Objectification in Fitness Centers: Self-Objectification, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating in Aerobic Instructors and Aerobic Participants

Evaluating the Impact of the Nirvana Fitness and Functional Training Programs on Young Women's State Body Appreciation and Its Correlates

This study examined the effects of the Nirvana Fitness (NF) program on state body appreciation (BA) and its correlates, as well as the mechanisms that could explain these changes. The study participants were allocated to NF (n = 21) and functional training (control, n = 22) groups and participated in an 8-week exercise intervention. The mean age was 24.4 ± 6.7. The participants filled out online questionnaires on state measures of BA, body surveillance (BS), functionality appreciation, body-mind connection, mindfulness in physical activity (SMS-PA), intrinsic exercise motivation (IM), satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and perceived physical fitness (PPF) immediately after the first and last sessions. The results revealed a significant improvement in state BA and its correlates in both groups, with no changes in PPF in the NF group or IM in either group. An interaction between group and time effects was revealed in a change of relatedness, indicating a stronger effect in the NF group. Positive changes in SMS-PA, BS, and satisfaction of the need for relatedness significantly predicted improvement in state BA. These findings highlight the importance of targeting mindfulness, body surveillance, and relatedness during physical activity in interventions aimed at promoting positive body image in university-aged women.

Analysis of Factors Contributing to State Body Appreciation during Exercise

This cross-sectional study aimed to analyse the factors contributing to state body appreciation (SBA) during exercise. After providing their informed consent, 200 study participants (mean age 30.0 ± 9.4 years, 72.0% were men) filled in an online questionnaire immediately after the completion of resistance training (n = 125), cardiovascular exercise (n = 55), or functional/interval group exercise (n = 20) sessions. The study measures included socio-demographic variables, body mass index (BMI), the duration of involvement in sports, SBA, state body surveillance (SBS), state mindfulness in physical activity, state intrinsic exercise regulation, and perceived pleasantness during exercise. The results showed that exercisers involved in sports for >2 years and those whose body weight was within a healthy range (<25.0 kg/m2) demonstrated higher SBA and mindfulness during exercise, lower SBS, more intrinsic exercise regulation, and higher satisfaction during physical activity compared to exercisers with less exercise experience (≤2 years) and a body weight higher than a healthy range (≥25.0 kg/m2). The negative effects of being overweight or obese were more pronounced in individuals with ≤2 years of sports participation, except regarding body surveillance and monitoring the mind. The factors significantly contributing to SBA during the exercise sessions were a longer duration of involvement in sports, a lower BMI and SBS, and greater mindful body acceptance and exercise pleasantness. Decreasing SBS and enhancing mindful body acceptance, pleasantness, and intrinsic motivation during exercise might significantly contribute to SBA in physical activity. These results can inform physical-activity-based programmes aiming to promote a positive body image. Also, these results show that it is important to increase education and develop competencies for fitness coaches to create inclusive and positive-body-image-promoting sports environments.

Body Composition and Its Perception among Professional Female Volleyball Players and Fitness Athletes (Silesia, Poland)

Female athletes experience both sociocultural and sport-specific pressures of an ideal body and appearance and are vulnerable to dissatisfaction with their bodies. Among sport-specific pressures, the type of sport is a predictor of body image dissatisfaction. The study included 150 females: 50 volleyball players, 50 bodybuilding and fitness athletes, and 50 female students, who were the control group. Body composition and perception and evaluation of one's own body were assessed. BMI was similar in the study group of female athletes and the control group, but the bodybuilding and fitness athletes had the lowest body fat, while the control group had the highest. Perception of one's own body in the aspect of the evaluation of specific body parts was highest among bodybuilding and fitness athletes, while in the aspect of body condition, the best results were obtained by volleyball players. Most female volleyball players were dissatisfied with their current body weight, as were women in the control group, in contrast to female bodybuilding and fitness athletes, who were most often satisfied with their current body weight.

"Eat clean, train mean, get lean": Body image and health behaviours of women who engage with fitspiration and clean eating imagery on Instagram

The present study examined the relationship between posting or viewing fitspiration and clean eating imagery in relation to body image, disordered eating, and compulsive exercise among women. Participants (269 women aged 18-30 years) who posted and/or viewed fitspiration, clean eating or travel imagery on Instagram completed an online cross-sectional questionnaire. Results showed engaging with fitspiration and clean eating material (either posting or viewing) was significantly positively associated with increased levels of compulsive exercise and athletic-ideal internalization. However, only viewing (not posting) fitspiration and clean eating content was significantly related to thin-ideal internalization and disordered eating symptomatology. Athletic-ideal internalization mediated the relationships between posting fitspiration/clean eating and disordered eating symptomatology and compulsive exercise. Both thin-ideal internalization and athletic-ideal internalization mediated the relationship between viewing fitspiration/clean eating material and disordered eating and compulsive exercise. Overall, the findings suggest that viewing fitspiration and clean eating content on Instagram is negatively associated with thin-ideal internalization and disordered eating symptomatology, however the same relationships do not exist for people who frequently post these types of material. The mediational pathways provide a nuanced understanding of how engaging with fitspiration and clean eating material on social media influences female users' body image and health behaviour.

