1
|
Wang Y, Hu Y, Zhao R, Wang Q, Xu J, Yuan J, Dong S, Liu M, Wu C, Jiang R. Cerebral microbleeds in patients with COVID-19: is there an inevitable connection? Brain Commun 2024; 6:fcae236. [PMID: 39229491 PMCID: PMC11369825 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the critical interplay between systemic infections and neurological complications, notably cerebral microbleeds. This comprehensive review meticulously aggregates and analyses current evidence on cerebral microbleeds' prevalence, pathophysiological underpinnings and clinical implications within COVID-19 cohorts. Our findings reveal a pronounced correlation between cerebral microbleeds and increased severity of COVID-19, emphasizing the role of direct viral effects, inflammatory responses and coagulation disturbances. The documented association between cerebral microbleeds and elevated risks of morbidity and mortality necessitates enhanced neurological surveillance in managing COVID-19 patients. Although variability in study methodologies presents challenges, the cumulative evidence substantiates cerebral microbleeds as a critical illness manifestation rather than mere coincidence. This review calls for harmonization in research methodologies to refine our understanding and guide targeted interventions. Prioritizing the detection and study of neurological outcomes, such as cerebral microbleeds, is imperative for bolstering pandemic response strategies and mitigating the long-term neurological impact on survivors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuchang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Yuetao Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Ruichen Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Jiarui Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Jiangyuan Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Shiying Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Mingqi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Chenrui Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Rongcai Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Neurological Institute, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Key Laboratory of Post-Neuroinjury Neurorepair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System Tianjin & Ministry of Education, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang Y, Zhao M, Li J, Liu Y. Loganin exerts neuroprotective effect by inhibiting neuronal pyroptosis in rat with cerebral haemorrhage. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2024; 51:e13858. [PMID: 38636940 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) presents significant challenges in clinical management because of the high morbidity and mortality, necessitating novel therapeutic approaches. This study aimed to assess the neuroprotective effects of loganin in a rat ICH model. Sprague-Dawley rats were used, subjected to a collagenase-induced ICH model, followed by loganin treatment at doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg. Neurological functions were evaluated using the modified neurological severity score (mNSS) and a rotarod test. Results indicated a significant improvement in neurological functions in loganin-treated groups, evident from the mNSS and rotarod tests, suggesting dose-dependent neuroprotection. Loganin also effectively reduced the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and cerebral oedema. Additionally, it mitigated cellular pyroptosis, as shown by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labelling staining and western blot analysis, which indicated reduced levels of pyroptosis markers in treated rats. Furthermore, loganin's regulatory effects on the adenosine A2A receptor and myosin light chain kinase pathways were observed, potentially underpinning its protective mechanism against ICH. The study concludes that loganin exhibits significant neuroprotective properties in a rat ICH model, highlighting its potential as a novel therapeutic strategy. Despite promising results, the study needs further research to determine loganin's therapeutic potential in human ICH patients. This research paves the way for further exploration into loganin's clinical applications, potentially revolutionizing treatment strategies for patients suffering from intracerebral haemorrhage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- Center of Encephalopathy, Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Third Clinical Hospital, Changchun, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Center of Encephalopathy, The Third Clinical Hospital Affiliated to Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Jing Li
- Center of Encephalopathy, Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Third Clinical Hospital, Changchun, China
| | - Yue Liu
- Center of Encephalopathy, Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Third Clinical Hospital, Changchun, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Miller LR, Bickel MA, Tarantini S, Runion ME, Matacchiera Z, Vance ML, Hibbs C, Vaden H, Nagykaldi D, Martin T, Bullen EC, Pinckard J, Kiss T, Howard EW, Yabluchanskiy A, Conley SM. IGF1R deficiency in vascular smooth muscle cells impairs myogenic autoregulation and cognition in mice. