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Menezes KMF, Dábilla N, Souza M, Damasceno AD, Torres BBJ. Identification of a new polymorphism on the wild-type canine distemper virus genome: could this contribute to vaccine failures? Braz J Microbiol 2023; 54:665-678. [PMID: 37140816 PMCID: PMC10235312 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-023-00971-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The canine distemper virus (CDV) is responsible for a multisystem infectious disease with high prevalence in dogs and wild carnivores and has vaccination as the main control measure. However, recent studies show an increase in cases including vaccinated dogs in different parts of the world. There are several reasons for vaccine failures, including differences between vaccine strains and wild-type strains. In this study, a phylogenetic analysis of CDV strains from samples of naturally infected, vaccinated, and symptomatic dogs in Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil was performed with partial sequencing of the hemagglutinin (H) gene of CDV. Different sites of amino acid substitutions were found, and one strain had the Y549H mutation, typically present in samples from wild animals. Substitutions in epitopes (residues 367, 376, 379, 381, 386, and 388) that may interfere with the vaccine's ability to provide adequate protection against infection for CDV were observed. The identified strains were grouped in the South America 1/Europe lineage, with a significant difference from other lineages and vaccine strains. Twelve subgenotypes were characterized, considering a nucleotide identity of at least 98% among the strains. These findings highlight the relevance of canine distemper infection and support the need better monitoring of the circulating strains that contribute to elucidate if there is a need for vaccine update.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathânia Dábilla
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical E Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Menira Souza
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical E Saúde Pública, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Adilson Donizeti Damasceno
- Escola de Veterinária E Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Goiás - UFG, Campus II CEP 74690900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Bruno Benetti Junta Torres
- Escola de Veterinária E Zootecnia, Universidade Federal de Goiás - UFG, Campus II CEP 74690900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
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Yang DK, Kim HH, Lee S, Yoon YS, Park J, Oh D, Yoo JY, Ji M, Han B, Oh S, Hyun BH. Isolation and molecular characterizations of canine distemper virus from a naturally infected Korean dog using Vero cells expressing dog signaling lymphocyte activation molecule. J Vet Sci 2020; 21:e64. [PMID: 33016015 PMCID: PMC7533389 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2020.21.e64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Canine distemper virus (CDV) infection results in high morbidity and mortality in dogs. There has been no report about isolation of Korean CDV since 1980 in Korea. Objectives To investigate the biological properties and the genetic characterization of Korean CDV. Methods Vero cells expressing dog signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (dSLAM) gene named as Vero/dSLAM were used to isolate CDV using 17 samples. Diagnostic methods such as cytopathic effects, immunofluorescence assay, peroxidase linked assay, electron microscopy, rapid immunodiagnostic assay, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were used to confirm the Korean CDV isolate as a CDV. The genetic analysis was performed through cloning and sequencing of hemagglutinin gene of CDV isolate. Results A virus propagated in Vero/dSLAM cell was confirmed as CDV (CD1901 strain) based on the above methods. The CD1901 strain showed the highest viral titer (105.5 50% tissue culture infectious dose [TCID50]/mL) in the Vero/dSLAM cells at 4 days post inoculation, but did not form a fork on chorioallantoic membrane of 7-day-old egg. Ribavirin, a nucleotide analogue anti-viral agent, inhibits moderately the Korean CDV propagation in the Vero/dSLAM cells. The nucleotide and amino acid sequences of the H gene of CD1901 strain were compared with those of other CDV strains. The CD1901 strain belonged to Asia 1 group and had the highest similarity (99.9%) with the BA134 strain, which was isolated in China in 2008. Conclusions We constructed successfully Vero/dSLAM and isolated one Korean CDV isolate (CD1901 strain) from a naturally infected dog. The CD1901 strain belonged to Asia 1 genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea.
| | - Ha Hyun Kim
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Siu Lee
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Yoon Seek Yoon
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Jungwon Park
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Dongryul Oh
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Jae Young Yoo
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Miryeon Ji
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Bokhee Han
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Subin Oh
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
| | - Bang Hun Hyun
- Viral Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA), Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Gimcheon 39660, Korea
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Codon usage bias in the H gene of canine distemper virus. Microb Pathog 2020; 149:104511. [PMID: 32961282 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV), a non-segmented single negative-stranded RNA (ssRNA), is the etiological agent of canine distemper. Canine distemper is a highly contagious and lethal viral disease in domestic dogs and wild carnivores. Study of the evolution of CDV presents an essential key to improve the vaccine efficacy. In this study, a total of 328 full-length CDV hemagglutinin (H) gene sequences were subjected to phylogenetic, amino acid mutations, and codon usage analysis. In accordance with previous study, CDV genotypes consisted of fifteen lineages. The unique amino acid substitution sites in each CDV lineages have been identified for the first time, including America-1 (Q330H), America-2 (I585S), Asia-1 (A359V), Asia-2 (H61R), Asia-3 (P108Q), Asia-4 (K213T), India-1/Asia-5(S497P), Arctic (S20L), Africa-1(N489S), Colombian (V41I), EWL (I44V), Europe (D560E), Europe-1/South America-1(K161Q), South America-2 (R580Q), and East African (S214A). Codon usage analysis indicated that H gene exhibited low codon usage bias and further neutrality plot analysis demonstrated that natural selection played a dominated role in driving CPV evolution. The effective number of codons (ENC) plots show that all the different sequences are below the standard curve, indicating that mutational pressure is not the only factor affecting CUB but other forces, including natural selection. The neutrality analysis showed that the slope of the regression line was 0.1501, indicating natural selection dominates directional mutation pressure in driving the codon usage pattern. In addition, nucleotide composition, relative synonymous codon usage value, dinucleotide content, and geographical distribution have been proven to influence the codon usage bias of the CDV H gene. The novel findings enhanced the understanding of CDV evolution.