Explanations for use of dietary- and muscle enhancing dietary supplements among university students: a national cross-sectional study

Background

Use of dietary supplements (DS) and muscle enhancing dietary supplements (MEDS) is frequent among students despite the lack of evidence of effects and health risks related to consumption. We need to increase our understanding of students’ motivation, examine potential gender differences, and explore explanatory factors, to address preventive measures related to use. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the frequency of, and the reasons for, DS use among university students, as well as explanatory factors for use of MEDS.

Method

Male and female students from nine Norwegian universities participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants responded to questions about demographics, DS and MEDS use, internalization of body ideals, physical activity- and exercise level, motives for exercise, and exercise context. Independent t-test, Chi-square test, Pearson’s correlation, and logistic regression were used to investigate between group differences, associations, and explanatory factors for use, respectively. P-values ≤ 0.05 were defined as significant.

Results

A total of 1001 males (34%) and females, with a mean(sd) age of 24.21(4.76) years, participated. The frequency of DS use was 42% and 40% (p = .414) in males and females, respectively, in which more males than females used DS to improve physical or mental performance (p =  < .001), increase muscle mass (p =  < .001) and weight for health (p = .014), and improve appearance (p =  < .001). In males and females, respectively, 25% and 10% used MEDS (p =  < .001). In males, being a fitness center member (OR:3.80), exercising to improve muscle mass (OR:1.96), and a higher physical activity level (OR:1.09) positively explained MEDS use, while exercising to increase endurance (OR:0.49) and being an exercise science student (OR:0.47) negatively explained MEDS use. In females, internalizing the athletic body ideal (OR:1.78) and exercising to improve muscle mass (OR:1.74) positively explained MEDS use.

Conclusions

Our main findings indicate that a surprisingly high percentage of male and female Norwegian students use DS and MEDS, and that reasons for use, and variables explaining the variability in frequency of use, differ between genders. Longitudinal studies to investigate direction of associations are needed in future research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40795-022-00510-1.

Exercise Dependence and Body Image Concerns Amongst Group Fitness Instructors: A Self-Determination Theory Approach

Introduction

Despite the fact that group fitness instructors serve as significant role models with potentially great impact on class participants' motivation for exercise, they are a very under-researched group. The aim of this study was therefore to examine group fitness instructors' motivational regulations for exercise, and how these motivational regulations can predict symptoms of exercise dependence and body image concerns.

Methods

Group fitness instructors from the largest fitness companies in Norway (n = 837, response rate: 57%) completed an online survey with reference to the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS), the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS), the Eating Disorders Inventory subscales drive for thinness (EDI-DT) and body dissatisfaction (EDI-BD), and their weekly amount of exercise and instruction.

Results

The instructors scored high on identified regulation and intrinsic regulation for exercise. EDS total score was positively correlated with all SIMS subscales and weekly instruction was positively correlated with Intrinsic regulation. Multiple hierarchical regression analyses found that both self-determined motivational regulations as well as external regulation positively predicted their EDS score. External regulation positively predicted EDI-DT, and EDI-BD.

Conclusion

Group fitness instructors seem highly intrinsically motivated for exercise, which is hypothesized to have a positive impact on group fitness class participants. High self-determined exercise behavior does not seem to buffer against symptoms of exercise dependence within this specific population. There is a need for awareness of group fitness instructors who show high exercise dependency scores due to the link to body image concerns, amotivation and external regulated motivation.

She wears a nylon underskirt and raffia opanci shoes: Women’s costume narratives in the caricatures of “Jez” newspaper

During the 20th century, the representation of the stock female character in the caricatures of the newspaper ?Jez? underwent a significant transformation: while in the 1930s the character of the peasant woman was reduced to a simple graphic form, rough and without details, an attractive peasant woman appeared in the mid-20th century, primarily in drawings by Desa Glisic, with a short skirt, narrow waist and enlarged bust. However, in accordance to the traditional cultural norms, she was still dressed in folk costume. Broadly speaking, Desa?s female characters paraphrased the craze for novelties from shops in Belgrade which retailed imported costume items. This visualization of women through the synergy of traditional and modern, or more precisely clothing and fashion, proved to be a convenient platform for interpreting the potential objectification of women (Fredrickson & Roberts). At the same time, we are going to determine whether the mentioned depiction of a rural woman endangered the hitherto dominant patriarchal pattern of visualizing women, when their function as a symbol of traditional values through the role of mother and housewife underwent transformation.

Fitspiration on Instagram: Identifying Topic Clusters in User Comments to Posts with Objectification Features

This study aimed to examine features of objectified images in popular fitspiration accounts on social media, identify the most prevalent user discussion topics about these images, and investigate the linkages between specific objectification cues and discussion topics. We employed content analysis to identify gender-specific objectification elements in fitspiration images (N = 2,000) on Instagram and unsupervised topic modeling to uncover topics in user comments (N = 35,263). Multilevel regressions were conducted to examine how gender and objectification features associate with the topics. Results revealed that one-third of the images were objectified. Objectification features such as sexual posing and the presence of objectified chest or abdomen were associated with the occurrence of two out of the three most prominent topic clusters (inspiration, body, and image-related discussions). We concluded that objectified fitspiration may distract users from health goals.