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1320808. [PMID: 38425784 PMCID: PMC10902040 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1320808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cerebrovascular pathologies contribute to cognitive decline during aging, leading to vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). Levels of circulating insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a vasoprotective hormone, decrease during aging. Decreased circulating IGF-1 in animal models leads to the development of VCID-like symptoms, but the cellular mechanisms underlying IGF-1-deficiency associated pathologies in the aged cerebrovasculature remain poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play an integral part in mediating the vasoprotective effects of IGF-1. Methods We used a hypertension-based model of cerebrovascular dysfunction in mice with VSMC-specific IGF-1 receptor (Igf1r) deficiency and evaluated the development of cerebrovascular pathologies and cognitive dysfunction. Results VSMC-specific Igf1r deficiency led to impaired cerebral myogenic autoregulation, independent of blood pressure changes, which was also associated with impaired spatial learning and memory function as measured by radial arm water maze and impaired motor learning measured by rotarod. In contrast, VSMC-specific IGF-1 receptor knockdown did not lead to cerebral microvascular rarefaction. Discussion These studies suggest that VSMCs are key targets for IGF-1 in the context of cerebrovascular health, playing a role in vessel stability alongside other cells in the neurovascular unit, and that VSMC dysfunction in aging likely contributes to VCID.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R. Miller
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Marisa A. Bickel
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Stefano Tarantini
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Neurodegeneration Program, Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- The Peggy and Charles Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Department of Health Promotion Sciences, College of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Megan E. Runion
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Zoe Matacchiera
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Michaela L. Vance
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Clara Hibbs
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Hannah Vaden
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Domonkos Nagykaldi
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Teryn Martin
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Elizabeth C. Bullen
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Jessica Pinckard
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Tamas Kiss
- Pediatric Center, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- Eötvös Loránd Research Network and Semmelweis University Cerebrovascular and Neurocognitive Disorders Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eric W. Howard
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Andriy Yabluchanskiy
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Neurodegeneration Program, Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Shannon M. Conley
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Neurodegeneration Program, Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Faakye J, Nyúl-Tóth Á, Gulej R, Csik B, Tarantini S, Shanmugarama S, Prodan C, Mukli P, Yabluchanskiy A, Conley S, Toth P, Csiszar A, Ungvari Z. Imaging the time course, morphology, neuronal tissue compression, and resolution of cerebral microhemorrhages in mice using intravital two-photon microscopy: insights into arteriolar, capillary, and venular origin. GeroScience 2023; 45:2851-2872. [PMID: 37338779 PMCID: PMC10643488 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-023-00839-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral microhemorrhages (CMHs, microbleeds), a manifestation of age-related cerebral small vessel disease, contribute to the pathogenesis of cognitive decline and dementia in older adults. Histological studies have revealed that CMHs exhibit distinct morphologies, which may be attributed to differences in intravascular pressure and the size of the vessels of origin. Our study aimed to establish a direct relationship between the size/morphology of CMHs and the size/anatomy of the microvessel of origin. To achieve this goal, we adapted and optimized intravital two-photon microscopy-based imaging methods to monitor the development of CMHs in mice equipped with a chronic cranial window upon high-energy laser light-induced photodisruption of a targeted cortical arteriole, capillary, or venule. We assessed the time course of extravasation of fluorescently labeled blood and determined the morphology and size/volume of the induced CMHs. Our findings reveal striking similarities between the bleed morphologies observed in hypertension-induced CMHs in models of aging and those originating from different targeted vessels via multiphoton laser ablation. Arteriolar bleeds, which are larger (> 100 μm) and more widely dispersed, are distinguished from venular bleeds, which are smaller and exhibit a distinct diffuse morphology. Capillary bleeds are circular and smaller (< 10 μm) in size. Our study supports the concept that CMHs can occur at any location in the vascular tree, and that each type of vessel produces microbleeds with a distinct morphology. Development of CMHs resulted in immediate constriction of capillaries, likely due to pericyte activation and constriction of precapillary arterioles. Additionally, tissue displacement observed in association with arteriolar CMHs suggests that they can affect an area with a radius of ~ 50 μm to ~ 100 μm, creating an area at risk for ischemia. Longitudinal imaging of CMHs allowed us to visualize reactive astrocytosis and bleed resolution during a 30-day period. Our study provides new insights into the development and morphology of CMHs, highlighting the potential clinical implications of differentiating between the types of vessels involved in the pathogenesis of CMHs. This information may help in the development of targeted interventions aimed at reducing the risk of cerebral small vessel disease-related cognitive decline and dementia in older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janet Faakye
