreas and kidney (SPK) remain excellent despite older recipient age and higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes, that use of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive donors into HCV-negative recipients is associated with good outcomes, and that use of sirolimus as primary immunosuppressant and costimulation blockade does not improve results of SPK.

SUMMARY

COVID-19 pandemic and the first world consensus conference on PT were major events. Although COVID-19 pandemic should not reduce PT activity in the future, a major positive impact on both volume and outcomes of PT is awaited from the proceedings of the world consensus conference.