Effects of diet and fitness apps on eating disorder behaviours: qualitative study

Background

Diet and fitness apps are often promoted in university and college settings and touted as a means to improve health with little attention given to unanticipated negative effects, especially among those at risk for or with eating disorders.

Aims

Few researchers have studied how these apps affect women with eating disorders in university and college settings. This research investigates the unintended negative consequences of engaging with these tools.

Method

Data collection sessions comprised three components conducted with 24 participants: survey (demographic and eating disorder symptoms), think-aloud exercise and semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis was used to analyse data.

Results

Participants reported that diet and fitness apps trigger and exacerbate symptoms by focusing heavily on quantification, promoting overuse and providing certain types of feedback. Eight themes of negative consequences emerged: fixation on numbers, rigid diet, obsession, app dependency, high sense of achievement, extreme negative emotions, motivation from ‘negative’ messages, and excess competition. Although these themes were common when users’ focus was to lose weight or eat less, they were also prevalent when users wanted to focus explicitly on eating disorder recovery.

Conclusions

Unintended negative consequences are linked to the quantified self movement, conception of appropriate usage, and visual cues and feedback. This paper critically examines diet and fitness app design and discusses implications for designers, educators and clinicians. Ultimately, this research emphasises the need for a fundamental shift in how diet and fitness apps promote health, with mental health at the forefront.

These Boots Weren't Made for Walking: Gendered Discrepancies in Wearing Painful, Restricting, or Distracting Clothing

Using the framework of objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts in Psychology of Women Quarterly 21(2): 173–206, 1997), the current studies explored how often women (vs. men) reported wearing clothing that is painful, distracting, and/or restricting (PDR clothing). Additionally, we examined differences in body surveillance (i.e., chronically monitoring the appearance of one’s body) and body appreciation between those who reported wearing various types of PDR clothing and those who did not. In both a sample of U.S. college students (n = 545) and a broader sample of U.S. adults (n = 252), results indicated that women were substantially more likely to wear PDR clothing than men. Across both samples, the largest differences between men and women were in wearing uncomfortable or painful shoes and in wearing clothing that is distracting because it requires ongoing monitoring or adjusting. Women and men with higher body surveillance were more likely to report wearing PDR clothing. Though some findings pointed toward a negative association between body appreciation and wearing PDR clothing, these results were inconsistent. Overall, results were consistent with the notion that the gendered nature of clothing might reflect and provoke chronic vigilance of the body’s appearance. Gendered differences in the extent to which clothing promotes comfort and movement vs. discomfort and distraction has clear implications for women’s quality of life.

Sex differences in brain aging among adults with family history of Alzheimer's disease and APOE4 genetic risk

Emerging evidence suggests that Alzheimer's Disease (AD) risk factors may differentially contribute to disease trajectory in women than men. Determining the effect of AD risk factors on brain aging in women, compared to men, is critical for understanding whether there are sex differences in the pathways towards AD in cognitively intact but at-risk adults. Brain Age Gap (BAG) is a concept used increasingly as a measure of brain health; BAG is defined as the difference between predicted age (based on structural MRI) and chronological age, with negative values reflecting preserved brain health with age. Using BAG, we investigated whether there were sex differences in the brain effects of AD risk factors (i.e., family history of AD, and carrying an apolipoprotein E ε4 allele [+APOE4]) in cognitively intact adults, and if this relationship was moderated by modifiable factors (i.e. body mass index [BMI], blood pressure and physical activity). We undertook a cross-sectional study of structural MRIs from 1067 cognitively normal adults across four neuroimaging datasets. An elastic net regression model found that women with a family history of AD and +APOE4 genotype had more advanced brain aging than their male counterparts. In a sub-cohort of women with those risk factors, higher BMI was associated with less brain aging whereas lower BMI was not. In a sub-cohort of women and men with +APOE4, engaging in physical activity was more beneficial to men's brain aging than women's. Our results demonstrate that AD risk factors are associated with greater brain aging in women than men, although there may be more unexplored modifiable factors that influence this relationship. These findings suggest that the complex interplay between unmodifiable and modifiable AD risk factors can potentially protect against brain aging in women and men.

Body surveillance and affective judgments of physical activity in daily life

Affective judgments are one of the strongest predictors of physical activity. Engaging in body surveillance during physical activity is theorized to reduce access to pleasant affective experiences thereby compromising the influence of affective judgments. However, empirical tests of this relationship are lacking. This study examined associations between body surveillance during physical activity and affective judgments (i.e., enjoyment and pleasure) of physical activity. Participants (N = 89; 53 % women, M_age = 20.32 years; SD_age = 1.59) completed an experience sampling protocol for 7 days and provided 7 self-reports/day. Participants reported their body surveillance when engaged in physical activity followed by their affective judgments of physical activity. At the within-person level, participants reported more negative affective judgments during instances when body surveillance was higher than usual. At the between-person level, participants higher in body surveillance reported more negative affective judgments on average. These findings extend correlates of body surveillance to include less favorable affective judgments. Although there is support for targeting affective judgments to promote physical activity, the utility of such efforts may be limited if body surveillance is present. These findings point to a new target for potentially enhancing affective judgements and the promotion of physical activity.