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Ádám Nyúl-Tóth
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Rafal Gulej
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Boglarka Csik
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Stefano Tarantini
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Santny Shanmugarama
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Calin Prodan
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Peter Mukli
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Andriy Yabluchanskiy
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Shannon Conley
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Peter Toth
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical School, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Anna Csiszar
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Translational Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltan Ungvari
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration, and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Doctoral School of Basic and Translational Medicine/Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bickel MA, Csik B, Gulej R, Ungvari A, Nyul-Toth A, Conley SM. Cell non-autonomous regulation of cerebrovascular aging processes by the somatotropic axis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1087053. [PMID: 36755922 PMCID: PMC9900125 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1087053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-related cerebrovascular pathologies, ranging from cerebromicrovascular functional and structural alterations to large vessel atherosclerosis, promote the genesis of vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID) and exacerbate Alzheimer's disease. Recent advances in geroscience, including results from studies on heterochronic parabiosis models, reinforce the hypothesis that cell non-autonomous mechanisms play a key role in regulating cerebrovascular aging processes. Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) exert multifaceted vasoprotective effects and production of both hormones is significantly reduced in aging. This brief overview focuses on the role of age-related GH/IGF-1 deficiency in the development of cerebrovascular pathologies and VCID. It explores the mechanistic links among alterations in the somatotropic axis, specific macrovascular and microvascular pathologies (including capillary rarefaction, microhemorrhages, impaired endothelial regulation of cerebral blood flow, disruption of the blood brain barrier, decreased neurovascular coupling, and atherogenesis) and cognitive impairment. Improved understanding of cell non-autonomous mechanisms of vascular aging is crucial to identify targets for intervention to promote cerebrovascular and brain health in older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marisa A. Bickel
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Boglarka Csik
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Rafal Gulej
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Anna Ungvari
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Adam Nyul-Toth
- Vascular Cognitive Impairment, Neurodegeneration and Healthy Brain Aging Program, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- International Training Program in Geroscience, Department of Public Health, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre, Eötvös Lorand Research Network (ELKH), Szeged, Hungary
| | - Shannon M. Conley
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Oklahoma Center for Geroscience and Healthy Brain Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nieraad H, Pannwitz N, de Bruin N, Geisslinger G, Till U. Hyperhomocysteinemia: Metabolic Role and Animal Studies with a Focus on Cognitive Performance and Decline-A Review. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1546. [PMID: 34680179 PMCID: PMC8533891 DOI: 10.3390/biom11101546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Disturbances in the one-carbon metabolism are often indicated by altered levels of the endogenous amino acid homocysteine (HCys), which is additionally discussed to causally contribute to diverse pathologies. In the first part of the present review, we profoundly and critically discuss the metabolic role and pathomechanisms of HCys, as well as its potential impact on different human disorders. The use of adequate animal models can aid in unravelling the complex pathological processes underlying the role of hyperhomocysteinemia (HHCys). Therefore, in the second part, we systematically searched PubMed/Medline for animal studies regarding HHCys and focused on the potential impact on cognitive performance and decline. The majority of reviewed studies reported a significant effect of HHCys on the investigated behavioral outcomes. Despite of persistent controversial discussions about equivocal findings, especially in clinical studies, the present evaluation of preclinical evidence indicates a causal link between HHCys and cognition-related- especially dementia-like disorders, and points out the further urge for large-scale, well-designed clinical studies in order to elucidate the normalization of HCys levels as a potential preventative or therapeutic approach in human pathologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Nieraad
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (N.P.); (N.d.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Nina Pannwitz
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (N.P.); (N.d.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Natasja de Bruin
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (N.P.); (N.d.B.); (G.G.)
| | - Gerd Geisslinger
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (N.P.); (N.d.B.); (G.G.)