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A comparative phylogenomic analysis of peste des petits ruminants virus isolated from wild and unusual hosts. Mol Biol Rep 2019; 46:5587-5593. [PMID: 31317455 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-019-04973-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infects a wide range of domestic and wild ruminants, and occasionally unusual hosts such as camel, cattle and pig. Given their broad host-spectrum and disease endemicity in several developing countries, it is imperative to elucidate the viral evolutionary insights for their dynamic pathobiology and differential host-selection. For this purpose, a dataset of all available (n = 37) PPRV sequences originating from wild and unusual hosts was composed and in silico analysed. Compared to domestic small ruminant strains of same geographical region, phylogenomic and residue analysis of PPRV sequences originating from wild and unusual hosts revealed a close relationship between strains. A lack of obvious difference among the studied sequences and deduced residues suggests that these are the host factors that may play a role in their susceptibility to PPRV infection, immune response, pathogenesis, excretion patterns and potential clinical signs or resistance to clinical disease. Summarizing together, the comparative analysis enhances our understanding towards molecular epidemiology of the PPRV in wild and unusual hosts for appropriate intervention strategies particularly at livestock-wildlife interface.
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Freitas LA, Leme RA, Saporiti V, Alfieri AA, Alfieri AF. Molecular analysis of the full-length F gene of Brazilian strains of canine distemper virus shows lineage co-circulation and variability between field and vaccine strains. Virus Res 2019; 264:8-15. [PMID: 30794894 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Canine distemper is a highly contagious systemic viral disease, with worldwide distribution that affects a wide variety of terrestrial carnivores. This study characterized full-length fusion (F) genes from 15 Brazilian wild-type canine distemper virus (CDV) strains collected between 2003-2004 (n = 6) and 2013-2016 (n = 9). Using deduced amino acid (aa) sequence analysis, 14 strains were classified into Europe 1/South America 1 (EU1/SA1) lineage, with a temporal clustering into past (2003-2004) and contemporary (2013-2016) strains. One strain clustered to Rockborn-like lineage, showing high similarity (98.5%) with the Rockborn vaccine strain. In analyzed strains, the fusion protein signal-peptide (Fsp) coding region was highly variable at the aa level (67.4%-96.2%). The Brazilian strains were more Fsp-divergent from the North America 1 (NA1) strains (24.5%-36.3%) than from the Rockborn (11.2%-14.9%) vaccine strain. Seventeen cysteine residues in the full-length F gene and four non-conserved glycosylation sites in the Fsp region were detected. The results reveal that past and contemporary CDV strains are currently co-circulating. This first analysis of full-length F genes from Brazilian wild-type CDV strains contributes to knowledge of molecular epidemiology of CDV viral infection and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Almeida Freitas
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Raquel Arruda Leme
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Viviane Saporiti
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Amauri Alcindo Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Alice Fernandes Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina. Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid - Campus Universitário, CEP 86057-970 - Londrina, PO Box 10011, Paraná, Brazil
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Lunardi M, Darold GM, Amude AM, Headley SA, Sonne L, Yamauchi KCI, Boabaid FM, Alfieri AF, Alfieri AA. Canine distemper virus active infection in order Pilosa, family Myrmecophagidae, species Tamandua tetradactyla. Vet Microbiol 2018; 220:7-11. [PMID: 29885804 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious disease pathogen which causes disease in the domestic dog and species classified in the Canidae, Procyonidae, Mustelidae, Hyaenidae, Ursidae, Viveridae, Felidae, Tayassuidae, and Cercopithecidae families. A combined strategy that involved the direct sequencing of amplicons from genes coding for nucleocapsid, large polymerase, and hemagglutinin proteins of CDV, as well as the pathological findings and the immunohistochemical detection of viral nucleocapsid protein in diverse tissues, confirmed the participation of CDV in the development of a neurological disease in a southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) from Midwestern Brazil. Phylogenetic analysis based on the hemagglutinin gene sequences revealed that the strain from this study grouped with isolates from the Europe 1/South America 1 lineage. The specific polymorphisms at the SLAM receptor-binding site of the hemagglutinin gene, previously linked to disease emergence in novel hosts, were not detected in this genome. These findings represent the first description of CDV-induced infection in the Tamandua tetradactyla and extend the distribution of this infection to include members of the family Myrmecophagidae, order Pilosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Lunardi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Universidade de Cuiabá, 3100 Ave Beira Rio, 78065-900, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil.