Body Figure Idealization and Body Appearance Pressure in Fitness Instructors

PURPOSE

The fitness centers are settings for health promotion, yet may serve as a stage for counterproductive figure idealization. Such idealization may take the form of a drive toward the thin, the muscular, or lean body figure ideal, which all hold the potential to impel an experience of body appearance pressure (BAP) and body dissatisfaction. The aim of this study was to explore figure idealization, body dissatisfaction, and experience of BAP in fitness instructors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fitness instructors, 70 (23%) males and 236 (77%) females, were recruited through their facility chief executive officer and social media for a digital survey on mental health. Results are presented for body appreciation (BAS-2), body dissatisfaction (EDI-BD), drive for muscularity (DM), drive for leanness (DLS), questions on BAP, symptoms of eating disorders (EDE-q), and history of weight regulation and eating disorders (EDs).

RESULTS

Attempts to gain body weight were reported by 17% of females and 53% of males, whereas ∼76% of males and females, respectively, reported to have attempted weight reduction. Reasons for body weight manipulation were predominantly appearance related, and 10-20% reported disordered eating behavior. Mean BAS-2 and EDI-BD were acceptable, but 28% of females were above clinical cutoff in EDI-BD, and mean DLS were high in both sexes. In total, 8% of females were above clinical cutoff in EDE-q, which corresponded well with the self-reported ED. Approximately 90% of the sample perceived BAP to be a societal issue and reported predominantly customers and colleagues to be the cause of their personal experience of BAP. Fewer than 50% knew of any actions taken by their employer to reduce BAP. There were few differences according to profession or educational level.

CONCLUSION

Fitness instructors report BAP to affect them negatively, which may put them at risk of impaired mental health. Educational level did not protect against figure idealization and BAP. To care for their employees and to optimize their position as a public health promoter, the fitness industry should target BAP in health promotion programs.

Responses of fitness center employees to cases of suspected eating disorders or excessive exercise

BACKGROUND

While exercise and physical activity are important parts of a healthy life, there is evidence that some individuals exercise to a degree which may jeopardize their health. These individuals may in some cases be exercising to lose weight or compensate binge eating episodes as part of an eating disorder. Others may experience an addiction-like relationship with exercise. Fitness center employees are ideally placed to observe these forms of unhealthy behavior, and are responsible for ensuring that clients do not put themselves at undue risk; however, to date, no study has addressed both eating disorders and excessive exercise. Therefore, the aim of our study is to determine whether these employees report incidences of these issues, and if they believe they can differentiate between them.

METHODS

One-hundred-and-forty fitness centers in the German-speaking regions of Switzerland were contacted. Of these, 99 employees (60 men, 39 women, M_age = 33.33 years, SD = 12.02) responded to an online questionnaire. The questionnaire briefly described the two issues of interest (eating disorders and excessive exercise), and then invited respondents to complete a number of questions detailing whether they had experience with these issues, and how they dealt with them.

RESULTS

Approximately 75% of the employees had suspected a client of having an eating disorder or exercising excessively, and 65% of these respondents confronted the client at least once. Interestingly, respondents reported clearly that they felt able to differentiate between the two types of disorder. Older respondents were significantly more likely to have suspicions and act on them. However, less than half of the respondents were aware of guidelines addressing this issue, and the majority desired more information about how to identify and address both disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Swiss fitness center employees frequently encounter individuals who they suspect of exercising excessively, or suffering from an eating disorder. While they often confront these individuals, they would like more detailed information about how to manage this process. Given that both disorders can potentially lead to severe health consequences, a detailed description of symptoms, management techniques and resources should be a feature in all Swiss fitness center guidelines.

The emergence of Exercise Addiction, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, and other image-related psychopathological correlates in fitness settings: A cross sectional study

INTRODUCTION

In a society that perpetuates the strive for a perfect appearance, a fit body has become synonymous with success, but simultaneously hard to achieve. This represents a fertile ground for the development of Exercise Addiction (EA) alongside other disorders, such as Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). This study aims to explore the diffusion of EA in fitness settings in the United Kingdom, Italy, Netherlands, Hungary and the previously unexplored association with appearance anxiety, BDD, self-esteem and the use of fitness supplements.

METHODS

A large cross-sectional sample (N = 1711) was surveyed in fitness settings using the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI), Appearance Anxiety Inventory (AAI) and Rosenberg's Self Esteem Scale (RSE) in addition to questions surrounding the use of fitness supplements.