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Uwe Till
- Former Institute of Pathobiochemistry, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Nonnenplan 2, 07743 Jena, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang L, Tang L, Ge T, Zhu F, Liu D, Guo H, Qian P, Xu N. LncRNA DLGAP1-AS2 regulates miR-503/cyclin D1 to promote cell proliferation in non-small cell lung cancer. BMC Pulm Med 2021; 21:277. [PMID: 34454450 PMCID: PMC8401159 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-021-01633-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background LncRNA DLGAP1-AS2 plays an oncogenic role in glioma, while its role in other cancers is unknown. This study aimed to study the role of DLGAP1-AS2 in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Methods Expression of DLGAP1-AS2 in NSCLC and paired non-tumor tissues from 64 NSCLC patients and the prognostic value of DLGAP1-AS2 for NSCLC were analyzed by performing a 5-year follow-up study. The interaction between DLGAP1-AS2 and miR-503 was confirmed by dual luciferase reporter assay, and their relationship was explored in NSCLC cells transfected with DLGAP1-AS2 expression vector or miR-503 mimic. The roles of DLGAP1-AS2 and miR-503 in regulating cyclin D1 expression were analyzed by RT-qPCR and Western blot. Cell proliferation was analyzed by CCK-8 assay. Results DLGAP1-AS2 was upregulated in NSCLC and predicted poor survival. Interaction between DLGAP1-AS2 and miR-503 was confirmed by dual luciferase activity assay. Overexpression experiments showed that DLGAP1-AS2 and miR-503 overexpression failed to significantly affect the expression of each other. Interestingly, DLGAP1-AS2 overexpression upregulated cyclin D1, a target of miR-503, increased cell proliferation and reduced the effects of miR-503 overexpression on cyclin D1 expression and cell proliferation. Conclusions DLGAP1-AS2 may regulate miR-503/cyclin D1 to promote cell proliferation in NSCLC. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12890-021-01633-0.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Tang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Tengfei Ge
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Feng Zhu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Hua Guo
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Qian
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China
| | - Ning Xu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Anhui Chest Hospital, No. 397 Jixi Road, Shushan District, Hefei City, Anhui Province, 230022, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liu Y, Zhang H, Wu CY, Yu T, Fang X, Ryu JJ, Zheng B, Chen Z, Roman RJ, Fan F. 20-HETE-promoted cerebral blood flow autoregulation is associated with enhanced pericyte contractility. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2021; 154:106548. [PMID: 33753221 PMCID: PMC8154705 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2021.106548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that deficiency in 20-HETE or CYP4A impaired the myogenic response and autoregulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) in rats. The present study demonstrated that CYP4A was coexpressed with alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and most pericytes along parenchymal arteries (PAs) isolated from SD rats. Cell contractile capabilities of cerebral VSMCs and pericytes were reduced with a 20-HETE synthesis inhibitor, HET0016, but restored with 20-HETE analog WIT003. Similarly, intact myogenic responses of the middle cerebral artery and PA of SD rats decreased with HET0016 and were rescued by WIT003. The myogenic response of the PA was abolished in SS and was restored in SS.BN5 and SS.Cyp4a1 rats. HET0016 enhanced CBF and impaired its autoregulation in the surface and deep cortex of SD rats. These results demonstrate that 20-HETE has a direct effect on cerebral mural cell contractility that may play an essential role in controlling cerebral vascular function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yedan Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266003, China; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Huawei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Celeste Yc Wu
- Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71130, USA
| | - Tina Yu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Xing Fang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Jane J Ryu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Baoying Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Zongbo Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong, 266003, China