| | - Gabriela Molinari Darold
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Universidade de Cuiabá, 3100 Ave Beira Rio, 78065-900, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Mendes Amude
- Department of Small Animal Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Universidade de Cuiabá, 3100 Ave Beira Rio, 78065-900, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Selwyn Arlington Headley
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Celso Garcia Cid Road, PR 445 Km 380, 86051-990, Londrina, PR, Brazil
| | - Luciana Sonne
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 9090 Ave Bento Gonçalves, 90650-001, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Kelly Cristiane Ito Yamauchi
- Department of Small Animal Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Universidade de Cuiabá, 3100 Ave Beira Rio, 78065-900, Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Marques Boabaid
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Universidade de Cuiabá, 3100 Ave Beira Rio, 78065-900, Cuiaba, MT, Brazil
| | - Alice Fernandes Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Celso Garcia Cid Road, PR 445 Km 380, 86051-990, Londrina, PR, Brazil
| | - Amauri Alcindo Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Celso Garcia Cid Road, PR 445 Km 380, 86051-990, Londrina, PR, Brazil
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Abstract
In approaching the development of a veterinary vaccine, researchers must choose from a bewildering array of options that can be combined to enhance benefit. The choice and combination of options is not just driven by efficacy, but also consideration of the cost, practicality, and challenges faced in licensing the product. In this review we set out the different choices faced by veterinary vaccine developers, highlight some issues, and propose some pressing needs to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Chambers
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK.
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Simon P Graham
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Roberto M La Ragione
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK
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Romanutti C, Gallo Calderón M, Keller L, Mattion N, La Torre J. RT-PCR and sequence analysis of the full-length fusion protein of Canine Distemper Virus from domestic dogs. J Virol Methods 2015; 228:79-83. [PMID: 26611227 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2015.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
During 2007-2014, 84 out of 236 (35.6%) samples from domestic dogs submitted to our laboratory for diagnostic purposes were positive for Canine Distemper Virus (CDV), as analyzed by RT-PCR amplification of a fragment of the nucleoprotein gene. Fifty-nine of them (70.2%) were from dogs that had been vaccinated against CDV. The full-length gene encoding the Fusion (F) protein of fifteen isolates was sequenced and compared with that of those of other CDVs, including wild-type and vaccine strains. Phylogenetic analysis using the F gene full-length sequences grouped all the Argentinean CDV strains in the SA2 clade. Sequence identity with the Onderstepoort vaccine strain was 89.0-90.6%, and the highest divergence was found in the 135 amino acids corresponding to the F protein signal-peptide, Fsp (64.4-66.7% identity). In contrast, this region was highly conserved among the local strains (94.1-100% identity). One extra putative N-glycosylation site was identified in the F gene of CDV Argentinean strains with respect to the vaccine strain. The present report is the first to analyze full-length F protein sequences of CDV strains circulating in Argentina, and contributes to the knowledge of molecular epidemiology of CDV, which may help in understanding future disease outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Romanutti
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein, CONICET, Saladillo 2468, C1440FFX, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marina Gallo Calderón
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein, CONICET, Saladillo 2468, C1440FFX, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Leticia Keller
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein, CONICET, Saladillo 2468, C1440FFX, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Nora Mattion
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein, CONICET, Saladillo 2468, C1440FFX, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - José La Torre
- Centro de Virología Animal (CEVAN), Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Dr. César Milstein, CONICET, Saladillo 2468, C1440FFX, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Ludlow M, Rennick LJ, Nambulli S, de Swart RL, Duprex WP. Using the ferret model to study morbillivirus entry, spread, transmission and cross-species infection. Curr Opin Virol 2013; 4:15-23. [PMID: 24525290 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is an animal morbillivirus with a worldwide circulation that infects carnivores, including domestic dogs and an assortment of wildlife hosts. The development of reverse genetics systems for wild-type strains of CDV and the use of the resulting recombinant (r) viruses to infect ferrets by a natural route has shed new light on the temporal pathogenesis of distemper. Combining fluorescent protein expressing recombinant viruses and multimodal, macroscopic and microscopic imaging modalities has highlighted the differential role of the cellular receptors CD150 and PVRL4 in disease progression. This in turn has enabled pathways of viral spread, including multiple routes of entry into the central nervous system, to be mapped with unparalleled sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ludlow
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Linda J Rennick
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Sham Nambulli
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Rik L de Swart
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W Paul Duprex
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA; School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
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