RESULTS

Compulsive exercise, appearance anxiety and low self-esteem were present in this sample according to the psychometric measures used (EAI, AAI, RSE). 11.7% scored over the cut off for EA, with alarming peaks in the Netherlands (20.9%) and the United Kingdom (16.1%). 38.5% were found at risk of BDD, mainly female (47.2%). 39.8% used fitness enhancing supplements without medical consultation (95.5%). This cohort of supplement users scored higher in both EAI and AAI. The logistic regression model revealed a strong association between the consumption of sport products and the level of EA across the sample with an odds ratio (OR) of 3.03. Other co-variable factors among female were appearance anxiety (AAI; OR 1.59) and to a lesser extent self-esteem (RSE) (OR 1.08).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified a high risk of EA, appearance anxiety and BDD amongst a cohort of gym users internationally. The previously-unexplored association between these disorders and the unsupervised use of a variety of fitness products, including illicit drugs, highlights the need for informed and integrated responses targeting such vulnerable individuals.

Self-objectification and disordered eating: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Objectification theory posits that self-objectification increases risk for disordered eating.

METHOD

The current study sought to examine the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating using meta-analytic techniques.

RESULTS

Data from 53 cross-sectional studies (73 effect sizes) revealed a significant moderate positive overall effect (r = .39), which was moderated by gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and measurement of self-objectification. Specifically, larger effect sizes were associated with female samples and the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale. Effect sizes were smaller among heterosexual men and African American samples. Age, body mass index, country of origin, measurement of disordered eating, sample type and publication type were not significant moderators.

DISCUSSION

Overall, results from the first meta-analysis to examine the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating provide support for one of the major tenets of objectification theory and suggest that self-objectification may be a meaningful target in eating disorder interventions, though further work is needed to establish temporal and causal relationships. Findings highlight current gaps in the literature (e.g., limited representation of males, and ethnic and sexual minorities) with implications for guiding future research.

What's in a name? Group fitness class names and women's reasons for exercising

The benefits of intrinsic exercise motivation are well recognized, yet extrinsically focused group-fitness class names/descriptions dominate the fitness industry. To explore the impact of how fitness classes are marketed, women (N = 389) were asked to indicate their preference for either intrinsically or extrinsically focused fitness classes based on title/description. Participants who favored intrinsic class names/descriptions were more likely to report greater interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, and greater effort and report exercising for health/fitness-related reasons. Those favoring extrinsic class names/descriptions were more likely to experience tension/pressure when exercising and report exercising for appearance/weight-related reasons. The results demonstrate the importance of wording when marketing fitness classes.

Positive appearance and functionality reflections can improve body satisfaction but do not protect against idealised media exposure

We tested the effectiveness of a positive appearance or functionality reflective writing task on women's body satisfaction and whether these writing task reflections offered any protective advantage when exposed to idealised imagery. Young adult women (N=230; M_age=23years) wrote about positive elements of either their appearance or their body's functionality, and then were exposed to images of scenery, or thin and attractive models presented in posed or active form. Direction and amount of social comparison were also examined. Women reported immediate gains in both appearance and physical functionality satisfaction regardless of reflection type. However, neither reflection was protective against decreased satisfaction after exposure to idealised images. Greater upward comparison on either appearance or physical functionality domains was related to poorer outcomes. Our reflection task has potential to shift body focus but future research could examine multiple sessions and reflections on a broader range of self-relevant domains.

From Attire to Assault: Clothing, Objectification, and De-humanization - A Possible Prelude to Sexual Violence?

In the context of objectification and violence, little attention has been paid to the perception neuroscience of how the human brain perceives bodies and objectifies them. Various studies point to how external cues such as appearance and attire could play a key role in encouraging objectification, dehumanization and the denial of agency. Reviewing new experimental findings across several areas of research, it seems that common threads run through issues of clothing, sexual objectification, body perception, dehumanization, and assault. Collating findings from several different lines of research, this article reviews additional evidence from cognitive and neural dynamics of person perception (body and face perception processes) that predict downstream social behavior. Specifically, new findings demonstrate cognitive processing of sexualized female bodies as object-like, a crucial aspect of dehumanized percept devoid of agency and personhood. Sexual violence is a consequence of a dehumanized perception of female bodies that aggressors acquire through their exposure and interpretation of objectified body images. Integrating these findings and identifying triggers for sexual violence may help develop remedial measures and inform law enforcement processes and policy makers alike.

Yoga and positive body image: A test of the Embodiment Model

The study aimed to test the Embodiment Model of Positive Body Image (Menzel & Levine, 2011) within the context of yoga. Participants were 193 yoga practitioners (124 Iyengar, 69 Bikram) and 127 university students (non-yoga participants) from Adelaide, South Australia. Participants completed questionnaire measures of positive body image, embodiment, self-objectification, and desire for thinness. Results showed yoga practitioners scored higher on positive body image and embodiment, and lower on self-objectification than non-yoga participants. In support of the embodiment model, the relationship between yoga participation and positive body image was serially mediated by embodiment and reduced self-objectification. Although Bikram practitioners endorsed appearance-related reasons for participating in yoga more than Iyengar practitioners, there were no significant differences between Iyengar and Bikram yoga practitioners on body image variables. It was concluded that yoga is an embodying activity that can provide women with the opportunity to cultivate a favourable relationship with their body.