| | - Richard J Roman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - Fan Fan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Long Y, Li H, Jin Z, Zhang X. LncRNA SLC16A1-AS1 is Upregulated in Glioblastoma and Promotes Cancer Cell Proliferation by Regulating miR-149 Methylation. Cancer Manag Res 2021; 13:1215-1223. [PMID: 33603467 PMCID: PMC7882451 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s264613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction LncRNA SLC16A1-AS1 has been characterized as a critical player in lung cancer, while its role in glioblastoma (GBM) is unknown. By analyzing the TCGA dataset, we observed the upregulation of SLC16A1-AS1 expression in GBM. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the role of SLC16A1-AS1 in this cancer. Methods GBM tissues and paired non-tumor tissues were collected from 62 GBM patients through biopsy. RT-qPCR was performed to determine the expression of SLC16A1-AS1 and miR-149. Linear regression was used to analyze their correlations. The relationship between SLC16A1-AS1 and miR-149 was assessed by gain and loss of function experiments. Methylation-specific PCR (MSP) and bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP) were performed to analyze the methylation status of miR-149. Cell proliferation was evaluated by CCK-8 assay and colony formation experiments in GBM cells. Results We found that SLC16A1-AS1 expression was upregulated in GBM tissues, and the upregulated expression of SLC16A1-AS1 predicted poor survival of GBM patients. MiR-149 was downregulated in GBM tissues and inversely correlated with the expression of SLC16A1-AS1. In GBM cells, overexpression of SLC16A1-AS1 downregulated the expression of miR-149 and increased the methylation of miR-149 gene. In cell proliferation and colony formation assay, overexpression of SLC16A1-AS1 reduced the inhibitory effects of miR-149 on GBM cell proliferation. Conclusion SLC16A1-AS1 may promote GBM cell proliferation by regulating miR-149 methylation. SLC16A1-AS1 can be considered as a potential diagnostic marker in GBM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yinbo Long
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou City, Hebei Province, 061000, People's Republic of China
| | - Heyang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou City, Hebei Province, 061000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhibin Jin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou City, Hebei Province, 061000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou City, Hebei Province, 061000, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhu H, Chen Z, Shen L, Tang T, Yang M, Zheng X. Long Noncoding RNA LINC-PINT Suppresses Cell Proliferation, Invasion, and EMT by Blocking Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Glioblastoma. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:586653. [PMID: 33505307 PMCID: PMC7832092 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.586653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Glioblastoma (GBM) represents the most aggressive glioma with high invasive potential. Recent studies proved the involvement of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process in increasing the malignancy and invasiveness of GBM. LncRNAs have been verified to play pivotal roles in human disease including GBM. However, the molecular mechanisms of lncRNA-mediated EMT in GBM remain largely unknown. LINC-PINT, a LncRNA which has never been studied in GBM before, was predicted to be negatively associated with EMT in GBM. This study aimed to explore the biological function and the EMT relevance of LINC-PINT in GBM and further explore the molecular mechanism. Methods: The bioinformatic prediction data of LINC-PINT in GBM was derived from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database by R software and GEPIA website. qRT-PCR assay was performed to detect the expression level of LINC-PINT in GBM cell lines. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK8), clone formation, transwell, and wound healing assays were performed to determine the biological function of LINC-PINT in vivo. Tumor xenograft experiment and tumor peritoneal metastasis experiments were performed to verify the in vivo function. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining assays were carried out to detect the relevance of LINC-PINT with EMT and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Rescue assays were performed to check the regulation mechanism of LINC-PINT/Wnt signaling/EMT axis in GBM. Results: LINC-PINT was downregulated in GBM cell lines. LINC-PINT suppressed cell progression, invasion, and EMT in GBM. LINC-PINT blocked Wnt/β-catenin signaling in GBM. Conclusion: LINC-PINT suppressed cell proliferation, invasion, and EMT by blocking Wnt/β-catenin signaling in GBM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanshuo Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianchi Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuesheng Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, XinHua Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yan Y, Zeng S, Gong Z, Xu Z. Clinical implication of cellular vaccine in glioma: current advances and future prospects. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2020; 39:257. [PMID: 33228738 PMCID: PMC7685666 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-020-01778-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas, especially glioblastomas, represent one of the most aggressive and difficult-to-treat human brain tumors. In the last few decades, clinical immunotherapy has been developed and has provided exceptional achievements in checkpoint inhibitors and vaccines for cancer treatment. Immunization with cellular vaccines has the advantage of containing specific antigens and acceptable safety to potentially improve cancer therapy. Based on T cells, dendritic cells (DC), tumor cells and natural killer cells, the safety and feasibility of cellular vaccines have been validated in clinical trials for glioma treatment. For TAA engineered T cells, therapy mainly uses chimeric antigen receptors (IL13Rα2, EGFRvIII and HER2) and