The protective role of body appreciation against media-induced body dissatisfaction

This study aimed to examine the protective role of positive body image against negative effects produced by viewing thin-idealised media. University women (N=68) completed trait measures of body appreciation and media protective strategies. At a subsequent session, participants viewed 11 thin-ideal advertisements. Body dissatisfaction was assessed before and after advertisement exposure, and state measures of self-objectification, appearance comparison, and media protective strategies were completed. Results indicated that body appreciation predicted less change in body dissatisfaction following exposure, such that participants with low body appreciation experienced increased body dissatisfaction, while those with high body appreciation did not. Although state appearance comparison predicted increased body dissatisfaction, neither state self-objectification nor appearance comparison accounted for body appreciation's protective effect. Trait and state media protective strategies positively correlated with body appreciation, but also did not account for body appreciation's protective effect. The results point to intervention targets and highlight future research directions.

Body-related sport and exercise motives and disturbed eating attitudes and behaviours in adolescents

Motives underlying sport and exercise involvement have recently been hypothesized as potential factors influencing the positive association between sports/exercises involvement and disturbed eating attitudes and behaviours (DEAB) among adolescents. Nevertheless, very few studies have examined this hypothesis or the moderating role of gender, context of practice, performance levels and sport type on these relationships. In this study, these questions were addressed among 168 male and 167 female French adolescents involved in various types, contexts and performance levels of sport and exercise. Participants were asked to indicate their main motives for involvement in sport practice and to self-report DEAB (generic DEAB, vomiting-purging behaviours, and eating-related control) on a French adaptation of the Eating Attitudes Test-26. The results shared positive associations between body-related sport and exercise motives and most of the DEAB subscales. Furthermore, they show that the relationship between body-related sport and exercise motives and Vomiting-Purging Behaviours differs according to involvement in individual and competitive sports and exercises.

Disordered eating behavior among group fitness instructors: a health-threatening secret?

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to examine disordered eating behavior (DE) and self-reported eating disorders (ED) among Norwegian group fitness instructors.

METHODS

Group fitness instructors from Norway (n = 685 females and 152 males, response rate: 57 %) completed an online survey. The survey included the instruments Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) and the Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS).

RESULTS

A total of 22 % of the male and 59 % of the female respondents were classified with DE. The respondents classified with DE had higher BMI, more weight loss attempts, and higher total EDI score compared to the respondents with no DE. A correlation between EDI total score and EDS total score was found among both male and female group fitness instructors. No males and four percent of the females reported having a current ED. The instructors with self-reported current ED had higher weekly volume of instructing classes compared to the other instructors. None of the respondents with self-reported ED had informed their center manager about it.

CONCLUSION

The high prevalence of DE behavior calls for concern. The reported secrecy regarding self-reported ED might decrease the possibility for early recognition and intervention. The findings reveal implications for the instructors' physical and mental health, for their reputation and impact as important healthy role models and health/fitness authorities, and for the importance of prevention, identification and management of such behavior in fitness center settings.

Linking Sexually Objectifying Work Environments Among Waitresses to Psychological and Job-Related Outcomes

The purpose of our study was to examine the relationships between experiences of working in sexually objectifying environments (SOEs) and psychological and job-related outcomes in a sample of 253 waitresses working in U.S. restaurants. Supporting our hypotheses, results indicated that SOEs were significantly positively correlated with waitresses’ experiences of interpersonal sexual objectification at work, internalization of cultural standards of beauty, and depression as well as negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Contrary to our hypotheses, SOEs were not directly related to self-objectification, body shame, self-esteem, or health habits. Furthermore, our findings revealed support for a theorized five-chain serial mediation model in which SOEs were related to job satisfaction both directly and indirectly via classic objectification theory processes (i.e., interpersonal experiences of sexual objectification in the restaurant environment, self-objectification, body shame, and depression). Finally, a direct positive link was found between interpersonal experiences of sexual objectification and depression. Our findings underscore the need to implement both individual- and system-level interventions to combat the existence of SOEs and the negative effects they may have on women.

Media Exposure, Extracurricular Activities, and Appearance-Related Comments as Predictors of Female Adolescents’ Self-Objectification

Our study examined three potential predictors of self-objectification in female adolescents, namely media exposure, extracurricular activities, and appearance-related comments (both positive and negative). Participants were 1,087 female adolescents ranging in age from 12 to 16, who completed questionnaire measures of media exposure (television, magazines, Internet, and social networking), time spent on extracurricular activities, positive and negative appearance-related comments, self-objectification, self-surveillance, body shame, and disordered eating. Tests of the hypothesized path model revealed that self-reported exposure to magazines and social networking sites each independently was associated positively with self-objectification. In addition, positive appearance-related comments were shown to be associated positively with self-objectification. On the other hand, time spent on extracurricular activities was not related to self-objectification. The results offer support for the role of media exposure and appearance-related comments in the development of self-objectification in female adolescents. In particular, the results suggest that positive appearance-related comments (compliments) may be just as, or even more, likely to give rise to self-objectification as negative appearance-related comments. The findings suggest practical strategies for the potential protection of the development of self-objectification and its deleterious consequences.

Emphasizing appearance versus health outcomes in exercise: the influence of the instructor and participants' reasons for exercise

The objectifying nature of exercise environments may prevent women from reaping psychological benefits of exercise. The present experiment manipulated self-objectification through an exercise class taught by an instructor who emphasized exercise as either a means of acquiring appearance or health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to test for interactions between the class emphasis and participants' reasons for exercise (i.e., appearance, health) predicting participants' state self-objectification, state social physique anxiety, exercise class enjoyment, and future intentions of returning to a similar exercise class. Results, obtained via pre- and post-exercise questionnaires, revealed a significant interaction between class emphasis and health reasons for exercise predicting state self-objectification. Participants with lower health reasons for exercise reported greater state self-objectification in the appearance-focused class compared to those with higher health reasons for exercise. Adopting stronger health reasons for exercise may buffer exercise participants from the more objectifying aspects of the group exercise environment.

Exploring gender differences in body image, eating pathology, and sexual harassment

This study examines the relationship between body image (weight/shape concerns), eating pathology, and sexual harassment among men and women (N=2446). Hierarchical regressions controlling for depression revealed main effects of gender such that women reported greater weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, and binge eating compared to men. Main effects for sexual harassment indicated that as harassment increased, participants reported increased weight/shape concerns, eating pathology, dietary restraint, eating concerns, binge eating, and compensatory behaviors. There were small but significant interactions between gender and harassment for eating pathology total score (which included each of the domains listed above), weight/shape concerns, dietary restraint, and eating concerns such that the relationship between increased harassment and increased pathology was stronger for women compared to men. The largest interaction was found for compensatory behaviors, such that while women and men's scores both increased as harassment increased, the relationship was stronger for men.

Exploring the integration of thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification in the prevention of eating disorders

Analyses of thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification were conducted within the context of a cognitive dissonance based eating disorder prevention program implemented in an undergraduate sorority. Participants completed self-report assessments at baseline (n=177), post-intervention (n=169), 5-month (n=159), and 1-year follow-up (n=105). Cross-sectional path analysis indicated that thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification predict each other and both predict body dissatisfaction, which in turn, predicts eating disorder symptoms. A longitudinal examination conducted using hierarchical linear modeling indicated that participants showed significant reductions in thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptoms after participating in the prevention program. Reductions of symptoms were maintained 1-year post-intervention, with the exception of self-objectification, which was significantly reduced up to 5-months post-intervention. Collectively, results suggest that targeting both thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification simultaneously within eating disorder prevention programs could increase the reduction of eating disorder symptoms.

Reducing self-objectification: are dissonance-based methods a possible approach?

BACKGROUND

Previous research has documented that self-objectification is associated with numerous negative outcomes including body shame, eating disorder (ED) pathology, and negative affect. This exploratory open study investigated whether or not an evidence-based body image improvement program that targets thin-ideal internalization in university women also reduces self-objectification. A second aim of the study was to determine if previous findings showing that body shame mediated the relationship between self-objectification and eating disorder pathology at a single time point (consistent with self-objectification theory) but did not mediate longitudinally (inconsistent with self-objectification theory) would be replicated in a new sample under novel conditions.

METHODS

Ninety-six university women completed a peer-led dissonance-based intervention, along with assessment measures at pre-, post-intervention, 8-week and 8-month follow-up. To address the open trial nature of this study, a planned manipulation check was included to make sure that peer-led dissonance decreased thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, eating disorder pathology, and negative affect with effect sizes being similar to past randomized controlled trials. We hypothesized that all three subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (i.e., self-surveillance, body shame, and appearance control beliefs) would be reduced. In addition, we hypothesized that body shame would mediate the relationship between self-objectification (i.e., self-surveillance) and eating disorder pathology at a both at a single time point and longitudinally.

RESULTS

The planned manipulation check supported the interpretation that peer-led dissonance in this study largely yielded comparable changes to past controlled trials. In terms of changes in dependent variables, results supported all hypotheses with the exception of body shame, which remained unchanged. With regards to the mediation analyses, our first (cross-sectional) hypothesis but not our second (longitudinal) was supported.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings provide preliminary support for the use of dissonance interventions in reducing self-surveillance and body control beliefs. Results for body shame and the mediation analyses suggest that greater scrutiny of the body shame construct is warranted.

Gender differences in disordered eating and weight dissatisfaction in Swiss adults: which factors matter?

Background

Research results from large, national population-based studies investigating gender differences in weight dissatisfaction and disordered eating across the adult life span are still limited. Gender is a significant factor in relation to weight dissatisfaction and disordered eating. However, the reasons for gender differences in these conditions are still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to examine gender differences in weight dissatisfaction and disordered eating in the general Swiss adult population and to identify gender-specific risk factors.

Methods

The study population consisted of 18156 Swiss adults who completed the population-based Swiss Health Survey 2007. Self-reported weight dissatisfaction, disordered eating and associated risk factors were assessed. In order to examine whether determinants of weight dissatisfaction and disordered eating (dieting to lose weight, binge eating, and irregular eating) differ in men and women, multivariate logistic regressions were applied separately for women and men.