DNA methylation-induced technology (CT antigen) to activate the immune response. Autologous dendritic cells/tumor antigen vaccine (ADCTA) pulsed with tumor lysate and peptides elicit antigen-specific and cytotoxic T cell responses in patients with malignant gliomas, while its pro-survival effect is biased. Vaccinations using autologous tumor cells modified with TAAs or fusion with fibroblast cells are characterized by both effective humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Even though few therapeutic effects have been observed, most of this therapy showed safety and feasibility, asking for larger cohort studies and better guidelines to optimize cellular vaccine efficiency in anti-glioma therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanliang Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shuangshuang Zeng
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhicheng Gong
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhijie Xu
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Hunan, 410008, Changsha, China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Accelerated cerebral vascular injury in diabetes is associated with vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction. GeroScience 2020; 42:547-561. [PMID: 32166556 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-020-00179-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals with diabetes are more susceptible to cerebral vascular aging. However, the underlying mechanisms are not well elucidated. The present study examined whether the myogenic response of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) is impaired in diabetic rats due to high glucose (HG)-induced cerebral vascular smooth muscle cell (CVSMC) dysfunction, and whether this is associated with ATP depletion and changes in mitochondrial dynamics and membrane potential. The diameters of the MCA of diabetic rats increased to 135.3 ± 11.3% when perfusion pressure was increased from 40 to 180 mmHg, while it fell to 85.1 ± 3.1% in non-diabetic controls. The production of ROS and mitochondrial-derived superoxide were enhanced in cerebral arteries of diabetic rats. Levels of mitochondrial superoxide were significantly elevated in HG-treated primary CVSMCs, which was associated with decreased ATP production, mitochondrial respiration, and membrane potential. The expression of OPA1 was reduced, and MFF was elevated in HG-treated CVSMCs in association with fragmented mitochondria. Moreover, HG-treated CVSMCs displayed lower contractile and proliferation capabilities. These results demonstrate that imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics (increased fission and decreased fusion) and membrane depolarization contribute to ATP depletion in HG-treated CVSMCs, which promotes CVSMC dysfunction and may play an essential role in exacerbating the impaired myogenic response in the cerebral circulation in diabetes and accelerating vascular aging.
Collapse
|
13
|
Cordaro M, Cuzzocrea S, Crupi R. An Update of Palmitoylethanolamide and Luteolin Effects in Preclinical and Clinical Studies of Neuroinflammatory Events. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9030216. [PMID: 32150935 PMCID: PMC7139331 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9030216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The inflammation process represents of a dynamic series of phenomena that manifest themselves with an intense vascular reaction. Neuroinflammation is a reply from the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to a changed homeostasis. There are two cell systems that mediate this process: the glia of the CNS and the lymphocites, monocytes, and macrophages of the hematopoietic system. In both the peripheral and central nervous systems, neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, and in neuropsychiatric illnesses, such as depression and autism spectrum disorders. The resolution of neuroinflammation is a process that allows for inflamed tissues to return to homeostasis. In this process the important players are represented by lipid mediators. Among the naturally occurring lipid signaling molecules, a prominent role is played by the N-acylethanolamines, namely N-arachidonoylethanolamine and its congener N-palmitoylethanolamine, which is also named palmitoylethanolamide or PEA. PEA possesses a powerful neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory power but has no antioxidant effects per se. For this reason, its co-ultramicronization with the flavonoid luteolin is more efficacious than either molecule alone. Inhibiting or modulating the enzymatic breakdown of PEA represents a complementary therapeutic approach to treating neuroinflammation. The aim of this review is to discuss the role of ultramicronized PEA and co-ultramicronized PEA with luteolin in several neurological diseases using preclinical and clinical approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marika Cordaro
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Via Consolare Valeria 1, 98100 Messina, Italy;
| | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Via F. Stagno D’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO 63103, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +390-906-765-208
| | - Rosalia Crupi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Via F. Stagno D’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|