Results

Although more men than women were overweight, more women than men reported weight dissatisfaction. Weight category, smoking status, education, and physical activity were significantly associated with weight dissatisfaction in men and women. In women, nationality and age were also significant factors. Gender-specific risk factors such as physical activity or weight category were identified for specific disordered eating behaviours.

Conclusions

The results suggest that gender specific associations between predictors and disordered eating behaviour should be considered in the development of effective prevention programs against disordered eating.

Sex differences in psychological effects of exercise

The purpose of this study was to investigate sex differences in psychological effects of exercise on university students. University students (73 female and 65 male) were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups by equating sex in each group. The experimental group participated in step dance sessions of 50 min per day, 3 days per week for 10 weeks with 60-80% of their heart rate reserves. Throughout the 10-week period, the lecture control group was told not to participate in any organized or structured exercise and participated in a lecture that was about the physiological and psychological benefits of exercise. Self-concept, belief in external control, and trait anxiety of the groups were measured before and after the exercise program. A significant improvement in the psychological variables after the exercise program and more improvement for female exercise participants were expected. Analysis revealed no significant initial differences in self-concept, belief in external control, and trait anxiety between the two groups or between males and females, other than family and moral/ethical self. Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that exercise led to less belief in external control and significant improvement in physical self and identity dimensions of self-concept for the experimental group compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference in trait anxiety between the two groups after exercise (p>.05). Analysis also revealed that changes in belief in external control, trait anxiety, and self-concept did not differ with regard to sex. Males and females showed no difference in their improvement on trait anxiety, belief in external control, and most dimensions of self-concept during the 10 weeks. Only changes in personal and physical self throughout 10-week period were different for males and females. Exerciser males improved their personal self and physical self scores more than female exercisers and male and female nonexercisers throughout the 10-week period (p<.05).

Clothing choices, weight, and trait self-objectification

The present study aimed to assess the link between clothing choice and aspects of body image. Participants were 112 female undergraduate students who completed a questionnaire containing a measure of clothing functions, as well as BMI, self-classified weight, and trait self-objectification. Results indicated that BMI and self-classified weight were positively correlated with the choice of clothes for camouflage. Self-objectification was positively correlated with choice of clothes for fashion, and negatively correlated with choosing clothes for comfort. It was concluded that clothing represents an important but neglected aspect of contemporary women's management of their body's appearance.

Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research 1ψ7

Objectification theory provides an important framework for understanding, researching, and intervening to improve women’s lives in a sociocultural context that sexually objectifies the female body and equates a woman’s worth with her body’s appearance and sexual functions. The purpose of this Major Contribution is to advance theory, research, practice, and training related to the sexual objectification of women. The purpose of this article is to introduce readers to objectification theory and related research, extend objectification theory to our understanding of women’s substance use and/or abuse and immersed forms of sexual objectification via sexually objectifying environments, and provide an overview of this Major Contribution on Sexual Objectification of Women.

Oppressive Beliefs at Play: Associations among Beauty Ideals and Practices and Individual Differences in Sexism, Objectification of Others, and Media Exposure

In recent years, beauty ideals and practices have been explained almost exclusively using evolutionary psychological frameworks, to the exclusion of more proximate factors such as psychosocial and individual psychological variables. To overcome this limitation, we examined the associations among sexist beliefs, objectification of others, media exposure, and three distinct beauty ideals or practices. Across three studies, a total of 1,158 participants in a British community sample completed a series of scales that measured their attitudes toward women, hostility toward women, benevolent sexism, hostile sexism, their tendency to objectify others, media exposure, and endorsement of the thin ideal and (for women) body dissatisfaction (Study 1); height preferences in an other-sex partner (Study 2); and endorsement of cosmetic use (Study 3). Across the three studies, results supported the idea that sexist beliefs predicted beauty ideals and practices, although the strength of these associations varied according to the ideal or practice in question. These results support feminist critiques that beauty ideals and practices in Western societies are linked with sexist attitudes. Furthermore, our results suggest that programmes aimed to reduce or eliminate sexist attitudes, or that promote more gender egalitarian attitudes, may result in healthier beauty ideals and practices.

Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self-objectification and body image concerns

This study examined gender differences in adolescent participation in sport and physical activity, in teasing experiences specific to the physical activity domain, and the relationship between adolescent physical activity and body image. A sample of 714 adolescents (332 girls, 382 boys) aged between 12 and 16 years completed measures of participation in organised sport and other physical activities, experiences of teasing specific to sport, self-objectification and body image. Adolescent girls participated in organised sport at a lower rate than boys, but experienced higher levels of teasing. Both girls and boys reported being teased by same-sex peers, but in addition, girls also reported being teased by opposite-sex peers (i.e. boys). Time spent on aesthetic physical activities was related to disordered eating symptomatology for both girls and boys. It was concluded that teasing and body image concerns may contribute to adolescent girls' reduced rates of participation in sports and other physical activities.